INTRODUCTION

IN THIS CHAPTER YOU WILL LEARN TO:

Define and describe basic laws in orbital mechanics
Define and derive the two-body problems equation
Identify types of orbit and its shape
Calculate sidereal time

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 DEFINING SIMPLE 2-BODY PROBLEMS
Shape More like a circle, or stretched out?
Size Mostly nearby, or farther into space?
Orbital Plane Orientation Pitch, Yaw, and Roll
Satellite Location Where are we in this orbit?

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 DEFINING SIMPLE 2-BODY PROBLEMS

Body Closest approach Farthest approach

General Periapsis/Pericenter Apoapsis

Galaxy Perigalacticon Apogalacticon

Star Periastron Apastron

Black hole Perimelasma/Peribothra Apomelasma/Apobothra

Sun Perihelion Aphelion

Mercury Perihermion Apohermion 1- Apoapsis

2- Periapsis
Venus Pericytherion Apocytherion
3- Focus/foci
Earth Perigee Apogee

Moon Perilune Apolune

Mars Periareion Apoaerion

Jupiter Perizene Apozene

Saturn Perikrone Apokrone

Uranus Periuranion Apouranion

Neptune Periposeidion Apoposeidion

Pluto Perihadion Apohadion 3

KEPLERS 1ST LAW

Each planet moves along an elliptical orbit with the sun at one
focus

r

a 1 e2
1 e cos

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 KEPLERS 2ND LAW

The line joining the sun and the planet sweeps out equal areas
in equal times
Day
Day Day
40
50 30
Day
Day
60
20
Day
70
Day
80
Day
d 90
h r2 constant Day
dt Day
10
100
Day Day
110 Day
0
120
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 KEPLERS 3rd LAW

In Aliens language:

The squares of the periods of the planets are

proportional to the cubes of their mean
distances from the sun

2 3
P 1
a 2

In English:

Orbits with the same semi-major

axis will have the same period

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Newtons 1st Law
Every body continues in its state of rest or in
uniform motion in a straight line unless it is
compelled to change that state by forces
acting upon it

Newtons 2nd Law

The rate of change of momentum is
proportional to the force impressed
upon an object and is in the same
direction as that force F ma

Newtons 3rd Law

For every action there is an equal and

opposite reaction

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Universal Law of Gravitation

Any two bodies attract one another with

a force that is proportional to the product GMm
of their masses and inversely Fg 2
proportional to the square of the r
distance between them

An elephant and feather

A simple rule to bear in mind is that all
objects (regardless of their mass)
experience the same acceleration when
in a state of free fall. When the only force
is gravity, the acceleration is the same
value for all objects. On Earth, this
acceleration value is 9.8 m/s/s. This is
such an important value in physics that it
is given a special name - the
acceleration of gravity - and a special
symbol - g.
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Free fall Air resistance
EQUATIONS OF MOTION of TWO BODY PROBLEM

Figure 1: Free-body diagrams.

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EQUATIONS OF MOTION of TWO BODY PROBLEM

Gravitational constant
6.67408 10-11 m3 kg-1 s-2
Gravitational force
Mass for body 1 Mass for body 2
between two mass in
vector

1 2
= 2 Unit vector in the

direction of force

distant

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EQUATIONS OF MOTION of TWO BODY PROBLEM

1 2
=
2

1 2
= 2
= 2 2

Equation of
motion of 2 body
problem
+ 3 =0
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 EQUATIONS OF MOTION of TWO BODY PROBLEM

Non-rotating frame xyz

attached to point mass of m1.
+ 3 =0

= 3

where

and is the gravitational parameter:

(km2/s3)
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 ANGULAR MOMENTUM AND THE ORBIT FORMULAS

Specific relative angular momentum:

Conservation of angular momentum:

Zero angular momentum characterizes rectilinear trajectories

on which m2 moves towards or away from m1 in a straight line.

The angular momentum depends only on the transverse

component of the relative velocity:

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ANGULAR MOMENTUM AND THE ORBIT FORMULAS

The path of m2 around m1 lies in a plane whose normal is defined by

h.

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ANGULAR MOMENTUM AND THE ORBIT FORMULAS

Components of the velocity of m2, viewed above the plane of the orbit.

