Refinery Basics

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Refining Basics
Handbook
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CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................. 3
WHAT IS CRUDE OIL?...................................................................................... 4
Crude Oil Components................................................................................ 4
Types of Crudes.......................................................................................... 5
Challenge Questions.................................................................................. 6
HYDROCARBONS........................................................................................... 7
Hydrocarbon Names................................................................................... 7
Paraffins.................................................................................................... 9
Olefins..................................................................................................... 10
Challenge Questions................................................................................ 11
CRUDE OIL DISTILLATION.............................................................................. 12
GASES, SR GASOLINE, NAPHTHA, AND KEROSINE PROCESSING..................... 15
Gases and SR Gasoline Fraction................................................................ 15
Naphtha Fraction...................................................................................... 16
Kerosine Fraction..................................................................................... 17
GAS OILS PROCESSING................................................................................ 18
RESIDUUM PROCESSING.............................................................................. 21
Vacuum Unit............................................................................................. 21
De-asphalting Unit................................................................................... 22
Coking Unit.............................................................................................. 22
MOTOR FUEL BLENDING............................................................................... 24
Octane Ratings and Gasoline Blending...................................................... 24
Vapor Pressure......................................................................................... 25
Challenge Questions . .............................................................................. 26
APPENDIX.................................................................................................... 27
ANSWERS TO CHALLENGE QUESTIONS.......................................................... 28
GLOSSARY................................................................................................... 31
2
INTRODUCTION
A refinery uses a number of processing units to transform crude oil into a wide va-
riety of products that are marketed to customers. This course examines the basics of
crude oil and how it is processed in a refinery.
3
WHAT IS CRUDE OIL?
Objectives
Define the following terms: crude oil, specific gravity, API gravity, paraffinic
crude, and asphaltic crude.
Explain the difference between a sweet crude and a sour crude.
Crude Oil Components

The word petroleum means rock oil. Petroleum is a material that appears under the
surface of some parts of the earth. The liquid form of petroleum is commonly known as
crude oil, or, simply, crude.
Crude oil consists primarily of hydrocarbons, which are combinations of hydrogen

and carbon. However, since crude comes from the ground, it also contains impurities
such as dirt, sediment, water, and inorganic salts. When crude is stored, some of these
impurities are removed by settling. Smaller producing fields may pool their crude and
store it in regional storage tanks like the ones shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Crude Storage Tanks
In many cases, pipelines carry the crude from regional storage tanks to refineries. At
the refinery, the remaining impurities in the crude are reduced or eliminated. For ex-
ample, many crude storage tanks have water draws located at the bottom of the tank.
The water draw helps to remove excess water from the crude before it is processed.
A refinery typically has a central laboratory that tests the crude coming into the re-
finery to ensure that it meets certain specifications. One common laboratory test made
on incoming crude is for specific gravity. Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of
a substance to the density of a known substance, which is usually water. Water has a
specific gravity of 1. A substance that has a specific gravity less than 1 is less dense,
or lighter, than water. A substance that has a specific gravity greater than 1 is denser,
or heavier, than water.
4
A common term used in the oil industry to denote the specific gravity of crudes and
refined products is API gravity. The term was established by the American Petroleum
Institute, and it differs from specific gravity.
The API gravity scale is practically the opposite of a normal specific gravity scale. The
units of measurement for API gravity are degrees API. The relationship of API gravity to
specific gravity is given in the following formula:
API = (141.5/specific gravity) 131.5
On the API gravity scale, water has a density of approximately 10 degrees API. A
material with a reading that is higher than 10 is lighter than water, and a liquid with a
reading that is lower than 10 is heavier than water. So, a higher API reading indicates
a lighter material, while a higher specific gravity reading indicates a heavier material.
Types of Crudes
Different regions of the earth produce different types of crudes. The different types
can be categorized by their physical properties. For example, a type of crude called a
paraffinic crude contains a large amount of a waxy substance called paraffin. Another
type of crude, called an asphaltic crude, contains a large amount of asphalt. Although
there are several technical categories for crude oils, most crudes can be classified
as paraffinic, asphaltic, or mixed, which means that the crude contains a significant
amount of paraffin and asphalt.
Another way to categorize different crudes is according to their sulfur content. A

crude oil with a sulfur content of less than 1 percent is commonly called a sweet crude.
A crude oil with a sulfur content greater than 1 percent is known as a sour crude. A sour
crude also has a greater concentration of hydrogen sulfide, which is a poisonous gas
with an odor similar to that of rotten eggs.
Crudes from some regions contain large amounts of sulfur. Refineries that receive
this crude typically decrease the sulfur content as the crude moves through the refin-
ery. Decreasing the sulfur content of products can help a refinery minimize the envi-
ronmental and equipment damage that sulfur can cause.
5
What Is Crude Oil?Challenge Questions

