Tuition Notes for 3.

4U Course
Chapter 3

CHAPTER 1
1. Engineering Offshore Structures
1 General Background
Historically it is true to say that in the initial stages of development of offshore oil
platforms the designs evolved from land-based structures and were constructed
on site. The engineering design knowledge was either borrowed or extrapolated
from traditional fields of civil engineering and naval architecture. During the
1950s, however, new technology began to be developed for this type of
structure. Since then many advances have been made particularly in the field of
materials. Governments legislation in the various host countries with offshore
oil has also played a role in shaping the design of production platforms and the
various other structures seen offshore. Economics are very important and play
a leading role in platform design. For example it is only possible to justify the
expenditure for a massive eight-legged steel of a huge concrete gravity platform
when the hydrocarbon reserves in a particular field are large enough to not only
warrant the initial capital cost but will also guarantee a good income for a long
period of time. There is also a growing concern for the environment and this
consideration influences certain aspects of structural design. Another factor of
prime importance is safety of personnel. There are two facets to this:
1.1. Safe To Operate
The first facet is the usual concern of engineers to design a structure which
is elegant if possible, conservative in its use of materials, fit for the design
purpose, able to operate for the prescribed length of time, safe to operate
and within the allowed budget.
1.2. Government Legislation
The other facet is government legislation. This is put in place to ensure that
structures are fit in all aspects, including safety, for the purpose they are
designed to fulfil.
2. Design Specifications
The requirements for an offshore platform will necessitate the consideration of a
number of factors and involve drawing up DESIGN SPECIFICATION. The full
design specification will contain many different factors, but by way of illustration
the following list should serve to indicate some factors affecting load bearing
and cost.
2.1. Materials
These should be readily available from suppliers in the required form and
should meet the requirements of the design specification.
2.2. Working Life
This may typically be 25 years
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2.3. Loading
The platform should provide a safe working environment for the purpose
of recovering hydrocarbon reserves. It must be capable of withstanding
the loads imposed on it by the drilling and other works performed in and
on the work areas and it must withstand the forces imposed by wind and
wave action.
2.4. Environment
The open sea, which will impose very harsh conditions indeed on the entire
structure but especially the jacket. Due consideration must be made to the
effects of corrosion because of this environment.
2.5. Maintenance
This should be kept to the barest minimum. Cue consideration must be
given to the underwater maintenance being especially singled out wit a view
to not only minimising bit but also to use the most cost effective means of
achieving any necessary works.
2.6. Weight
The weight of the deck modules must be considered so that the jacket can
be designed to support this weight. The all-up weight will have ramifications
on the cost and on the seabed design of the foundations.
2.7. Dimensions
The size of the structure will be dictated by the work functions required to be
carried out and will be strongly affected by the requirements to keep the
topside weight to the minimum.
3. Construction Activity Monitoring System
At the same time as the Design Specification is drafted it is possible for the
QUALITY ASSURANCE (QA) function to be implemented. This can take the
form of an Activity Monitoring System that would compile: -
Full certification for the location of all components, normally by way of
as built drawings. This would normally include any concessions, repairs
and the actual location of J tube and temporary access holes.
Full material certification
Non-destructive Testing (NDT) and inspection certification, which would
include personnel qualifications.
4. Guidance On Design And Construction
With these engineering requirements in mind as the basic starting point design
and structural engineers will be able to obtain guidance as to what minimum
standards are acceptable to the appropriate authority or government body
whatever country they are operating in. As an example of these types of
guidance two different sets of national regulations will be illustrated.
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4.1. United Kingdom