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ANGULAR MOMENTUM AND THE ORBIT FORMULAS

= 3

= 3 ( )

2 1
r=
1+

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ANGULAR MOMENTUM AND THE ORBIT FORMULAS

The true anomaly is the angle between the eccentricity

vector e and the position vector r.
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ANGULAR MOMENTUM AND THE ORBIT FORMULAS

Transverse component of v:

Radial component of v:

Position and velocity of m2 in

polar coordinates centered at m1,
with the eccentricity vector being
the reference for true anomaly
(polar angle) . g is the flight
path angle.
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THE ENERGY LAW

Conservation of energy (vis-viva equation):

(constant)

v2/2 is the relative kinetic energy per unit mass.

(/r) is the potential energy per unit mass of the body m2

in the gravitational field of m1 .

The total energy per unit mass e is the sum of the kinetic and
potential energies per unit mass.

The energy of a satellite of mass m is obtained by the

formula .

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CONIC SECTION

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 ORBIT PARAMETER

Eccentricity Radius of perigee Semi-major axis

a1 e
c p
e rp a
a 1 e

Orbit parameter Radius of apogee Semi-minor axis

p a 1 e2 ra
p
1 e
a1 e b a 1 e2
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 CIRCULAR ORBIT ( e = 0)
The time T required for one orbit is known as the period.

Period of a circular orbit:

Total specific energy of a circular orbit:

The larger the orbit is, the greater is its energy.

Low earth orbit (LEO) is one whose altitude lies between

about 150 km (100 miles) and about 1000 km (600 miles).

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 CIRCULAR ORBIT ( e = 0)
If a satellite remains always above the same point on the earths equator, then it is
in a circular, geostationary equatorial orbit (GEO).

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CIRCULAR ORBIT ( e = 0)

The view from GEO.

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 CIRCULAR ORBIT ( e = 0)
The sidereal day is the time it takes the earth to complete one rotation relative to
inertial space (the fixed stars).

The synodic/solar day is the time it takes the sun to apparently rotate once
around the earth, from high noon one day to high noon the next.
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 CIRCULAR ORBIT ( e = 0)
While the earth makes one absolute rotation around its axis, it
advances 2/365.26 radians along its solar orbit.

Earths inertial angular velocity:

For a satellite in GEO, wsat = wE:

GEO radius:

GEO speed:

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ELLIPTICAL ORBITS (0<e<1)

Elliptical orbit. m1 is at the focus F. F' is the unoccupied empty focus.

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 ELLIPTICAL ORBITS (0<e<1)
Semi-major axis Velocity Energy

2a rp ra 2 1 v2
v e 0
r a 2 r 2a
Eccentricity
Orbital period Flight path angle
ra rp
e
ra rp a3 h rv cos
T 2

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 ELLIPTICAL ORBITS (0<e<1)
The maximum value of r is reached when = 180. That point is
called the apoapsis.

Semi-major axis, a of the ellipse:

The semi-minor axis b is found in terms of the semimajor axis and

the eccentricity of the ellipse:

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ELLIPTICAL ORBITS (0<e<1)
Specific energy of an elliptical orbit:

The area of an ellipse is found in terms of its semimajor and semiminor

axes by the formula:

Period of an elliptical orbit (Keplers third law):

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ELLIPTICAL ORBITS (0<e<1)

Since all five ellipses have the same major axis, their periods and
energies are identical.
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ELLIPTICAL ORBITS (0<e<1)
A useful formula for calculating the eccentricity of an elliptical orbit:

A rectilinear ellipse is characterized as having zero angular momentum and an

eccentricity of 1.

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PARABOLICS TRAJECTORIES ( e=1)

The speed anywhere on a parabolic path is

Parabolic paths are called escape

trajectories.

Parabolic trajectory around the center of attraction F.

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PARABOLICS TRAJECTORIES ( e=1)

The equation of a parabola in a

Cartesian coordinate system whose
origin serves as the focus is

Parabola with focus at the origin of the

Cartesian coordinate system.
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 HYPERBOLICS TRAJECTORIES ( e>1)

Semiminor axis b =
aiming radius D.