1. Crude oil is basically the liquid form of ___________.
2. A liquid with a specific gravity of 0.765 is heavier than an equal volume of a

liquid with a specific gravity of 1.25.
a. True
b. False
3. On the API gravity scale, a material with a reading that is higher than 10 is
(lighter/heavier) than water, while a material with a reading that is lower
than 10 is (lighter/heavier) than water.
4. Name the three general types of crudes, based on their physical properties.
5. In general, a crude oil with a sulfur content of less than 1% is commonly

called a (sweet/sour) crude, while a crude oil with a sulfur content greater
than 1% is known as a (sweet/sour) crude.
Please refer to the end of the handbook for answers.
6
HYDROCARBONS
Objectives
Define the term hydrocarbon.
Given the name of a hydrocarbon, state the number and the arrangement of car-
bon atoms.
Define the following terms: paraffin, olefin, naphthene, and aromatic.
Hydrocarbon Names
A hydrocarbon is a chemical compound that contains hydrogen and carbon. A crude
contains many different hydrocarbons. In a refinery, hydrocarbons are used to make a
wide variety of products.
The name of a particular hydrocarbon is the key to understanding its chemical struc-
ture, which is helpful in understanding the reactions that happen at various points in
a refinery. Basically, the first half of a hydrocarbons name indicates how many carbon
atoms it contains, and the second half tells how the carbon atoms are arranged.
Figure 2 is an illustration of a simple hydrocarbon molecule called methane. The

methane molecule has one carbon atom bonded to four hydrogen atoms. The first part
of the name, or prefix, meth, indicates that there is one carbon atom in the hydrocarbon.
Figure 2. Methane
The names that are given to hydrocarbons deal primarily with the number and ar-
rangement of carbon atoms in the molecule. For simplicity, the hydrogen atoms are not
included in the illustrations that follow.
7
Figure 3 is an illustration of the carbon atoms in an ethane molecule. The prefix eth
means that there are two carbon atoms, which are linked by a single bond.
Figure 3. Ethane
In Figure 4, propane, butane, and pentane are illustrated.
Figure 4. Propane, Butane, and Pentane
The suffix, or ending, of a hydrocarbons name provides information about how the
carbon atoms in the molecule are arranged. Methane, ethane, propane, butane, and
pentane all have the same suffix. The suffix ane indicates that a hydrocarbon has a
straight chain of carbon atoms that are linked together by single bonds.
The carbon atoms in hydrocarbon molecules also have the ability to form double
bonds. The petroleum industry uses two different suffixes to indicate a hydrocarbon
with a double bond. The suffix ylene is the more common of the two, but ene is
also used. Figure 5 is an illustration of a hydrocarbon that has two carbon atoms linked
together by a double bond. This hydrocarbon can be called either butylene or butene.
Figure 5. Butylene (Butene)
8
Paraffins
The general name paraffin is given to hydrocarbons whose carbon atoms are con-
nected in a straight chain by single bonds. Butane is an example of a paraffin. Carbon
atoms can also be linked in a branched chain arrangement. The general name for
hydrocarbons having a branched-chain, single-bond arrangement of carbon atoms is
isoparaffin. Figure 6 is an illustration of the carbon atoms in butane and in an isoparaf-
fin called isobutane.
Figure 6. Butane and Isobutane
Isobutane is an isomer of regular, or n-(normal) butane. An isomer is a chemical

compound that has the same chemical structure as another compound, but vastly dif-
ferent chemical properties. These chemical properties can be used to make products
in a refinery.
In another common arrangement, the carbon atoms form a circle, or ring. The gen-
eral name for hydrocarbons with single-bonded carbon atoms in a circular arrange-
ment is naphthene. This type of hydrocarbon can also be called a cycloparaffin, since
cyclo means circle and paraffin refers to the fact that the carbon atoms are linked by
single bonds.
Figure 7 illustrates a naphthene known as cyclohexane. Broken down, the name is

cyclo for the ring structure, hex for the six carbon atoms, and ane for the single bonds.
Figure 7. Cyclohexane
9
Olefins
The general name for hydrocarbons containing carbon atoms with one double bond
is olefin. The olefin represented in Figure 8 is propylene, or propene.
Figure 8. Propylene (Propene)
Although branched-chain olefins are rare, circular, or ring, chain olefins with some
double bonds are common. The hydrocarbon represented in Figure 9 has six carbon
atoms in a ring. There are three double bonds and three single bonds between carbon
atoms. The general name for this kind of hydrocarbon is aromatic. The aromatic repre-
sented in Figure 9 is the simplest type of aromatic: benzene.
Figure 9. Benzene
10
HydrocarbonsChallenge Questions
1. What is a hydrocarbon?
2. Of the following hydrocarbon name prefixes below, which is associated with

two carbon atoms?
a. But
b. Meth
c. Pent
d. Eth
e. Prop
3. The suffix ane indicates that a hydrocarbons carbon atoms are linked to-
gether by (single/double) bonds, while the suffixes ylene and ene indicate
that the hydrocarbon has a (single/double) bond.
4. A hydrocarbon whose carbon atoms are connected in a straight chain by

single bonds is given the general name of:
a. Olefin
b. Paraffin
c. Naphthene
d. Aromatic
5. What is the chemical name for the compound illustrated below? (Note: the
hydrogen atoms are omitted.)
11
CRUDE OIL DISTILLATION
A refinery consists of several interrelated processing units that work together to

make products from the incoming crude. Although equipment and products vary
widely among refineries, many units are common to most refineries. One such unit is
the crude oil distillation unit.
Objectives
Explain the function of a crude oil distillation unit.
List, from lightest to heaviest, typical fractions from a crude oil distillation unit.
In a typical refinery, the first unit that crude oil passes through is the crude oil distil-
lation unit, or, simply, the crude unit. In the crude unit, the crude is physically sepa-
rated into groups of hydrocarbons.
Crudes contain many different hydrocarbons. A hydrocarbon boils, or vaporizes, at

