National University of Science and Technology

Faculty of Industrial Technology

Department of Chemical Engineering

MASS TRANSFER PROCESSES 1B TCE 22

2203

Handout Four

HUMIDIFICATION,
HUMIDIFICATION, COOLING AND
DRYING
4.0 Introduction

Humidification and dehumidification involve the transfer of material between a pure liquid
phase and a fixed gas that is insoluble in the liquid. The matter transferred between the
phases in such cases is the substance constituting the liquid phase, which either vaporises
or condenses. Humidification is a general term and includes humidification,
dehumidification and cooling of gases as well as cooling of liquids. Although humidification
and dehumidification operations may occur between any gas and liquid in which the gas is
insoluble, an air-water system is so frequently encountered in practice that the terms
humidification and air-water contact have become almost synonymous and unless
otherwise mentioned, humidification operations mean air-water contact. As in all mass
transfer problems, it is necessary to have a complete undersatnding of the operation to be
familiar with equilibrium characteristics of the systems. Since the mass transfer in these
cases will invariably be accompanied by a simultaneous transfer of heat, some
consideration must also be given to the enthalpy characteristics of the systems.

The air-water contact is practiced in four major areas as follows:

Humidification: It is used for producing air of specific moisture content as required
for some processes like drying of certain solids under controlled conditions.
Dehumidification: This is commonly used in air conditioning. Moist warm air is
dehumidified by contacting with water at a lower temperature.
Water cooling: Warm water from coolers and condensers is cooled by air-water
contact before reuse. Water cooling is the most widely used process involving air-
water contact.
Gas cooling: A hot air stream can be cooled by bringing it in contact with water.

If a gas is brought into contact with a liquid in which it is insoluble, the liquid will continue
to evaporate till the partial pressure of the vaporised liquid in the vapour-gas mixture
reaches its vapour pressure at the prevailing temperature. If the gas is totally insoluble in
the liquid, its partial pressure in the vapour-gas mixture depends only on the liquid and the
temperature, being independent of the nature of the gas and the total pressure except at
very high pressure. However, the absolute humidity depends on the nature of the liquid
and the molal absolute humidity depends on the total pressure. When the partial pressure
of the vapour in the vapour-gas mixture is equal to the vapour pressure of the liquid at that
temperature, the vapour-gas mixture contains maximum possible vapour at that
temperature and is said to be saturated. If, on the other hand, the partial pressure of the
vapour in the vapour-gas mixture is less than the equilibrium vapour pressure of the liquid
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at that temperature, the mixture is said to be unsaturated and there is scope for further
vaporisation. All humidification, dehumidification and allied operations involve
simultaneous heat and mass transfer.This is somewhat simpler than gas absorption or
stripping in the sense that when the liquid contains only one component, there is no
concentration gradient and no resistance to transfer in the liquid phase. In humidification
and dehumidification, both heat and mass transfer are important and influence one
another such that temperature and concentration change simultaneously.

The Chapter includes:

1. Definitions; absolute and relative humidity; dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures;
percentage absolute humidity; humid volume, humid heat; enthalpy;
2. Adiabatic saturation curves;
3. The psychrometric chart
4. Cooling towers,
5. Cooing tower design and calculation of the height of packing;
6. Drying, Calculation of the time of drying.

Why is humidity important?

Humidity measurement is important because:

It affects many properties of air, and of materials in contact with air. Water vapour is a key
agent in both weather and climate, and it is an important atmospheric greenhouse gas.
(Without water vapour we would be 31 C colder on Earth).

A huge variety of manufacturing, storage and testing processes are humidity-critical.

Humidity measurements are used to prevent condensation, corrosion, mould, warping or
other spoilage - highly relevant for foods, pharmaceuticals, chemicals, fuels, wood, paper,
and many other products.

Air-conditioning systems in buildings often control humidity, and significant energy may go
into cooling the air to remove water vapour - Humidity measurements contribute both to
achieving correct environmental conditions and to minimising the energy cost of this.

4.1 Definitions
1. Absolute Humidity H: the mass of vapor carried by a vapor-free gas. Humidity
depends only on the partial pressure of the vapor in the mixture when the total
pressure is constant. The humidity;
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 M A pA
H= .1
M B ( pt pa )

Where pA is the partial pressure of the vapor, MA and MB are the molecular weights of the
vapor and gas respectively.

If the quantities are expressed in moles, the ratio is the molal Absolute humidity HA.
Under conditions where the gas law applies,

y A pA pA
HA = = = ..2
yB pB pt p A

The capacity of a gas (or a space) to hold water depends on its temperature. The higher the
temperature, the more water vapour it can contain.

normal room temperature - air typically holds about 1 % of water vapour

hot - atmosphere has greater capacity to hold water vapour
cold - atmosphere has less capacity to hold water vapour

When the air holds the maximum amount of water vapour at a particular temperature it is
said to be saturated.

In air this can happen if:

Capacity is reduced by a lowered temperature and amount of water vapour stays

consistent
More water vapour is added.

2. Relative humidity: the ratio of the partial pressure of the vapor to the vapor pressure
of the liquid at the gas temperature.

pA
H R =100 ,
3
pA

It is usually expressed on a percentage basis such that 100% relative humidity means
saturated gas and 0% relative humidity means vapor-free gas.

What is relative humidity?

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 a measure of degree of saturation with water vapour
a ratio that compares the amount of water vapour in the air with the amount of
water vapour that would be present in the air at saturation at a particular
temperature
most commonly used measure of humidity, for example in weather forecasts
it is usually expressed as a percentage with the symbol '%rh'

Relevance of relative humidity

if relative humidity and temperature are high the air feels damp
a condition of 100 %rh means the air is totally saturated with water vapour and will
feel much hotter than the actual temperature
relative humidity is strongly governed by temperature
interaction of water vapour with materials is often in proportion to relative
humidity
lowering relative humidity increases evaporation and drying

Imagine a parcel of air at known temperature and relative humidity, at 20C and 50 %rh. If
we vary only temperature, without adding or removing water (or anything else), the
relative humidity changes. The degree of saturation is increased or decreased simply by
changing temperature. Relative humidity falls when temperature rises (and rises when
temperature falls).

Percentage humidity: this is the ratio of the actual humidity to the saturation humidity HS
at the gas temperature on a percentage basis.