True anomaly of the

asymptote:

Semimajor axis:

Hyperbolic trajectory (on the left)

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HYPERBOLICS TRAJECTORIES ( e>1)

Cartesian coordinate description of the hyperbolic trajectory.

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HYPERBOLICS TRAJECTORIES ( e>1)

The energy equation for a hyperbolic trajectory is

(positive)

Hyperbolic excess speed:

Characteristic energy:

C3 is a measure of the energy required for an interplanetary mission and is also a

measure of the maximum energy a launch vehicle can impart to a spacecraft of a given
mass.
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HYPERBOLICS TRAJECTORIES ( e>1)

Orbits of various eccentricities, having a common focus F and periapsis P.

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HYPERBOLICS TRAJECTORIES ( e>1)

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 Tool Box of Equations Necessary for Solving Two-
dimensional Curvilinear Orbital Problems That do not
Involve Time

All orbits Ellipses (0 e < 1) Hyperbolas (e > 1)

Parabolas (e = 1)

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 AREAL VELOCITY & ORBITAL PERIOD

Areal velocity

Orbital Period

2 3
P 1
a 2

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 TYPES OF ORBIT
Centric classifications

1. Heliocentric orbit: An orbit around the

Sun. In the Solar System, all planets,
comets, and asteroids are in such
orbits, as are many artificial satellites
and pieces of space debris. Moons by
contrast are not in a heliocentric orbit
but rather orbit their parent object.

2. Geocentric orbit: An orbit around the

planet Earth, such as that of the Moon or
of artificial satellites.

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 TYPES OF ORBIT
Altitude classifications
1. Low Earth orbit (LEO):.

An orbit that extends from the Earths surface at sea level to an altitude of
2,000 km (lies within the Earths atmosphere)
This region is close enough for a panoramic view of the Earth but just far
enough that most space craft can stay in orbit without being pulled down
to the surface by Earths gravitational field
Satellites at this altitude have to move at extraordinary speeds to partially
escape the pull of Earths gravity. A satellite in low Earth orbit travels at a
mean velocity of 26,000 to 27,000 km per hour or 17,000 miles per hour

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 TYPES OF ORBIT
Altitude classifications
2. Medium Earth orbit (MEO):

Geocentric orbits ranging in altitude from 2000 km to

just below geosynchronous orbit at 35786 km. Also
known as an intermediate circular orbit. These are
"most commonly at 20200 km, or 20650 km, with an
orbital period of 12 hours.
The most common use for satellites in this region is
for navigation, communication, and geodetic/space
environment science.
Used by the Global Positioning System (GPS). Other
satellites in Medium Earth Orbit include Glonass (with
an altitude of 19,100 km) and Galileo (with an altitude
of 23,222 km ) constellations. Communications
satellites that cover the North and South Pole are also
put in MEO.
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 TYPES OF ORBIT
Altitude classifications
3 Both Geosynchronous orbit (GSO) and Geostationary orbit (GEO)

Orbits around Earth matching Earth's sidereal rotation period. All

geosynchronous and geostationary orbits have a semi-major axis of
42,164 km .
All geostationary orbits are also geosynchronous, but not all
geosynchronous orbits are geostationary. A geostationary orbit stays
exactly above the equator, whereas a geosynchronous orbit may swing
north and south to cover more of the Earth's surface.

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 TYPES OF ORBIT
Altitude classifications
4 High Earth orbit:

Geocentric orbits above the altitude of geosynchronous orbit 35786 km

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 TYPES OF ORBIT
Inclination classifications

Inclined orbit: An orbit whose inclination in reference to the equatorial plane

is not 0.

1. Polar orbit:

These orbits have an inclination near 90 degrees.

Allows the satellites to see virtually every part of the Earth as the Earth
rotates underneath it.
Polar orbits are useful for satellites that carry out mapping and/or
surveillance operations because as the planet rotates the spacecraft has
access to virtually every point on the planet's surface

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TYPES OF ORBIT
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 TYPES OF ORBIT
Inclination classifications

2. Polar Sun-synchronous orbit (SSO):

A nearly polar orbit that passes the equator at the same local solar time on
every pass. Useful for image-taking satellites because shadows will be the
same on every pass.