a temperature that depends on the number of carbon atoms it contains. The separa-
tion of different groups of hydrocarbons in a crude unit is based on this difference in
boiling points.
Each separate group of hydrocarbons has a unique range of boiling points. These
groups are known as cuts, or fractions. After separation in the crude unit, the fractions
are processed further into products for consumers.
The crude unit, like other units in a refinery, contains equipment that processes
the crude. While the specific equipment in a crude unit may vary between refineries,
certain equipment is common to most crude units. For example, a desalter (Figure 10)
is one type of equipment that is used in a crude unit to remove impurities from the
incoming crude.
Figure 10. Desalter
12
The crude is then typically pumped to a furnace, in which it is heated to high tem-
peratures. When the crude is heated, it becomes a mixture of liquid and vapors. The
mixture of liquid and vapors from the furnace is sent to a type of distillation tower
known as an atmospheric tower. The pressure inside the atmospheric tower is kept
near atmospheric pressure, but different temperature zones are established at dif-
ferent levels in the tower. The bottom of the tower is hot, and the temperature gets
progressively cooler toward the top.
Groups of hydrocarbons are separated in the atmospheric tower at different levels,

depending on their boiling points. These groups are the basic cuts, or fractions, from
the incoming crude. Figure 11 is a simplified illustration of an atmospheric tower, and
the basic fractions that are separated from the incoming crude. Although some refiner-
ies may have different names for these basic fractions, they are commonly called the
gases and straight run (SR) gasoline fraction, the naphtha fraction, the kerosine frac-
tion, the gas oils fraction, and the residuum, or residual, fraction.
Figure 11. Basic Fractions
The gases and straight run gasoline fraction is the lightest fraction. Straight run
means that the material has been separated, but it has not undergone any additional
chemical changes. After leaving the tower, the gases part of the fraction is separated
from the straight run gasoline.
Table 1 is a table listing the basic fractions, the number of carbon atoms in the hy-
drocarbons, and their range of boiling points. The naphtha fraction is heavier than the
gases and straight run fraction, and it also boils at a higher range of temperatures.
Residuum, or residual, which is the heaviest fraction, contains the highest number of
carbon atoms and boils at the highest range of temperatures.
13
Table 1. Carbon Atoms and Boiling Ranges of Basic Fractions
Fraction Number of Carbon Atoms Boiling Range (F)
Gases C1C4 <104
SR Gasoline C5C12 104220
Naphtha C13C19 220315
Kerosine C19C26 315450
Gas Oils C26C33 450800
Residuum C33C60 >800
Crude Oil DistillationChallenge Questions

1. Basically, what is the function of a crude unit?
2. The incoming crude becomes a mixture of liquid and vapors in the:

a. Furnace
b. Atmospheric tower
c. Desalter
d. None of the above
3. The temperatures at the bottom of an atmospheric tower are higher than

those at the top.
a. True
b. False
4. Which of the following fractions is the heaviest?

a. Kerosine
b. Gases and straight run gasoline
c. Residuum
d. Naphtha
e. Gas oils
5. The fractions that contain the heavier hydrocarbons have the lower boiling
points.
a. True
b. False
14
GASES, SR GASOLINE, NAPHTHA, AND KEROSINE PROCESSING
The figure in the appendix of this course illustrates how the five basic crude oil
fractions are processed in a typical refinery. This illustration can be used to follow the
flow paths of the basic fractions through the refinery. The processing of the gases and
straight run (SR) gasoline fraction, the naphtha fraction, and the kerosine fraction are
described in this section. Gas oils processing is and residuum (residual) processing
are described in the following sections.
Objectives
Explain how gases, SR gasoline, naphtha, and kerosine from the crude unit are
typically processed in a refinery.
List typical products from a gas plant, a catalytic reformer, and the processing of
kerosine.
Gases and SR Gasoline Fraction

Figure 12 illustrates the flow path of the gases and SR gasoline fraction through a
typical refinery. First, the gases are separated from the SR gasoline. Several pieces of
equipment are used to perform the separation. For the purposes of this discussion, a
single tank is used to represent the separation equipment. The gases then go to a unit
called the gas plant. In some refineries, the gas plant is called the light ends recovery
unit, since the gases comprise the lightest fraction from the crude unit.
Figure 12. Gases and SR Gasoline Fraction Flow Paths
In the gas plant, the gases are further broken down into different products. They are
separated in a series of towers that work similarly to the one in the crude unit.
Most of the materials that come out of these towers are products from the gases. In
some cases, methane (C1) and ethane (C2) are combined to produce a fuel known as
fuel gas. It is piped to the refinerys furnaces and boilers to keep them operating.
Many refineries separate ethane and market it to customers. Ethane is a common