Humid heat: heat energy necessary to increase the temperature of 1g of gas plus whatever
vapor it may contain by 1degree.

cS = c pB + c pA H 4

Where cpA and cpB are the specific heats of gas and vapor respectively.

Humid volume vH: is the total volume of a unit mass of vapor-free gas plus whatever vapor
it may contain at 1atm and gas temperature. From the gas laws

0.0224T 1 H
vH = + .5
273 M
B M A

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Where vH is in cubic metres per gram. For vapor-free gas, H=0 and vH is the specific volume
of fixed gas. For a saturated gas H=HS and vH is the saturated volume.

Wet bulb temperature: This is the air temperature measured by a mercury-in-glass

thermometer which has the mercury bulb wetted by gauze that is kept moist by a reservoir
of water. When exposed to the environment the moisture evaporates from the wetted
gauze, which gives a lower reading on the thermometer. This gives an indication of how
dry or how moist the air is, since in dry air the water will evaporate quickly from the
gauze, which depresses the thermometer reading.

Dry bulb temperature: the temperature of the mixture as would be found by just
immersing a thermometer in the mixture.

Dew point: the temperature to which the gas-vapor mixture must be cooled at constant
humidity to become saturated.

Dew point is a useful measure for two reasons:

the dew point tells us what temperature to keep a gas, to prevent condensation
dew point is an absolute measure of the gas humidity (at any temperature) and
relates directly to the amount of water vapour present (partial pressure of water
vapour)

Saturated gas: is gas in which the vapor is in equilibrium with the liquid at the gas
temperature. The partial pressure of the vapor in a saturated gas equals the vapor pressure
of the liquid at the gas temperature.

Adiabatic saturation temperature: the temperature to which a gas must be humidified

and cooled adiabatically to become saturated. If water is sprayed into a gas stream in an
insulated pipe or spray chamber to bring the gas to saturation, the gas is cooled and
humidified. The exit temperature of the gas is the adiabatic saturation temperature.

For any vapour-gas mixture, there is a temperature known as adiabatic saturation

temperature (Tas) such that if contacted adiabatically with a liquid at this temperature, the
gas will be humidified and cooled since the latent heat of vaporisation required by the
liquid will have to be supplied by the gas. If sufficient time is allowed the gas will be
saturated, otherwise its temperature and humidity will lie somewhere on the adiabatic
saturation curve of the initial gas.

Total enthalpy: the enthalpy of a unit mass of gas plus whatever vapor it may contain.
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4.2 HUMIDITY CHART (PSCHROMETRIC CHART)
A convenient diagram showing the properties of a mixture of a permanent gas and a
condensable vapor is the humidity chart. A chart for air and water at atmospheric pressure
is called a psychrometric chart. Any point on the chart represents a mixture of air and
water. The curve marked 100% is the saturation curve. It gives the humidity of saturated
air against temperature.

The information that can be obtained from a Psychrometric Chart is as follows:

1. Dry bulb temperature

2. Wet bulb temperature
3. Moisture content
4. Percentage saturation
5. Specific enthalpy
6. Specific volume.

If any two properties of air are known then the others can be found from the psychrometric
chart.

Example 1

Find the moisture content of air at 25oC dry-bulb temperature and 25oC wet-bulb
temperature.

Solution

Referring to the chart, a vertical line is drawn upwards from 25oC dry-bulb temperature
until it intersects at 25oC wet-bulb temperature. This intersection point happens to be on
the 100% saturation line. The intersection point is highlighted and a horizontal line is
drawn to the right to find the corresponding moisture content.

The moisture content is therefore 0.020 kg/kg dry air.

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Example 2

Find the specific volume and wet-bulb temperature of air at 20oC dry-bulb temperature and
50% saturation.

Solution

Referring to the chart below, a vertical line is drawn upwards from 20oC dry-bulb
temperature until it intersects with the 50% saturation curve.

The intersection point is sometimes referred to as the state point.

The specific volume is found to be 0.84 m3/kg and the wet-bulb temperature is 14oC

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Example 3

Find the specific volume, percentage saturation and moisture content of air at 15oC dry-
bulb temperature and 10oC wet-bulb temperature.

Referring to the chart below, a vertical line is drawn upwards from 15oC dry-bulb
temperature until it intersects with the 10oC wet-bulb temperature line.

This intersection is the state point.

The specific volume is found to be 0.823 m3/kg, the percentage saturation 52% and the
moisture content 0.0054 kg/kg d.a.

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Example 4

Find the specific volume, wet-bulb temperature, moisture content and specific enthalpy of
air at 35oC dry-bulb temperature and 30% saturation.

Referring to the chart below, a vertical line is drawn upwards from 35oC dry-bulb
temperature until it intersects with the 30% saturation curve.

This intersection is the state point.

The specific volume is found to be 0.883 m3/kg, the wet-bulb temperature is 22oC, the
moisture content 0.011kg/kg d.a. and the specific enthalpy 65 kJ/kg.

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Example5

An air-water vapor mixture has a dry bulb temperature of 350C and an absolute humidity
of 0.025kg water/kg dry air at 1std atm. Find

i) Percentage humidity
ii) Adiabatic Saturation temperature
iii) Saturation humidity at 350C.
iv) Molal absolute humidity
v) Partial pressure of water vapor in the sample
vi) Dew point
vii) Humid volume
viii) Humid heat
ix) Enthalpy

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4.3 HUMIDIFICATION
HUMIDIFICATION APPLICATIONS
Adding humidity and being able to precisely control it is vital to a wide variety of
industrial applications. Proper humidity levels can be crucial to the rate of production,
quality of the product, avoiding damaging static buildup, worker safety and comfort, and
more. Every application has its specialized issues.

Cold Stores

The control of humidity levels at extreme low temperatures presents unique challenges.
Cold stores generally hold large quantities of vegetables and perishable goods, which can
deteriorate rapidly in low humidity. The chillers and coolers in these applications strip
the air of any water, reducing humidity. Fork lift and personnel traffic can also quickly
change the humidity level. This water deficit needs to be continually replaced to maintain
proper humidity levels.