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 TYPES OF ORBIT
Inclination classifications
Non - Inclined orbit: An orbit whose inclination is equal to zero with respect
to some plane of reference.

Near equatorial orbit: An orbit whose inclination with respect to the

equatorial plane is nearly zero. This orbit allows for rapid revisit times (for a
single orbiting spacecraft) of near equatorial ground sites.

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 TYPES OF ORBIT
Synchronicity classifications
An orbit whose period is a rational multiple of the average rotational period of
the body being orbited and in the same direction of rotation as that body. This
means the track of the satellite, as seen from the central body, will repeat
exactly after a fixed number of orbits. In practice, only 1:1 ratio
(geosynchronous) and 1:2 ratios (semi-synchronous) are common.

Example ; Molniya Orbit, Tundra orbit

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 TYPES OF ORBIT
Molniya Orbit

They are highly eccentric Earth orbits with periods of approximately 12

hours (2 revolutions per day).
The orbital inclination is chosen so the rate of change of perigee is zero,
thus both apogee and perigee can be maintained over fixed latitudes.

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 Tundra Orbit

TYPES OF ORBIT
Tundra orbit is a class of a highly elliptic orbit with inclination of 63.4
and orbital period of one sidereal day (almost 24 hours).
A satellite placed in this orbit spends most of its time over a
designated area of the earth, a phenomenon known as apogee dwell.

Higher apogee than

Molniya. For
dwelling over a
specific upper
latitude (Used only
by Sirius)
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 TYPES OF ORBIT
Satellite constellation
A satellite constellation is a group of artificial satellites working in concert. Such
a constellation can be considered to be a number of satellites with coordinated
ground coverage, operating together under shared control, synchronized so that
they overlap well in coverage, the period in which a satellite or other spacecraft
is visible above the local horizon.

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 SIDEREAL TIME

One solar day is the time from high noon to high noon on a given
meridian
At noon UT (Universal Time) the sun is on the Greenwich meridian
One sidereal day is the time between passages of a meridian through
the vernal equinox ().

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 SIDEREAL TIME

The SUN is at the vernal equinox. It must be the first day of spring!

A view of the
sky above the
eastern horizon
from 0
longitude on the
equator at 9 am
local time, 20
March, 2004.
(Precession
epoch AD 2000).

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 SIDEREAL TIME

Sidereal time q of a site on the

east longitude meridian.
Sidereal time is measured by
the rotation of the earth
relative to the fixed stars.
Local sidereal time of a site
is the time elapsed since the
local meridian of the site
passed through the vernal
equinox.

Relationship among G0, G, L and .

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SIDEREAL TIME

Local sidereal time rely on the notion of the Julian

day.
Julian day number is the number of days since noon
UT on 1 January 4713 BC. So at any other UT, the
JD is given by
1

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SIDEREAL TIME

The current Julian epoch is defined to have been noon on 1

January 2000. This epoch time is denoted as J2000. So the
time T0 between the J0 and J2000 is
T0 = (J0 2,541,545)/36,525 (J2000 = 1 January 2000) 3

The Greenwich sidereal time at 0 hr UT, G0 in degrees is

given by
G0 = 100.4606184 + 36,000.77004T0 + 0.000387933T02 2.583(10-8)T03 4

The Greenwich sidereal time at any other universal time, G

G = G0 + 360.98564724(UT/24) 5

Finally, the local sidereal time, is

= G + L 6

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 SIDEREAL TIME
ALGORITHM 1.1

1. Using the year, month and day, calculate J0 using equation (2)
2. Calculate T0 by means of equation (3)
3. Compute from equation (4). If lies outside the range 0 < <
360, then subtract the multiple of 360 required to place in that range.
4. Calculate using equation (5)
5. Calculate the local sidereal time by means of equation (6), adjusting the
final value so it lies between 0 and 360 by subtracting.

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 SIDEREAL TIME
EXAMPLE 1.1
Use algorithm 1.1 to find the local sidereal time ( in degrees) of Tokyo, Japan
on 3 March 2004 at 4:30:00 UTC. The east longitude of Tokyo is 139.80.

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 SIDEREAL TIME
EXAMPLE 1.1

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 SIDEREAL TIME
EXAMPLE 1.1

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