There is a history of legislating in United Kingdom waters going back to
1972 when Parliament enacted legislation that provided for the health,
safety and welfare of persons working on offshore installations. This was
The Mineral Workings (Offshore Installations) Act 1971
The Health and Safety at Work etc Act 1974 followed this.
Subsequently in 1975 The Petroleum and Submarines
Pipelines Act 1975 was enacted, providing for all pipelines and
offshore installations not covered by the 1971 act.
Using the powers embodied in the 1971 Mineral Workings (Offshore
Installations) Act in 1974 the United Kingdom Department of Energy
authorised, The Offshore Installations (Construction and Survey)
Regulations 1974 (SI 289).
This Statutory Instrument (SI) was followed, in April 1984 by,
Offshore Installations: Guidance on Design and
Construction. The latest amendment to this document was
dated 1990
Both of these Statutory Instruments are now superseded as indicated
later in this Chapter.
4.2. Guidance from the UK Regulations
The guidance given in the UK regulations in the early 1970s followed good
engineering practice and provided design engineers what was then the most
up to date basic information as to the forces and loads acting upon any
offshore structure, with specific emphasis on the North Sea environment. It
is worth examining these regulations in a little detail because a good number
of North Sea structures in the UK sector were designed and installed during
this period.
At that time a distinction was made between Primary Structure and
Secondary Structure; Primary Structure was defined as meaning all
structural components of an Offshore Installation, the failure of which would
seriously endanger the safety of the installation. Examples are, for fixed
Installations, piles, jacket legs and bracings, concrete caissons and towers,
and main deck girders, for a mobile Installation, lower hulls or pontoons,
columns, main bracings and deck beams and Secondary Structure,
defined as, The structural elements which are not primary structure are
secondary structure. Examples are deckhouses, walkways and helicopter
decks The Guidance also specified that the latest edition of any British
Standard or Code of Practice should be used where appropriate and further
that standards and/or codes other than British may be used provided that
the Certifying Authority* was satisfied there was an equivalent degree
of safety and integrity
* In SI 289 in 1974 and the other legislation in force up to 1996 there were five authorised certifying authorities. The
current legislation now in force has revoked this authorisation and now requires verification not certification
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4.2.1. Specific Guidance

In SI 289 1974 The Guidance gave specific advice on: -
Clearance above waves (air gap)
Hazardous areas
Layout of equipment and systems
Fendering
Pipeline risers
Location of accommodation and working areas
Escape routes
And various other subjects concerned with the safety of personnel and
structure
4.2.2. Environment
Environmental considerations were also dealt with in some detail -
advising designers to determine parameters on: -
The speed and direction of winds and the effect of averaging
period and height above the surface of the sea on their
characteristics
The heights, periods and directions of waves, the probability of
their occurrence and the effect of currents, seabed topography
and other factors likely to modify their characteristics
The water depth and variations in water level from tide and storm
surge
The speed and direction of tidal and other currents
Air and sea temperatures
The extent of snow and ice accumulations
The extent to which marine growth may form on the submerged
sections of the installation.
To assist the designer in determining these parameters various tables
were provided showing the then, current relevant data. Comprehensive
guidance was also given on corrosion protection and site investigations.
4.2.3. Steel And Concrete
Both these materials were considered in some detail with design
parameters being indicated.
Steel
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This material may fail in service for a number of reasons as will be

detailed in later Chapters. The Guidance notes in the 1970s
considered a number of specific items.
Fatigue Life
Throughout its service life a structure is exposed to
environmental loading. This causes cyclic stress variations in
its structural members. Of these forces wave loading is the
main source of potential fatigue cracking, for example,
supposing a 20-year service life, wave action will result in
approximately 108 cycles of stress variations. Any other source
of cyclic loading could also contribute to fatigue damage and
should therefore be considered as well. Unless otherwise
agreed with the Certifying Authority the calculated fatigue life
derived by the methods indicated in the Guidance Notes
should be not less than 20 years, or the required service life if
this is greater. The procedure for the fatigue analysis is based
on the assumption that for welded structures it is only
necessary to consider ranges of cyclic stress in determining
the endurance (i.e. mean stresses are neglected).
In most situations the potential fatigue crack is located in
parent material (e.g. at a weld toe) and the relevant cyclic
stress is accepted as the range of maximum principal stress at
the potential crack location. (Note: In estimating the maximum
principal stress, shear and torsional effects may be neglected
where they are small).
For nodal joints the stress range to be used in the fatigue
analysis is the hot spot stress range at the weld toe.
Figure 1.1 refers.
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Specific Joint Design