feed for the petrochemical industry.
15
Another product that can be marketed from the gas plant is liquefied petroleum
gas (LPG). LPG typically consists of two gases: propane (C3) and butane (C4). Propane
and butane, which are gases at normal temperatures and atmospheric pressure, are
pressurized to keep them in liquid form so that they can be more easily transported to
customers. LPG is usually transported by rail car.
In the United States, propane is often known as bottled gas. It is used in a wide va-
riety of applications where a portable fuel is needed. One use for butane is in lighters.
Butane is also frequently used as a feed for another refinery unit.
The SR gasoline part of the fraction moves on to a gasoline blending area. It is one
of many feeds, or charge stocks, that are blended to make motor fuels.
Naphtha Fraction
Figure 13 illustrates the flow path of the naphtha fraction. From the crude unit, the
naphtha fraction is sent to a unit called a desulfurization unit, or a hydrotreater. In a
hydrotreater, hydrogen is used to help remove sulfur from the naphtha fraction.
Figure 13. Naphtha Fraction Flow Path
One reason that sulfur is removed is that government agencies have established
limits on the amount of sulfur that can be present in petroleum products. Another
reason is that sulfur is corrosive to equipment. For those reasons, a refinery may use
hydrotreaters with other fractions as well as the naphtha fraction.
In a hydrotreater, most of the sulfur compounds in the naphtha fraction are removed
and converted into hydrogen sulfide (H2S). Most of the H2S is then removed and, in
some refineries, converted into elemental sulfur (S).
Many refineries send the naphtha to a unit known as a catalytic reformer. A reformer
uses a chemical reaction to reform the hydrocarbons in the naphtha into more valu-
able products. To reform the naphtha, the reformer unit uses reactors that contain a
catalyst, such as aluminum oxide or platinum. The catalyst helps the reaction to occur
without undergoing significant changes itself.
The main product from the reformer is reformate, which is a high-quality gasoline
feed that is sent to the gasoline blending area with the straight run gasoline. Some
refineries use the reformer to make aromatics such as benzene and toluene, which
are used extensively by petrochemical facilities. Petrochemical facilities convert
chemicals like ethane and toluene into a wide range of products, including plastics,
polyvinyl chloride for piping, and nylon. A refinery often uses specialized equipment
16
to increase the purity of aromatics that are shipped. When processing is completed,
they are transported to petrochemical facilities in much the same way as some of the
other refinery products.
Kerosine Fraction
Figure 14 illustrates the flow path of the kerosine fraction. The kerosine fraction first
goes through a hydrotreater, where sulfur is removed. Then it is blended with other
feeds to make different fuels, the most common of which is jet fuel. Commercial jet
fuels are predominantly made of high-quality kerosine. The kerosine is treated with
additives to ensure that the fuel can withstand severe conditions, such as low tem-
peratures at high altitudes.
Figure 14. Kerosine Fraction Flow Path
Gases, SR Gasoline, Naphtha, and Kerosine ProcessingChallenge Questions

1. Straight run gasoline is one of many feeds blended to make motor fuels.
a. True
b. False
2. In a gas plant, methane and ethane are often combined to produce what?
3. From the crude unit, the naphtha fraction is typically sent to a __________
unit, which is also called a __________.
4. The main product from a typical gas plant is a high-quality gasoline feed
known as reformate.
a. True
b. False
5. The __________ fraction typically goes through a hydrotreater to remove

any sulfur and is then processed to make different fuels, including jet fuel.
a. Gases and straight run gasoline
b. Naphtha
c. Kerosine
d. None of the above
17
GAS OILS PROCESSING
Heavier fractions boil at higher temperatures than lighter fractions. These heavier
fractions require different treatment to convert them into marketable products. Heavy,
long-chain hydrocarbons, such as those in the gas oils fraction, are not as valuable
to a refinery as lighter hydrocarbons, particularly those in the gasoline range. These
hydrocarbons must be broken down in order to get smaller, lighter hydrocarbons.
Objectives
Explain how gas oils are typically processed in a refinery.
List typical products from a fluid catalytic cracker unit, an isomerization unit, and
an alkylation unit.
Figure 15 illustrates the flow path of the gas oils fraction through a typical refinery.
From the crude unit, the gas oils fraction is sent to a unit that breaks, or cracks, long
chain hydrocarbons. The unit is called a fluid catalytic cracking unit, or, simply, a cat
cracker. The cat cracker also receives a feed from a unit that processes the residuum
(residual) fraction. This feed is discussed in the following section.
Figure 15. Gas Oils Fraction Flow Path
A cat cracker uses high temperatures and a powdery catalyst that flows like a fluid.
The unit cracks long chain hydrocarbons in the gas oils fraction into a wide range of
hydrocarbons.
18
A typical cat cracker can produce several products, depending on the refinery. Two
common products are gases and cat cracked gasoline. The gases are sent to a gas plant
that is associated with the cat cracker. This gas plant is known as the cracked gas plant.
Cat cracked gasoline is another high-quality gasoline feed that goes to the gasoline
blending area.
In general, two kinds of light hydrocarbons are present in the cracked gas plant:
paraffins, such as butane, and olefins, such as butylene or butene. These light hy-
drocarbons can be modified and combined to produce a more valuable product for
a refinery. Paraffins are valuable as an LPG, but they are more valuable as a feed for
another unit. Many refineries change the structure of butane to isobutane, which is a
branched-chain paraffin. This is accomplished by an isomerization unit.
The olefins from the cracked gas plant combine with the product from the isomeriza-
tion unit (isobutane) as the two basic feeds for the alkylation unit. An alkylation unit
helps a refinery increase its efficiency by combining lighter hydrocarbons to make
heavier hydrocarbons in the gasoline range that have greater value. In effect, an al-
kylation unit does the opposite of a cat cracker: it combines short-chain hydrocarbons
to make longer ones.
Hydrofluoric (HF) acid is one of the more common catalysts used in an alkylation
unit. Sulfuric acid is also commonly used. The main product from an alkylation unit is
known as alkylate. Alkylate is a high-quality gasoline feed that is sent on to the gaso-
line blending area.
Part of the gas oils fraction from the crude unit is blended and marketed to custom-
ers as fuel oils. One general name for these fuel oils is distillate fuels. Heavier fuel oils
are often sold to industry for use in their processes. These fuel oils are marketed as
a certain number fuel oil. An example of this is No. 2 fuel oil, which is used in some
industrial boilers.
The basic difference between the different numbered fuel oils is their viscosity, or
resistance to flow. Home heating oils for furnaces are generally lighter and less viscous
than thick, heavy, industrial-grade fuel oils.
Diesel fuel is another fuel oil product that is made of lighter gas oils. Diesel engines
are used in many different applications, from car and truck engines to emergency die-
sel generators that provide power to industrial facilities.
19
Gas Oils ProcessingChallenge Questions