Paper & Textiles

In the paper industry, a low humidity level can increase the connectivity of static electricity,
causing paper jams, breaks, and even fires in the process. In the textile industry, low
humidity is often the cause of costly stoppages, producing static electricity that causes the
yarn in spinning and weaving machines to become more brittle and break easily.

Woodworking + Barrel Storage

Woodworking facilities benefit greatly from a controlled humidity. In fact, most wood
problems in production, and in the product, are moisture related. Sunken joints, uneven
surfaces, splits, cupping and curving, cracked or checked finishes can result from improper
moisture content. Problems can arise in gluing, laminating and veneering. Seasonal changes
in relative humidity can bring swelling, warping and shrinkage of wood.

Monitoring and maintaining the right RH and MC (relative humidity of the shop and
moisture content of the wood) can minimize seasonal fluctuations and retain the integrity
of the wood.

Barrel Storage - When wine or alcohol spirits are placed in wooden barrels, the storage
humidity has a great effect on the leakage of vapor from the barrel, often called the Angels
Share. Wine producers can suffer up to 18% loss from each barrel, which increases the
alcohol content beyond tolerable levels.

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Theater + Performing Arts

Dry, stale air in a theater is uncomfortable for everyone. In live performance, humidity in
the comfort zone can be crucial to prevent dryness of the mouth and other vocal
annoyances. In addition to overall ambient comfort, a theater fog system helps to remove
the fine dust in the air that can be bothersome to actors and singers alike. Integrating just
the right amount of moisture to the air is an exacting process. Nozzles must remain
invisible, and there is no room for residual water droplets.

Manufacturing

There are as many different manufacturing processes as there are products being made
and every one of them benefits from having the ideal production environment. It could be
high-tech manufacturer reducing static electricity, a medical manufacturer controlling dust,
a woodworking operation maintaining stable humidity to reduce distortion, or myriad
other process requirements.

Air conditioning

One of the major applications of the Psychrometric Chart is in air conditioning, and we find
that most humans feel comfortable when the temperature is between 22C and 27C, and
the relative humidity HR between 40% and 60%. This defines the "comfort zone" which can
be portrayed on the Psychrometric Chart as shown below. Thus with the aid of the chart we
either heat or cool, add moisture or dehumidify as required in order to bring the air into
the comfort zone.

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Example 6

Air at 35C and 60% relative humidity is to be conditioned by cooling and heating so as to
bring the air to within the "comfort zone". Using the Psychrometric Chart neatly plot the
required air conditioning process and estimate
(a) the amount of moisture removed
(b) the heat removed
(c) the amount of heat added

Example 7

It is desired to maintain 75% relative humidity in the packaging unit of a plant. For this
purpose, fresh air at 42C dry-bulb and 25C wet-bulb temperatures is introduced into a
spray chamber where the RH is raised to 95%. This air is then heated by steam coils to
attain 75% RH. Calculate
(a) amount of moisture added to the air in the spray chamber

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(b) dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures of the exit air
(c) heating load on steam coil per kg dry air and
(d) steam consumption in kg/hr if the fresh air rate is 2000 m3/hr and steam is available at
2.0 kgf/cm2 g pressure

4.4 Adiabatic saturation curves

Gs mass dry gas/(area/time) Gs mass dry gas/(area/time)

Y1 abs humidity Y2 abs humidity
H1 enthalpy H2 enthalpy
TG1 dry bulb temp TG2 dry bulb temp

L mass Liquid/(area/time)
Y2 abs humidity
H2 enthalpy
TG2 dry bulb temp

Consider the operation shown above. The entering gas is contacted with liquid, for example
by spraying, and as a result of diffusion and heat transfer between the gas and the liquid,
the gas leaves at conditions of humidity and temperature different from those at the
entrance. The operation is adiabatic in as much as no heat is gained or lost to the
surroundings. A mass balance for A gives

L = Gs (Y2 Y1 ) 6

An Enthalpy balance is

LH L + Gs H1 = Gs H 2 7

It therefore means that

H 1 + H L (Y2 Y1 ) = H 2 8

The enthalpy of the mixture per unit mass of dry gas is given by

H = C B (TG T0 ) + Y [C A (TG T0 ) + 0 ] = C S (T T0 ) + Y0 9

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Where Y is the absolute humidity at dry bulb temperature TG. T0 is the reference
temperature. And 0 is the latent heat of vaporization at the reference temperature.

Thus

C B (TG1 T0 ) + Y10 + Y1C A (TG T0 ) + (Y2 Y1 )C A, L (TL T0 ) = C B (TG 2 T0 ) + Y2 0 + Y2 C A (TG T0 )

..10

In the special case where the leaving gas-vapor mixture is saturated, and therefore at
conditions Tas, Yas, Has and the liquid enters at Tas, the gas is humidified by evaporation of
liquid and cooled. Equation 10 then becomes

C B (TG1 T0 ) + Y1C A (TG1 T0 ) + Y10 + (Yas Y1 )C A, L (Tas T0 ) = C B (Tas T0 ) + Yas C A (Tas T0 ) + Yas 0
11

By subtracting Y1C ATas from both sides and simplifying,

(C B + Y1C A )(TG1 Tas ) = C S 1 (TG1 T0 ) = (Yas Y1 )[C A (Tas T0 ) + 0 C A, L (Tas T0 )]

and

C S1 (TG1 Tas ) = as (Yas Y1 ) ...12

or

(TG1 Tas ) = as (Yas Y1 ) ....13

C S1

Where

as = C A (Tas T0 ) + 0 C A, L (Tas T0 ) ...14

Equation 13 is an equation of a curve on the psychrometric chart, the adiabatic saturation

curve, which passes through the points (Yas , Tas ) on the 100% saturation curve
and (Y1 , TG1 ) . Since the humid heat, CS1 is a function of the humidity, Y1, the curve is not a
straight line but concave upwards. For any vapor gas mixture, there is an adiabatic
saturation, Tas, such that if contacted with liquid at Tas, the gas will become humidified and
cooled. If sufficient contact time is available, the gas will become saturated at (Yas , Tas ) ,

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otherwise it will leave unsaturated at (Y2 , T2 ) , appoint on the adiabatic saturation curve.
Equation 12 indicates that the sensible heat given up by the gas in cooling equals the latent
heat required to evaporate the added vapor.