The objective is to minimise stress concentration areas
Buckling
This is another prime possibility for component failure and must
therefore warrant special attention.
The Requirement for Destructive Testing
This is considered in order to minimise potential failures and as
part of the overall QA.
4.2.3.1. Concrete Structures
As with steel failure in service could occur due to a number of factors
some specific to concrete.
Limit State Design
Limit States
Shear
Fatigue
Deflection
Cracking
Cover Over Reinforcement
Reinforcement Detailing
4.2.3.2. Loads
The prime categories of load considered are: -
Dead Loads
Imposed (Operational) Loads
Hydrostatic Loads
Environmental Loads
Deformation Loads
Accidental Loads
The 1974 Guidance indicated the required minimum considerations for
designers to take account of, along with the then current best advise on
how best to determine these loads.
4.3. United States of America
As an historical contrast to this legislation another example of this type of
guidance, from the United States of America, which is aimed at American
waters is, API Recommended Practice for PLANNING, DESIGNING,
and CONSTRUCTING FIXED OFFSHORE PLATFORMS, which was
published by the American Petroleum Institute (API) in 1984. These
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regulations lay down in broad terms the minimum standards for the design
and construction of offshore structures in offshore environments as indicated
below. The major difference between the US and the UK regulations at that
time was the fact that the US offered advise and cited recommended
practice but did not authorise certification authorities. Nor does it now.
4.3.1. Guidance From The US Regulations
US regulations are intended for use in the American offshore
environment, but, because they are based on good engineering practice,
in common with the old UK regulations, the guidance follows much the
same ground. This is not surprising, as the structures will have to
withstand very similar forces and loadings.
4.3.1.1. Planning
The US Guidance, which was given for this aspect of the design
function considers such items as: -
Function
The function for which the structure is intended such as drilling,
producing, storage, accommodation, or a combination of these.
The Location
Orientation
Water Depth
All of these factors being considered with a view o giving guidance as
to what parameters should be applied.
The environmental conditions are considered and designers are
specifically advised to make best use of all available statistical and
mathematical modelling data todevelop the description of
operating and extreme environmental conditions.
Operating Environmental Conditions
(Those conditions which are expected to occur frequently during
the life of the structure) are important both during the construction
and the life of a platform.
Extreme Conditions

(Those conditions which recur quite rarely during the life of the
structure) are important in formulating platform design loadings

The Recommended Practice also indicated minimum

requirements for considering the effects of: -

Wind

Waves

Tides
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Currents

Ice

Earthquakes

Sea-floor Instability

Scour

Marine Fouling

Site investigations with a view as to the impact on the structures

foundations are also considered.

As with the UK guidance loads are given full consideration and are
defined as: -

Dead Loads

Live Loads

Environmental Loads

Construction Loads

Dynamic Loads

(If a comparison of this list is made with paragraph 4.2.3.3 it appears

that the UK old regulation considered this subject more fully. This is
not the case because the US regulation considered some types of
loads together. For example hydrostatic loads, which are considered
separately in the UK, are associated with dead loads in the US).
4.3.1.2. Structural Steel
The behaviour of steel under stress is considered.
Bending
Buckling
Were both given due consideration.
Fatigue
This is dealt with in the same manner as for the UK along with
similar design advice.
Joint Design
This was also covered in a similar way.
Concrete structures are not considered in this particular publication.
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5. Conclusion
It is obvious from the comparisons made here and from common engineering
experience that the engineering requirements for offshore structures anywhere
in the world will be similar. The only marked changes will be due to local
conditions either imposing greater loadings on the structure or perhaps the local
environment being more aggressive. The basic engineering will not change but
some components may have to be more massive or higher-grade materials may
be required to meet these local requirements.
6. Pipelines
Offshore pipelines are used to transport oil or gas from platform to loading
towers or to shore. They are fabricated from high-grade steel pipe (e.g.API-5LX)
which is bitumen wrapped for corrosion prevention and coated with a layer of
reinforced concrete to provide a weight coating which gives additional protection
as well.
The sizes normally vary from 50 mm (2) to 914 mm (36) and the wall thickness
normally varies according to the pressure rating required.
6.1. Pipeline Laying
The methods for laying pipe has evolved since the 1950s and utilises lay
barges on which standard 12 m lengths of pipe are welded together along
the centre of the specially designed and fitted out deck of the vessel.
Each joint is X-rayed and then coated with bitumen and
wrapped with a protective sheathing.
As new lengths of pipe are added the assembly is fed over the
stern and the barge is moved forward, usually by pulling on
anchors, which have been laid by an associated anchor-
handling vessel.
An alternative approach is laying pipe from a reel barge. The earliest
application of this technique occurred during World War II when a 76 mm
(3) diameter pipe was laid across the English Channel in Operation PLUTO
(Pipeline Under The Ocean). This early application utilised floating reels with
the pipeline being unwrapped from them as they were towed along.
The modern application requires the pipe to be prepared on land and then
wound onto the reel which is mounted on the stern of the reel laying vessel
which itself is moored at a specially designed pier. The vessel then proceeds
to the required site and lays the pipeline by un-reeling it over the stern as the
barge steams forward.
The welding and preparation work on land is carried out in a spooling
yard, where the pipe sections are supplied in 12 m (40 ft) lengths.
These are welded together to form stalks, usually about 518 m
(1700 ft) long. All the welds are X-rayed and coated and the stalks are
stowed in racks alongside the spooling dock.
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At the start of spooling, the first stalk is moved into the roller system.
The end is welded to a stub of pipe on the reel and is pulled onto the
reel. The second length is then welded to the end of the first, the weld
is X-rayed and coated and the procedure is then repeated for
subsequent stalks.
All welding and loading operations are performed at the shore facility
and therefore are less affected by weather conditions.
The major area of criticality is establishing and maintaining even
tightness of the wraps on the reel. This is to avoid potential
breakthrough of one wrap into another, which would cause damage to
the pipe.
The reeling and un-reeling of the pipe actually causes yielding of the
steel and the maximum diameter pipeline that can be laid is 600 mm
(24).
See Figure 1.2