1. What is the general function of a cat cracker?
2. Two common products of a cat cracker are gases, which are sent to a cracked
gas plant, and cat cracked gasoline, which is sent to the gasoline blending
area.
a. True
b. False
3. What is the unit in which butane is changed to isobutane called?
4. Olefins and isobutane are combined in a(n) _________ unit.

a. Cat cracker
b. Catalytic reformer
c. Isoparaffin
d. Alkylation
5. Home heating oils for furnaces are generally more viscous than industrial-
grade fuel oils.
a. True
b. False
20
RESIDUUM PROCESSING
The bottom fraction in the crude unit is a heavy residue known as residuum, or
residual. Refineries can process residuum into marketable products, but there is a
problem with processing extremely heavy, long-chain hydrocarbons like the ones in
the residuum fraction. At extremely high temperatures, the residuum cracks, breaking
off light gases and heavy hydrocarbons with little value to a refinery.
Objectives
Explain how residuum is typically processed in a refinery.
List typical products from a vacuum unit, a de-asphalting unit, and a coking unit.
Figure 16 illustrates the flow path of the residuum fraction through a typical refinery.
Figure 16. Residuum Flow Path
Vacuum Unit
One method of processing heavy, long-chain hydrocarbons utilizes the relationship
between pressure and a liquids boiling point. If the pressure of a liquid is lowered,
the liquid will boil at a lower temperature. Many refineries use this physical property
to help recover marketable products from residuum. The unit in which this is accom-
plished is a vacuum unit.
A vacuum unit uses towers that are similar to the atmospheric tower in the crude
unit. In many refineries, the towers are considered a part of the crude unit. However,
vacuum towers operate at a pressure that is less than atmospheric pressure. The
reduced pressure allows the unit to separate products at a lower temperature, and
thus increases the number of valuable products that a refinery can recover from the
residuum fraction.
A typical vacuum unit produces two products: gas oils, and leftover material known
as pitch, or bottoms.
21
The gas oils from a vacuum unit are similar to the gas oils in the gas oils fraction. In
many refineries, the gas oils from the vacuum unit are sent to the cat cracker. In other
refineries, they are sent to a unit called a hydrocracker. Hydrocracking means crack-
ing with hydrogen. A hydrocracker produces lighter, more valuable products, such as
hydrocrackate. Hydrocrackate is sent to the gasoline blending area, where it is mixed
with other gasoline feeds. Many hydrocrackers also produce kerosine that is used in
jet fuel.
In some refineries, the vacuum unit also produces lube stocks, which are feeds that
are processed into lubricating oils and greases. Products commonly made from lube
stocks include several types of motor vehicle oil; greases for a wide variety of applica-
tions; and paraffin wax, which is used in commercial wax products.
De-asphalting Unit
De-asphalting units are used in refineries to recover hydrocarbons (typically in the
gas oils range) from asphalt materials in the bottoms. These units frequently use pro-
pane as a solvent to separate the oil, which is then sent to the cat cracker.
The material that remains after the gas oils are separated is known as asphalt. The
thick asphalt from the de-asphalting unit is sent to a blowing unit, where hot air is
blown into the asphalt to soften it. The softened asphalt flows more easily, so it is
easier to transport.
Asphalt has many uses. For example, it is often mixed with sand and gravel to pave
roads. Some kinds of asphalt are also ideal for roofing materials, such as shingles,
felts, and tar paper.
Coking Unit
Figure 17 shows part of a typical coking unit, which produces industrial coke from
the bottoms. In the coking unit, the bottoms are heated in a furnace to crack whatever
is left. The material that is left from the reaction goes to the bottom of a coke drum,
where it solidifies. The solid product resembles coal in its appearance.
Figure 17. Drums in Coking Unit
22
The commercial product that is made in the coking unit is called sponge coke be-
cause of its sponge-like appearance. Pressurized water jets blast the sponge coke
out of the coke drum and into rail cars, which collect it and transport it to customers.
Sponge coke is important in the manufacture of battery electrodes and graphite. It is
also used in other industrial manufacturing applications, such as in the manufacture
of aluminum.
Residuum ProcessingChallenge Questions

1. Because a vacuum unit is able to separate products at a lower temperature,
it increases the number of valuable products that a refinery can recover
from the residuum fraction.
a. True
b. False
2. Name two common products from a vacuum unit.
3. A hydrocracker uses hydrogen to produce heavier, more valuable products

from gas oils.
a. True
b. False
4. In a typical de-asphalting unit, what is added to the asphalt, making it easier

to flow?
a. Sponge coke
b. Hot air
c. Hydrocrackate
d. Isobutane
5. In a coking unit, where does the sponge coke solidify?