Example 7

Air at 45C and absolute humidity, Y=0.0075kg water/dry kg air at 1 std atm is contacted
with water at the adiabatic saturation temperature and is thereby humidified and cooled to
90% saturation. What are the final temperature and humidity of the air?

4.5 HUMIDIFICATION/DEHUMIDIFICATION
OPERATIONS
Direct contact of a gas with a pure liquid may have any of several purposes:

1. Adiabatic operations

a) Cooling a liquid.

The cooling occurs by transfer of sensible heat and also by evaporation. The
principal application is cooling of water by contact with atmospheric air (water
cooling)

b) Cooling a hot gas

Direct contact provides a non-fouling heat exchanger which is very effective,

providing the presence of some of the vapor of the liquid is not objectionable.

c) Humidifying a gas.

This can be used for controlling the moisture content of air for drying, for
example.

d) Dehumidifying a gas.

Contact of warm vapor-gas mixtures with cold liquid results in condensation of

the vapor. There are applications in air conditioning, recovery of solvent vapors
from gases used in drying and the like.

2. Nonadiabatic operation
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 a) Evaporative cooling

A liquid or gas inside a pipe is cooled by water flowing in a film about the outside,
the latter in turn being cooled by direct contact with air.

b) Dehumidifying a gas

A gas-vapor mixture is brought into contact with refrigerated pipes and the vapor
condenses upon the pipes.

4.6 COOLING TOWERS

This is without question, the most important of the himidification operations. Cooling
towers are commonly used to remove excess heat that is generated in places such as power
stations, chemical plants and even domestically in air conditioning units. This equipment
has recently developed into an important part of many chemical plants. They represent a
relatively inexpensive and dependable means of removing low-grade heat from cooling
water.

Cooling towers might be classified into several types based on the air draft and based on
the flow pattern. Each type of cooling tower has its own advantages and disadvantages;
thus the proper selection is needed based on the system operation. Besides, the material
selection of cooling tower is also important. Cooling towers tend to be corrosive since it
always has direct contact with the water. Proper material selection or additional water
treatment is then needed to keep the cooling tower safe. Some theories are needed to be
understood before an engineer starts sizing a cooling tower. Cooling tower process is
generally related with vapor pressure of water and humidity. Cooling tower sizing can
simply be done by graphical methods.

Cooling towers make use of evaporation whereby some of the water is evaporated into a
moving air stream and subsequently discharged into the atmosphere. As a result, the
remainder of the water is cooled down significantly.

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Schematic diagram of a cooling water system

There are several important factors that govern the operation of cooling tower:

The dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures of the air

The temperature of warm water
The efficiency of contact between air and water in terms of the volumetric mass
transfer coefficient and the contact time between the air and the water
The uniformity of distribution of the phases within the tower
The air pressure drop
The desired temperature of the cooled water

Air might enter the tower driven by a density gradient (natural draft), might be pushed into
the tower (forced draft) at the base or drawn into the tower (induced draft) assisted by a
fan. Several types of cooling towers have been designed on the basis of the above factors
and operating strategies.

The cooling tower might be classified into several types, but they are broadly categorized
by following considerations:

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1. Whether there is direct or indirect contact

2. The mechanism used to provide the required airflow

3. The relative flow paths of air and water

4. The primary materials of construction

5. The type of heat transfer media applied

6. The towers physical shape

4.6.1 Classification by build

Package Type

This type of cooling towers is preassembled and can be simply transported on trucks as
they are compact machines. The capacity of package type towers are limited and for that
reason, they are usually preferred by facilities with low heat rejection requirements such as
food processing plants, textile plants, buildings like hospitals, hotels, malls, chemical
processing plants, automotive factories etc. Due to the intensive use in domestic areas,
sound level control is a relatively more important issue for package type cooling towers.

Field Erected Type

Field erected type cooling towers are usually preferred for power plants, steel processing
plants, petroleum refineries, and petrochemical plants. These towers are larger in size
compared to the package type cooling towers.

4.6.2 Classification based on heat transfer method

Wet Cooling Tower

This type of cooling tower operates based on evaporation principle. The working fluid and
the evaporated fluid (usually water) are one and the same. In a wet cooling tower, the
warm water can be cooled to a temperature lower than the ambient air dry-bulb
temperature, if the air is relatively dry.

Dry Cooling Tower

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This tower operates by heat transfer through a surface that separates the working fluid
from ambient air, such as in a tube to air heat exchanger, utilizing convective heat transfer.
Dry cooling tower does not use evaporation.

Fluid Cooler

This tower passes the working fluid through a tube bundle, upon which clean water is
sprayed and a fan-induced draft applied. The resulting heat transfer performance is much
closer to that of a wet cooling tower, with the advantage provided by a dry cooler of
protecting the working fluid from environmental exposure and contamination.

4.6.3 Classification based on air draft

Atmospheric Tower

An atmospheric tower consists of a big rectangular chamber with two opposite louvered
walls. The tower is packed with a suitable tower fill. Atmospheric air enters the tower
through the louvers driven by its own velocity. An atmospheric tower is cheap but
inefficient. Its performance largely depends upon the direction and velocity of wind.

Natural Draft Tower

The natural draft or hyperbolic cooling tower makes use of the difference in temperature
between the ambient air and the hotter air inside the tower. As hot air moves upwards
through the tower (because hot air rises), fresh cool air is drawn into the tower through an
air inlet at the bottom. A natural draft tower is so called because natural flow of air occurs
through the tower.

Two factors are responsible for creating the natural draft:

a rise in temperature and humidity of air in the column reduces its density, and
the wind velocity at the tower bottom.

Due to the layout of the tower, no fan is required and there is almost no circulation of hot
air that could affect the performance. But in some cases, a few fans are installed at the
bottom to enhance the air flow rate. This type of tower is called fan-assisted natural draft
tower.

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Fan assisted natural draft cooling tower

The hyperbolic shape is made because of the following reasons:

more packing can be fitted in the bigger area at the bottom of the shell;
the entering air gets smoothly directed towards the centre because of the shape of
the wall, producing a strong upward draft;
greater structural strength and stability of the shell is provided by this shape.

The pressure drop across the tower is low and the air velocity above the packing may vary
from 1-1.5 m/s. The concrete tower is supported on a set of reinforced concrete columns.
Concrete is used for the tower shell with a height of up to 200 m. These cooling towers are
mostly only for large heat duties because large concrete structures are expensive.