Figure 1.2
MSV Norlift, laying the 10in pipeline,
between the Neptune and Mercury fields.
7. Offshore Oil Terminals
Large oil tankers are cheaper to run than small tankers. This philosophy of
building large tankers was reinforced in the 1950s when the Suez crisis forced
tankers from the Gulf to detour around the South of Africa in order to reach
Europe. As tanker sizes increased the number of ports that could handle
tankers decreased and public opinion was against allowing such tankers too
close to inhabited areas. Many solution were proposed to solve this problem of
shrinking docking facilities which included artificial harbours, artificial offshore
islands, multiple buoy mooring systems, tower mooring systems and Single
Point Mooring systems (SPMs).
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The SPM is the most widely used because of its relatively low operational cost,
reliability and flexibility. This configuration is illustrated in a later Chapter.
8. Future Trends
The future is likely to see continued development of current trends and
techniques in all areas of offshore engineering, with the probability of new
techniques being evolved to enable the exploitation of reserves which are
currently marginal or beyond the range of present day techniques.
8.1. Drilling
This is a branch of engineering, which has seen numerous developments
the results of which have made recovery of reserves more efficient and more
effective. Cost reduction and further development of marginal reserves will,
no doubt, cause a continuation of developments of the present techniques
and trends. There will surely be, for instance, increased use of: -

Horizontal Drilling
This enables more formation to be exposed to production and reduces
reservoir problems such as associated gas and water production. It is
useful for thin and tight, low permeability reservoirs. Fewer wells are
needed to achieve optimum reservoir production than with conventional
drilling. Figure 1.3 refers.

Figure 1.3
Diagram Of Bottomhole Assemblies
These Bottomhole Assemblies Are Designed For
Drilling A Straight Hole (Left) And A Directional Hole (Right)
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Extended Reach Drilling

This can reduce the number of platforms required to develop a field as a
greater reservoir area can be drained from one central platform.
Horizontal distances up to 7000 m have been achieved.
Slim Line Well Design
Involves cost-effective casing design around an optimal production
conduit, can also reduce the number of wells needed to achieve optimum
reservoir drainage.
Rig Automation
Will allow several labour-intensive tasks such as pipe handling to be
carried out automatically. For instance, on the rig package developed for
Norske Shells Troll platform, only one driller and an assistant man the rig
floor. On a conventional rig, between five and seven people would be
needed to carry out equivalent tasks. All pipe-handling operations are
carried out from a specially designed control cabin. Removing personnel
from the drill floor means more cost-effective and potentially safer
operations. See Figures 1.4 to 1.11.