23
MOTOR FUEL BLENDING
Objectives
Define, in general terms, the concept of octane rating.
Describe how motor fuels are blended.
Explain the effects of vapor pressure on motor fuel blending.
Gasoline is actually a blend of many different feeds. Refineries must take certain
factors into account when blending gasoline. Two common factors are the gasolines
octane rating and vapor pressure.
Octane Ratings and Gasoline Blending

Octane rating is a general indication of a gasolines quality. It is measured in com-
parison with a standard gasoline, which is usually a reference gasoline that is burned
in a test engine in a laboratory. An octane rating is also a measure of how resistant a
gasoline is to engine knock. The design of an engine requires gasoline that exceeds a
minimum octane rating. If the octane rating is too low, the engine will knock.
Straight run gasoline has a very low octane rating. Typically, as indicated in the ap-
pendix of this course, a refinery blends straight run gasoline with reformate from the
catalytic reforming unit, cat cracked gasoline from the cat cracker, and alkylate from
the alkylation unit. (Hydrocrackate may also be blended in refineries.) The gasoline
feeds other than SR gasoline are produced by chemically altering the characteristics
of the hydrocarbons that are fed to the unit. These gasoline feeds have higher octane
values than SR gasoline, and they can be blended to produce motor fuels with different
octane ratings.
A gasoline blending area produces many different types of motor fuels that are
marketed to customers. The gasoline streams that are sent to the blending area are
blended into several types of gasoline using an arrangement of pipes, valves, and
headers. Various types of gasoline are blended to meet company standards for differ-
ent types of gasolines, such a regular and super unleaded.
Refineries also blend special-purpose additives into many gasolines. Figure 18

shows an anti-oxidant additive tank and a tank containing a corrosion inhibitor. Anti-
oxidants prevent the formation of gum that occurs when gasolines age. Corrosion in-
hibitors slow the corrosive effects of gasoline on an engine. Other common additives
include detergents, which minimize deposits that can form in a carburetor, and anti-
icing agents, which decrease the formation of ice in cold weather.
24
Figure 18. Gasoline Additive Tanks
After the gasoline is blended, it is stored until it is shipped. Larger customers and
distributors receive gasoline through a variety of methods. The most common method
is by pipeline. Individual consumers buy gasoline at service stations, which get their
supply primarily by tanker truck.
Vapor Pressure
Another important consideration in blending gasoline is the vapor pressure of the
gasoline. Gasoline must be vaporized at an appropriate rate in an engine for the en-
gine to run properly. The gasoline vaporization rate is dependent on temperature. In
hot weather, gasoline can vaporize too quickly and prevent an adequate supply of fuel
to the engine. This condition is known as vapor lock. However, in cold weather, the
gasoline may not vaporize quickly enough. As a result, the fuel does not burn, and the
engine will not run.
Refineries take weather considerations into account when blending gasolines.

Gasolines are generally blended to satisfy the needs of the consumers in a given geo-
graphic area.
25
Motor Fuel BlendingChallenge Questions

1. The design of an engine requires gasoline that exceeds a minimum octane
rating or the engine will knock.
a. True
b. False
2. Straight run gasoline has a very _________ octane rating.

a. High
b. Low
3. Name three common feeds that are sent to the gasoline blending area.
4. __________ are additives that prevent the formation of gum that occurs
when gasolines age.
a. Anti-oxidants
b. Corrosion inhibitors
c. Detergents
d. Anti-icing agents
5. In hot weather, a gasoline may not vaporize quickly enough, resulting in a

condition called vapor lock.
a. True
b. False
26
APPENDIX
Crude Oil Fraction Flow Paths
27
ANSWERS TO CHALLENGE QUESTIONS
What Is Crude Oil?

1. Crude oil is basically the liquid form of petroleum.
2. b (False)
3. On the API gravity scale, a material with a reading that is higher than 10 is lighter
than water, while a material with a reading that is lower than 10 is heavier than
water.
4. The three general types of crudes, based on their physical properties, are paraf-
finic, asphaltic, and mixed.
5. In general, a crude oil with a sulfur content of less than 1% is commonly called a
sweet crude, while a crude oil with a sulfur content greater than 1% is known as
a sour crude.
Hydrocarbons
1. A hydrocarbon is a chemical compound that contains hydrogen and carbon.
2. d
The number of carbon atoms associated with the eth hydrocarbon prefix is two.
3. The suffix ane indicates that a hydrocarbons carbon atoms are linked together
by single bonds, while the suffixes ylene and ene indicate that the hydrocarbon
has a double bond.
4. b
A hydrocarbon whose carbon atoms are connected in a straight chain by single
bonds is given the general name of paraffin.
5. The chemical name for the compound is isopentane.
Crude Oil Distillation