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Mechanical Draft Cooling Tower

Because of their huge shape, construction difficulties and cost, natural draft towers have
been replaced by mechanical draft towers in many installations. Mechanical draft towers
have large fans to force or draw air through circulated water. The water falls downwards
over fill surfaces, which helps increase the contact time between the water and the air.
Cooling rates of mechanical draft towers depend upon various parameters; such as fan
diameter and speed of operation, fills for system resistance, etc.

There are two different classes of mechanical draft cooling towers:

a. Forced draft

It has one or more fans located at the tower bottom to push air into the tower. During
operation, the fan forces air at a low velocity horizontally through the packing and then
vertically against the downward flow of the water that occurs on either side of the fan. The
drift eliminators located at the top of the tower remove water entrained in the air.
Vibration and noise are minimal since the rotating equipment is built on a solid foundation.
The fans handle mostly dry air, greatly reducing erosion and water condensation problems.

b. Induced draft

A mechanical draft tower with a fan at the discharge which pulls air through tower. The fan
induces hot moist air out the discharge. This produces low entering and high exiting air
velocities, reducing the possibility of recirculation in which discharged air flows back into
the air intake.

Classification based on air flow pattern

Crossflow

Crossflow is a design in which the air flow is directed perpendicular to the water flow. Air
flow enters one or more vertical faces of the cooling tower to meet the fill material. Water
flows (perpendicular to the air) through the fill by gravity. The air continues through the fill
and thus past the water flow into an open plenum area. A distribution or hot water basin
consisting of a deep pan with holes or nozzles in the bottom is utilized in a crossflow tower.
Gravity distributes the water through the nozzles uniformly across the fill material.

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Page 24
Counterflow

In a counterflow design the air flow is directly opposite to the water. Air flow first enters an
open area beneath the fill media and is then drawn up vertically. The water is sprayed
through pressurized nozzles and flows downward through the fill, opposite to the air flow.

Because of their more vertically oriented design, counterflow cooling towers typically have
a smaller footprint than crossflow cooling towers. After all, their heat exchange/fill media
area runs across the entire width of the cooling tower, while crossflow cooling towers have
an open space in the center through which the air exits out. For a crossflow cooling tower
this open space can lead to a more maintenance-friendly design. On the other hand,
counterflow cooling towers can require a higher head pump due to the spray nozzles,
which typically increase the head requirement on the condenser pump by 3 to 6 psig.
Therefore it is critically important that engineers complete a detailed pump head loss
calculation on all of the condenser water/cooling tower piping.

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Page 26
Page 27
GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATION

Most cooling systems are very vulnerable to corrosion. They contain a wide variety of
metals and circulate warm water at relatively high linear velocities. Both of these factors
accelerate the corrosion process. Deposits in the system caused by silt, dirt, debris, scale
and bacteria, along with various gases, solids and other matter dissolved in the water all
serve to compound the problem. Even a slight change in the cooling water pH level can
cause a rapid increase in corrosion. Open recirculating systems are particularly corrosive
because of their oxygen-enriched environment.

The structural components of cooling tower such as: cold water basin, framework, water
distribution system, fan deck, fan cylinders, mechanical equipment supports, fill, drift
eliminators, casing, and louvers.

1. Cold water basin

The cold water basin has two fundamentally important functions: collecting the cold water
following its transit of the tower, and acting as the towers primary foundation.

2. Tower framework

The most commonly used materials for the framework of field-erected towers are
fiberglass, wood, and concrete, with steel utilized infrequently to conform to a local
building code, or to satisfy a specific preference.

3. Water distribution system

Lines might be buried to minimize problem of thrust loading, thermal expansion and
freezing; or elevated to minimize cost of installation and repair. In either case, the risers to
the tower inlet must be externally supported, independent of the tower structure and
piping.

4. Fan deck

The fan deck is considered a part of the tower structure, acting as a diaphragm for
transmitting dead and live loads to the tower framing. It also provides a platform for the
support of the fan cylinders, as well as an accessway to the mechanical equipment and
water distribution system. Fan deck materials are customarily compatible with the tower
framework.

Page 28
5. Fan cylinder

Fan cylinder directly affects the proper flow of air through the tower. Its efficiencies can be
severely reduced by a poorly designed fan cylinder, or significantly enhanced by a well-
designed one.

6. Mechanical equipment supports

Customary material for the unitized supports is carbon steel, hot-dip galvanized after
fabrication, with stainless steel construction available at significant additional cost.

7. Fill (heat transfer surface)

Fill (heat transfer surface) is able to promote both the maximum contact surface and the
maximum contact time between air and water determines the efficiency of the tower. The
two basic fill classifications are splash type and film type. Splash type fill breaks up the
water, and interrupts its vertical progress, by causing it to cascade through successive
offset levels of parallel splash bars. It is characterized by reduced air pressure losses, and is
not conducive to logging. However, it is very sensitive to inadequate support. Film type fill
causes the water to spread into a thin film, flowing over large vertical areas, to promote
maximum exposure to the air flow. It has capability to provide more effective cooling
capacity within the same amount of space, but is extremely sensitive to poor water
distribution.

8. Drift eliminator

Drift eliminators remove entrained water from the discharge air by causing it to make
sudden changes in direction. The resulting centrifugal force separates the drops of water
from air, depositing them on the eliminator surface, from which they flow back into the
tower. Eliminator are normally classified by the number of directional changes or passes,
with an increase in the number of passes usually accompanied by an increase in pressure
drop.

9. Casing

A cooling tower casing acts to contain water within the tower, provide an air plenum for
the fan, and transmit wind loads to the tower framework. It must have diaphragm strength,
be watertight and corrosion resistant, have fire retardant qualities, and also resist
weathering.

Page 29
10.Louvers

Every well-designed crossflow tower is equipped with inlet louvers, whereas counterflow
towers are only occasionally required to have louvers. Their purpose is to retain circulating
water within the confines of the tower, as well as to equalize air flow into the fill.

Cooling Tower Design Consideration

The required tower size will be a function of:

1. Cooling range-The difference in temperature between the hot water entering the tower
and the cold water leaving the tower is the cooling range.