Figure 1.4
The Drill Floor Showing
The Drill String Being Broken Out
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Figure 1.5
The Derrick.
The Pyramidal Derrick Supports
The Crown Blocks And The Drillstring
Photo courtesy of Mark S. Ramsey

Figure 11.6
Photograph Of Crown Block
The Pulleys That Make Up The Crown Block
Allow The Cable To Hoist Heavy Loads.
Photo courtesy of Mark S. Ramsey
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Figure 1.7
Drawworks
The Drawworks Reels The Drilling Line In Or Out Over The Crown Blocks To
Raise Or Lower The Travelling Block (Shows The Spool-Like Drawworks
Without The Drilling Line
Photo courtesy of Mark S. Ramsey

Figure 11.8
Travelling Block
The Yellow Travelling Block Moves Up And Down In The Derrick, Suspended By
The Black Wire Rope, To Lift Or Lower The Drillstring Or Casing
Photo courtesy of the Petroleum Extension Service The University of Texas at Austin
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Figure 11.9
Breakout Cathead. The Breakout Cathead Allows The Driller To Make A
Connection Using The Power Of The Motor
Photo courtesy of the Petroleum Extension Service, The University of Texas at Austin

Figure 1.10
Spinning chain
The Spinning Chain (Centre Photograph) Turns Pipe Rapidly, But Is A
Dangerous Way To Screw Pipe Together Because Of Potential For Catching
And Damaging Clothing And Fingers. Mechanical Spinning Devices Are Now
Favoured Over Spinning Chains
Photo courtesy of the Petroleum Extension Service, The University of Texas at Austin
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Figure 1.11
Slips
The Rig Crew Sets Wedge-Like Pipe Slips (Near The Bottom Of This
Photograph) In The Rotary Table To Hold The Pipe While Another Component Is
Added To The Drillstring
Photo courtesy of the Petroleum Extension Service, The University of Texas at Austin.

Temporary (Lightweight) Topsides On Platforms

This design can make production platforms lighter and cheaper than
traditional platforms, which include permanent integrated drilling facilities.
For example, Norske Shells Draugen and Troll platforms are designed
so that the derrick set can be removed at the end of the drilling and
completion phase. Shells Gannet Platform is another lightweight design.
Figure 1.12 refers.
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Figure 1.12
Gannet Platform North Sea
Central Sector
Tender Assisted Operations
These operations also help to minimise the weight of the production
platform by providing most drilling support equipment on a floating
anchored, ship-shaped tender in calm waters or an anchored semi-
submersible unit for deeper or harsher environments.
Mobile Drilling Units
These are jack-up or semi-submersible rigs, depending on water and
they can be used to drill production wells (with well completion on the
seabed and production pipelines led to a nearby facility) where size and
economics of the reservoir do not justify the installation of a platform.
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8.2. Design Practices

Todays fixed platforms are lighter, slimmer and simpler than the giant
platforms built in the 1970s. There is scope for further simplification, for
example of topsides, which account for more than half the capital cost of a
platform. Figure 1.13 refers.

Topside costs can be reduced, for instance by standardising designs and

reducing sparing (duplication of equipment).
Another option is to examine alternatives to conventional platform designs.
Studies of a purpose-built production jack-up unit, a concrete gravity
structure and a tripod tower platform have shown that all three are
technically viable and could offer cost saving for applications in water depths
around 100 m.
Greater use of sub-sea satellite technology instead of building a platform
can reduce costs, especially where infrastructure already exists nearby
which can be used as a host platform. As indicated by the relative sizes of
the pie charts in Figure 1.13, the capital costs of constructing a sub-sea
satellite 20 km from an existing platform are much lower than the costs of
constructing an additional platform. However, in such an instance, the long
term technical integrity of existing facilities, platforms and pipelines must be
ensured, given that they may be in continued use beyond the original design
life which was probably in the order of 20 years anyway.
Bibliography
Engineering Aspects of North Sea Operations. The Shell Approach
PP Tapper
The Gatwick Press
The Offshore Challenge
Shell Briefing Service
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A Handbook for Underwater Inspectors

L K Porter
HMSO
The Offshore Installations (Construction and Survey) Regulations 1974
(SI 289)
BSI
Offshore Installations Guidance on Design and Construction
HMSO
API Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed
Offshore Platforms
American Petroleum Institute
Underwater Inspection
M Bayliss, D Short, M Bax
E & F N Spon