1. The function of a crude unit is to physically separate the incoming crude into
cuts, or fractions, of hydrocarbons that are different from other fractions in terms
of their boiling range.
2. a
The incoming crude becomes a mixture of liquid and vapors in the furnace.
28
3. a (True)
4. c
Of the listed fractions, residuum is the heaviest.
5. b (False)
Gases, SR Gasoline, Naphtha, and Kerosine Processing

1. a (True)
2. In a gas plant, methane and ethane are often combined to produce fuel gas.
3. From the crude unit, the naphtha fraction is typically sent to a desulfurization
unit, which is also called a hydrotreater.
4. b (False)
5. c
The kerosine fraction typically goes through a hydrotreater to remove any sulfur
and is then processed to make different fuels, including jet fuel.
Gas Oils Processing

1. A cat cracker breaks, or cracks, heavy, long-chain hydrocarbons into lighter hy-
drocarbons that are more valuable to a refinery.
2. a (True)
3. The unit in which butane is changed to isobutane is called an isomerization unit.
4. d
Olefins and isobutane are combined in an alkylation unit.
5. b (False)
Residuum Processing
1. a (True)
2. Two common products from a vacuum unit are gas oils and pitch, or bottoms.
3. b (False)
4. b
In a typical de-asphalting unit, hot air is added to the asphalt, making it easier
to flow?
5. In a coking unit, the sponge coke solidifies in the coke drum.
29
Motor Fuel Blending

1. a (True)
2. b
Straight run gasoline has a very low octane rating.
3. Common feeds that are sent to the gasoline blending area are reformate, cat
cracked gasoline, alkylate, hydrocrackate, and straight run gasoline.
4. a
Anti-oxidants are additives that prevent the formation of gum that occurs when
gasolines age.
5. b (False)
30
GLOSSARY
This glossary contains terms pertinent to the study of crude oil and crude oil pro-
cessing. The meanings of the terms are given in that context.
Alkylate A high-quality gasoline feed that is produced in an alkylation unit and

sent on to the gasoline blending area.
Alkylation unit A unit that combines olefins and isobutane to make alkylate.
Ane A suffix for the name of a hydrocarbon that has a straight chain of carbon at-
oms linked together by single bonds.
API gravity A common term that is used in the oil industry to denote the specific
gravity of petroleum products.
Aromatic The general name for a hydrocarbon whose carbon atoms are connected
by both double bonds and single bonds.
Asphaltic crude oil Crude oil that contains a high proportion of asphalt.
Atmospheric tower A tower whose interior is kept at or near atmospheric pressure;

used in a crude oil distillation unit to separate basic fractions from incoming
crude.
But A prefix for the name of a hydrocarbon that has four carbon atoms.
Catalytic reformer A unit that uses a catalyst to reform the naphtha fraction into
more valuable products.
Cat cracked gasoline A high-quality gasoline feed from a cat cracker that is sent to
the gasoline blending area.
Cat cracker A unit that uses high temperatures and a fluidized catalyst to break,
or crack, long-chain hydrocarbons in the gas oils fraction into more valuable
products.
Coking unit A unit that produces sponge coke by heating the pitch, or bottoms,
from the residuum fraction to crack the remains.
Crude oil (crude) The liquid form of petroleum.
31
Crude oil distillation unit (crude unit) The unit in a refinery where incoming crude
is physically separated into groups of hydrocarbons.
Cycloparaffin See Naphthene.
De-asphalting unit A unit that separates recoverable oil from asphalt materials
contained in pitch, or bottoms.
Ene A suffix for the name of a hydrocarbon whose carbon atoms are linked to-
gether by at least one double bond.
Eth A prefix for the name of a hydrocarbon that has two carbon atoms.
Fluid catalytic cracking unit See Cat cracker.
Fractions Different groups of hydrocarbons that are separated in a refinerys crude

unit.
Gases and straight run gasoline fraction The lightest fraction from crude oil.
Gas oils fraction The crude oil fraction whose carbon atoms range from C27 to C33,
and have boiling points between 450F and 800F.
Gas plant A unit where the gases are sent after being separated from the straight
run gasoline part of the fraction; recovers light products such as LPG.
Hydrocarbon A chemical compound that contains hydrogen and carbon.
Hydrocracker A unit that uses hydrogen and a catalyst to crack hydrocarbons into
lighter, more valuable products.
Hydrofluoric (HF) acid A common catalyst that is used in an alkylation unit.
Hydrotreater A unit that uses hydrogen to remove sulfur from various fractions.
Isomerization unit A unit that changes straight-chain paraffins into branched-

chain paraffins that are used as a feed for an alkylation unit.
Isoparaffin The general name for a hydrocarbon with a branched-chain, single-

bonded arrangement of carbon atoms.
Kerosine fraction The fraction whose carbon atoms range from C19 to C26, and have
boiling points between 315F and 450F.
Light ends recovery unit See Gas plant.
32
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) A product from a gas plant that typically consists of
propane and butane.
Meth A prefix for the name of a hydrocarbon that has one carbon atom.
Naphtha fraction The fraction whose carbon atoms range from C13 to C19, and have
boiling points between 220F and 315F.
Naphthene The general name for a hydrocarbon with single-bonded carbon atoms
in a circular arrangement.
Octane rating A general indication of a gasolines quality; a measure of how resis-