2. Approach to wet bulb temperature-The difference between the temperature of the cold
water leaving the tower and the wet- bulb temperature of the air is known as the approach.
Establishment of the approach fixes the operating temperature of the tower and is a most
important parameter in determining both tower size and cost.

3. Mass flow rate of water

4. Wet bulb temperature

5. Air velocity through tower or individual tower cell

6. Tower height

Other design characteristics to consider are fan horsepower, pump horsepower, make-up
water source, fogging abatement, and drift eliminator.

Operation Considerations

1. Water make-up

Water losses include evaporation, drift (water entrained in discharge vapor), and
blowdown (water released to discard solids). Drift losses are estimated to be between 0.1
and 0.2% of water supply.

2. Cold weather operation

Page 30
Even during cold weather months, the plant engineer should maintain the design water
flow rate and heat load in each cell of the cooling tower. If less water is needed due to
temperature changes (i.e. the water is colder), one or more cells should be turned off to
maintain the design flow in the other cells. The water in the base of the tower should be
maintained between 60 and 70oF by adjusting air volume if necessary. Usual practice is to
run the fans at half speed or turn them off during colder months to maintain this
temperature range.

Determination of cooling tower height

Consider a tower of unit cross sectional area shown below.

A balance for substance A over the lower part of the tower is

L L1 = Gs (Y Y1 ) 15

dL = G s dY 16

Page 31
and enthalpy balance is:

LH L + G S H 1 = L1 H 1 + G s H 15

Interfacial Area: ds = a . dZ

where a is the specific interfacial area per unit volume of packed bed and dZ is differential
height being equal to volume per unit cross section.

Huge quantity of water is required for cooling purposes in chemical, metallurgical and
allied industries. The largest users of cooling water are the power plants which use water
for condensing huge quantity of low pressure steam from turbines. Since the water used for
cooling purposes involves pumping and treatment costs, nobody can afford to throw away
the water after single use. Moreover, disposal of hot water into water resources such as
rivers, lakes, etc. often causes serious problems by leading to thermal imbalance and
adversely affecting aquatic life. In order to conserve water, the warm water coming out
from coolers and condensers is cooled and reused. Cooling of water is done by direct
contact with unsaturated air in cooling towers. Warm water is fed at the top of the cooling
tower and air is drawn at the bottom or through the side walls. This makes water cooling a
very widely used gas-liquid operation. Since enthalpy difference is a significant driving
force in this case, design equations are developed on the basis of enthalpy difference.

Water cooling with air is without question, the most important of the humidification
operations. Water warmed by passage through heat exchangers, condensers and the like, is
cooled by contact with atmospheric air for reuse. The latent heat of water is so large that
only a small amount of evaporation produces large cooling effects. Since the rate of mass
transfer is usually small, the temperature level is generally fairly low.

The mass transfer rates are

LC A, L dTL = G S C S dTG + G S 0 G s dH 16

Integrating on the assumption that L is essentially constant,

LC A, L (TL 2 TL1 ) = G s (H 2 H 1 ) 17

This enthalpy balance can represented graphically by plotting the gas enthalpy H against TL
as below:

Page 32
The line ON represents equation 17 and it passes through the points representing the
LC A, L
terminal conditions for the two fluids. The gradient of the line is . The equilibrium
GS
curve is plotted for conditions of the gas at the gas-liquid interface, i.e. the enthalpy of
saturated gas at each temperature.

If the mass transfer rate is small as is usually the case

G s dY = k y a (Yi Y )dZ 18

And

Page 33
G s dY = k y a (Y1 Y )dZ 19

When the sensible heat of the transferred vapor is ignored

LC A, L dTL = hL a (TL Ti )dZ 20

Thus

G s dH = hG a (Ti TG )dZ + 0 k y a (Y1 Y )dZ 21

hG a
If then
CS k y a

G s dH = k y a[(C S rTi + 0Yi ) (C S rTG + 0Y )]dZ ..22

For the special case r=1, the terms in brackets are enthalpies. And

G s dH = k y a (H i H )dZ ....23

And

G s dH = k y a (H i H )dZ = hL a (TL Ti )dZ .....24

At A position U in the cooling tower, represented as a point on the operating line, point T
represents the interface conditions and the distance TR represents the enthalpy driving
force, Hi-H within the gas phase. By making constructions like triangle RTU, at several
points along the operating line, corresponding Hi and H values can be obtained. Assuming
that kya is a constant

..25

The integral can be evauated graphically and Z computed. The enthalpy integral is
sometimes referred to as the number of gas enthalpy-transfer units, NtG. And

Page 34
 ....26

Consequently

...27

Where HtG is the height of a gas-enthalpy transfer unit.

GS
H tG =
kya

An overall driving force representing the enthalpy difference for the bulk phases but
expressed in terms of H can be used such as the vertical distance SU. This requires a
corresponding overall coefficient and leads to overall numbers and heights of transfer
units.

Replacing the enthalpy driving force within the gas phase by an overall driving force (H*-H)
representing the enthalpy difference for the bulk phases and using an overall coefficient
Kya, Eq. 23 can be expressed as

( )
G s dH = K y a H * H dZ ....28

From which

H2 Z
dH K ya K y aZ
H H * H =
GS
0
dZ =
G S
..29
1

or

H
G S 2 dH
K y a H1 H * H
Z = 30

Z = H tOG N tOG

Where

Page 35
 30

Since GSdH = LCA,LdTL equation 30 can also be written as

T
L L 2 dTL
K y a TL1 H * H
Z = 31

The use of overall driving force is justified only if the equilibrium curve representing
enthalpy of saturated gas as a function of liquid temperature is straight, at least over the
range of enthalpies involved. This may, however, be used as an approximation for slightly
curved equilibrium relation without serious error.

The value of NtOG may be estimated from Eq. 30 through graphical integration by plotting
[1/(H*- H)] as ordinate against TL as abscissa and finding out the area under the curve
between the limits TL1 and TL2. The operating line will lie below the equilibrium curve since
the enthalpy of entering air must be less than the saturation enthalpy H* for air at
temperature TL1. Enthalpy for an air-water system being a function of wet-bulb
temperature only, the wet-bulb temperature of the entering air must be below the liquid
temperature TL1, but the dry-bulb temperature need not be so. That is why it is possible to
cool water to a temperature below the dry-bulb temperature of the entering air. The
difference between the temperature of the exit liquid and the wet-bulb temperature of the
entering air, (TL1 - TW1), is called the wet-bulb temperature approach and is a measure of
the driving force available at the lower end of the cooling tower. This is usually kept
between 2.5 to 5 C in the design of cooling towers.

As in case of gas absorption, the highest slope of the operating line for which it touches the
equilibrium curve at the point (TL1, H1*) or earlier, marks the condition for minimum gas
rate possible.

Example

An induced draft counter-current cooling tower is to be designed to cool 20 kg/s water

from 45 C to 29 C. The design wet-bulb temperature of the entering air is to be 24 C
having an enthalpy of 72 kJ/kg dry air. It has been decided to use 30% excess air over the
minimum air rate. Make-up water is available at 10 C. For the packing to be used, kya is
expected to be 1.25 kg/(m3)(s)(DY) provided the minimum liquid and gas rates are 2.5 and
2.2 kg/(m2)(s), respectively. Estimate the packed height of the tower.

Page 36
Drying of process materials
Drying may be defined as removal of a liquid from a wet solid or suspension or solution by
vaporisation into a gas to get a relatively liquid-free substance. Drying is frequently
practiced in many industrial operations, particularly in the chemical industry. For instance,
sugar crystals are dried before packaging, soaps are dried before marketing, and the drying
of leather under controlled conditions is an important step in the leather processing.
During drying the material to be dried is brought into contact with a hot gas in which the
partial pressure of the liquid is less than the equilibrium value corresponding to the liquid
in the material to be dried. The hot gas serves dual purpose: on one hand it provides the
energy required for the drying and, on the other hand, it carries away the evaporated
liquid.

Drying may be carried out under different conditions depending upon the requirement of
the situation. Thus, heat sensitive materials are dried under vacuum, direct contact of the
material to be dried, and the hot gases are to be avoided if there are chances of over heating
or contamination. Drying does not include the removal of moisture by mechanical means
such as filtration, centrifuging, etc. or by boiling a solution in the absence of a gas. In most
cases generally encountered in practice, the liquid is water and the gas is air. Our
discussion will therefore be limited to this combination.

The drying of materials is often the final operation in a manufacturing process, carried out
immediately prior to packaging or dispatch. In some cases, drying is an essential part of the
manufacturing process, as for instance in paper making or in the seasoning of timber,
although, in the majority of processing industries, drying is carried out for one or more of
the following reasons:

(a) To reduce the cost of transport.

(b) To make a material more suitable for handling as, for example, with soap powders,
dyestuffs and fertilisers.

(c) To provide definite properties, such as, for example, maintaining the free-flowing
nature of salt.

(d) To remove moisture which may otherwise lead to corrosion. One example is the drying
of gaseous fuels or benzene prior to chlorination.

Page 37
With a crystalline product, it is essential that the crystals are not damaged during the
drying process, and, in the case of pharmaceutical products, care must be taken to avoid
contamination. Shrinkage, as with paper, cracking, as with wood, or loss of flavour, as with
fruit, must also be prevented. With the exception of the partial drying of a material by
squeezing in a press or the removal of water by adsorption, almost all drying processes
involve the removal of water by vaporisation, which requires the addition of heat. In
assessing the efficiency of a drying process, the effective utilisation of the heat supplied is
the major consideration.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES
The moisture content of a material is usually expressed in terms of its water content as a
percentage of the mass of the dry material, though moisture content is sometimes
expressed on a wet basis. If a material is exposed to air at a given temperature and
humidity, the material will either lose or gain water until an equilibrium condition is
established. This equilibrium moisture content varies widely with the moisture content
and the temperature of the air, as shown in the Fig D1 below.

Fig D.1. Equilibrium moisture content of a solid as a function of relative humidity at

293 K

Page 38
A non-porous insoluble solid, such as sand or china clay, has an equilibrium moisture
content approaching zero for all humidities and temperatures, although many organic
materials, such as wood, textiles, and leather, show wide variations of equilibrium moisture
content. Moisture may be present in two forms:

Bound moisture. This is water retained so that it exerts a vapour pressure less than that of
free water at the same temperature. Such water may be retained in small capillaries,
adsorbed on surfaces, or as a solution in cell walls.

Free moisture. This is water which is in excess of the equilibrium moisture content.

The water removed by vaporisation is generally carried away by air or hot gases, and the
ability of these gases to pick up the water is determined by their temperature and
humidity. In designing dryers using air, the properties of the airwater system are
essential, and these are detailed in the Humidification section, where the development of
the humidity chart is described. For the airwater system, the following definitions are of
importance:

Humidity
Humidity of saturated air H* .
Percentage humidity
Percentage relative humidity, R
Humid volume
Saturated volume, which is the volume of unit mass of dry air, together with the
water vapour required to saturate it.
Humid heat is the heat required to raise unit mass of dry air and associated vapour
through 1 degree K at constant pressure or 1.00 + 1.88H kJ/kg K.
Dew point is the temperature at which condensation will first occur when air is
cooled.
Wet bulb temperature. If a stream of air is passed rapidly over a water surface,
vaporization occurs, provided the temperature of the water is above the dew point
of the air.

Drying Equilibria
Driving force in drying generally being the difference in vapour pressure exerted by
moisture present in the material to be dried and the partial pressure of moisture in the
surrounding air, equilibrium relations are usually expressed in terms of these two
quantities. Moisture present in a wet solid exerts a vapour pressure which depends on the
Page 39
moisture, the temperature and the nature of the solid. If a solid is exposed to air containing
moisture, the solid will be dried by loosing moisture if the partial pressure of moisture in
the air is less than the vapour pressure exerted by the moisture in the solid. If on the other
hand, the partial pressure of moisture in the air is higher, the solid will absorb moisture
from the air. When the vapour pressure exerted by the moisture in the solid is the same as
the partial pressure of moisture in the surrounding air, there will be no net transfer of
moisture and the solid will have equilibrium moisture content. Drying can theoretically
proceed only up to the equilibrium moisture content. Equilibrium data for drying are
usually expressed in the form of moisture content of the solid as a function of relative
saturation or relative humidity of the surrounding air.