tant a gasoline is to engine knock.
Olefin The general name for a hydrocarbon whose carbon atoms are connected in
a straight chain, and two of which are linked by a double bond.
Paraffin A waxy substance that is found in some crude oils. Also, the general name
for a hydrocarbon whose carbon atoms are connected in a straight chain by
single bonds.
Paraffinic crude oil Crude oil that contains a high proportion of paraffin.
Pent A prefix for the name of a hydrocarbon that has five carbon atoms.
Petroleum A material containing hydrocarbons that appears under the surface of

some areas of the earth.
Pro A prefix for the name of a hydrocarbon that has three carbon atoms.
Reformate A high-quality gasoline feed from a catalytic reformer that is sent to the
gasoline blending area.
Residuum fraction (also known as residue, or residual) The fraction containing the
heaviest hydrocarbons (over C33) with the highest boiling points (over 800F).
Sour crude Generally, a crude oil whose sulfur content is greater than 1 percent.
Specific gravity The ratio of the density of a substance to that of a known sub-
stance, such as water.
Sponge coke Coke with a sponge-like appearance that is produced in a coking unit.
Straight run A material that has been separated, but has not undergone any
chemical changes.
33
Straight run gasoline A gasoline feed from the crude unit that is sent to the gaso-
line blending area.
Sweet crude Generally, a crude oil whose sulfur content is less than 1 percent.
Vacuum unit A unit that uses reduced pressures to separate gas oils and pitch, or
bottoms, from the residuum fraction.
Vapor lock A condition that develops when hot weather causes gasoline to vapor-
ize too quickly, thereby preventing an adequate supply of fuel to an engine.
Ylene See Ene.
34

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presents

WHAT IS CRUDE OIL?

Crude Oil Components

Crude oil consists primarily of hydrocarbons, which are combinations of hydrogen

Figure 1. Crude Storage Tanks

API = (141.5/specific gravity) 131.5

Another way to categorize different crudes is according to their sulfur content. A

What Is Crude Oil?Challenge Questions

2. A liquid with a specific gravity of 0.765 is heavier than an equal volume of a

5. In general, a crude oil with a sulfur content of less than 1% is commonly

Figure 2 is an illustration of a simple hydrocarbon molecule called methane. The

In Figure 4, propane, butane, and pentane are illustrated.

Figure 4. Propane, Butane, and Pentane

Figure 5. Butylene (Butene)

Figure 6. Butane and Isobutane

Isobutane is an isomer of regular, or n-(normal) butane. An isomer is a chemical

Figure 7 illustrates a naphthene known as cyclohexane. Broken down, the name is

Figure 8. Propylene (Propene)

2. Of the following hydrocarbon name prefixes below, which is associated with

4. A hydrocarbon whose carbon atoms are connected in a straight chain by

Please refer to the end of the handbook for answers.

CRUDE OIL DISTILLATION

A refinery consists of several interrelated processing units that work together to

Crudes contain many different hydrocarbons. A hydrocarbon boils, or vaporizes, at

Figure 10. Desalter

Groups of hydrocarbons are separated in the atmospheric tower at different levels,

Figure 11. Basic Fractions

Table 1. Carbon Atoms and Boiling Ranges of Basic Fractions

Fraction Number of Carbon Atoms Boiling Range (F)

Gases C1C4 <104

SR Gasoline C5C12 104220

Naphtha C13C19 220315

Kerosine C19C26 315450

Gas Oils C26C33 450800

Residuum C33C60 >800

Crude Oil DistillationChallenge Questions

2. The incoming crude becomes a mixture of liquid and vapors in the:

3. The temperatures at the bottom of an atmospheric tower are higher than

4. Which of the following fractions is the heaviest?

GASES, SR GASOLINE, NAPHTHA, AND KEROSINE PROCESSING

Gases and SR Gasoline Fraction

Figure 12. Gases and SR Gasoline Fraction Flow Paths

Many refineries separate ethane and market it to customers. Ethane is a common

Figure 13. Naphtha Fraction Flow Path

Figure 14. Kerosine Fraction Flow Path

Gases, SR Gasoline, Naphtha, and Kerosine ProcessingChallenge Questions

5. The __________ fraction typically goes through a hydrotreater to remove

GAS OILS PROCESSING

Figure 15. Gas Oils Fraction Flow Path

Gas Oils ProcessingChallenge Questions

3. What is the unit in which butane is changed to isobutane called?

4. Olefins and isobutane are combined in a(n) _________ unit.

Figure 16. Residuum Flow Path

Figure 17. Drums in Coking Unit

Residuum ProcessingChallenge Questions

2. Name two common products from a vacuum unit.

3. A hydrocracker uses hydrogen to produce heavier, more valuable products

4. In a typical de-asphalting unit, what is added to the asphalt, making it easier

5. In a coking unit, where does the sponge coke solidify?

MOTOR FUEL BLENDING

Octane Ratings and Gasoline Blending

Refineries also blend special-purpose additives into many gasolines. Figure 18

Figure 18. Gasoline Additive Tanks

Refineries take weather considerations into account when blending gasolines.