RATE OF DRYING
DRYING
Drying periods

In drying, it is necessary to remove free moisture from the surface and also moisture from
the interior of the material. If the change in moisture content for a material is determined
as a function of time, a smooth curve is obtained from which the rate of drying at any given
moisture content may be evaluated. The form of the drying rate curve varies with the
structure and type of material, and two typical curves are shown in Figure D.2. In curve 1,
there are two well-defined zones: AB, where the rate of drying is constant and BC, where
there is a steady fall in the rate of drying as the moisture content is reduced. The moisture
content at the end of the constant rate period is represented by point B, and this is known
as the critical moisture content. Curve 2 shows three stages, DE, EF and FC. The stage DE
represents a constant rate period, and EF and FC are falling rate periods. In this case, the
Section EF is a straight line, however, and only the portion FC is curved. Section EF is
known as the first falling rate period and the final stage, shown as FC, as the second falling
rate period. The drying of soap gives rise to a curve of type 1, and sand to a curve of type 2.

Page 40
Fig D.2. Rate of drying of a granular material

Constant rate period

During the constant rate period, it is assumed that drying takes place from a saturated
surface of the material by diffusion of the water vapour through a stationary air film into
the air stream. In order to calculate the rate of drying under these conditions, the
relationships for diffusion of a vapour from a liquid surface into a gas may be used. The
simplest equation of this type is:

W = kGA(Ps Pw)

where kG is the mass transfer coefficient. Since the rate of transfer depends on the velocity
u of the air stream, raised to a power of about 0.8, then the mass rate of evaporation is:

W = kGA(Ps Pw)u0.8

where:

A is the surface area,

Ps is the vapour pressure of the water, and

Pw is the partial pressure of water vapour in the air stream.

This type of equation, for the rate of vaporisation into an air stream, simply states that the
rate of transfer is equal to the transfer coefficient multiplied by the driving force. It may be

Page 41
noted, however, that (Ps Pw) is not only a driving force, but it is also related to the
capacity of the air stream to absorb moisture. These equations suggest that the rate of
drying is independent of the geometrical shape of the surface.

For most design purposes, it may be assumed that the rate of drying is proportional to the
transfer coefficient multiplied by (Ps Pw). If the temperature of the surface is greater
than that of the air stream, then Pw may easily reach a value corresponding to saturation of
the air. Under these conditions, the capacity of the air to take up moisture is zero, while the
force causing evaporation is (Ps Pw). As a result, a mist will form and water may be
redeposited on the surface. In all drying equipment, care must therefore be taken to ensure
that the air or gas used does not become saturated with moisture at any stage.

The rate of drying in the constant rate period is given by:

where:
W is the rate of loss of water,
h is the heat transfer coefficient from air to the wet surface,
T is the temperature difference between the air and the surface,
is the latent heat of vaporisation per unit mass,
kG is the mass transfer coefficient for diffusion from the wet surface through the gas film,
A is the area of interface for heat and mass transfer, and
(Ps Pw) is the difference between the vapour pressure of water at the surface and the
partial pressure in the air.

First falling-rate period

The points B and E in Figure D.2 represent conditions where the surface is no longer
capable of supplying sufficient free moisture to saturate the air in contact with it. Under
these conditions, the rate of drying depends very much on the mechanism by which the
moisture from inside the material is transferred to the surface. In general, the curves in
Figure D.2 will apply, although for a type 1 solid, a simplified expression for the rate of
drying in this period may be obtained.

Second falling-rate period

Page 42
At the conclusion of the first falling rate period it may be assumed that the surface is dry
and that the plane of separation has moved into the solid. In this case, evaporation takes
place from within the solid and the vapour reaches the surface by molecular diffusion
through the material. The forces controlling the vapour diffusion determine the final rate of
drying, and these are largely independent of the conditions outside the material.

Time for drying

If a material is dried by passing hot air over a surface which is initially wet, the rate of
drying curve in its simplest form is represented by BCE, shown in Figure D.3

Figure D.3. The use of a rate of drying curve in estimating the time for drying

where:
w is the total moisture,
we is the equilibrium moisture content (point E),
w we is the free moisture content, and
wc is the critical moisture content (point C).

Constant-rate period
During the period of drying from the initial moisture content w1 to the critical moisture
content wc, the rate of drying is constant, and the time of drying tc is given by:

Page 43
where:
Rc is the rate of drying per unit area in the constant rate period, and
A is the area of exposed surface.

Falling-rate period
During this period the rate of drying is, approximately, directly proportional to the free
moisture content (w we), or:

Total time of drying

The total time t of drying from w1 to w is given by t = (tc + tf ).
The rate of drying Rc over the constant rate period is equal to the initial rate of drying in
the falling rate period, so that Rc = mfc.

Page 44
CLASSIFICATION OF DRYERS
Drying equipment is classified in different ways, according to following design and
operating features. It can be classified based on mode of operation such as batch or
continuous, In case of batch dryer the material is loaded in the drying equipment and
drying proceeds for a given period of time, whereas, in case of continuous mode the
material is continuously added to the dryer and dried material continuously removed. In
some cases vacuum may be used to reduce the drying temperature. Some dryers can
handle almost any kind of material, whereas others are severely limited in the style of feed
they can accept. Drying processes can also be categorized according to the physical state of
the feed such as wet solid, liquid, and slurry. Type of heating system i.e. conduction,
convection, radiation is another way of categorizing the drying process. Heat may be
supplied by direct contact with hot air at atmospheric pressure, and the water vaporized is
removed by the air flowing. Heat may also be supplied indirectly through the wall of the
dryer from a hot gas flowing outside the wall or by radiation. Dryers exposing the solids to
a hot surface with which the solid is in contact are called adiabatic or direct dryers, while
when heat is transferred from an external medium it is known as non-adiabatic or indirect
dryers. Dryers heated by dielectric, radiant or microwave energy are also non adiabatic.
Some units combine adiabatic and non adiabatic drying; they are known as direct-indirect
dryers.

To reduce heat losses most of the commercial dryers are insulated and hot air is
recirculated to save energy. Now many designs have energy-saving devices, which recover
heat from the exhaust air or automatically control the air humidity. Computer control of
dryers in sophisticated driers also results in important savings in energy.

Batch Type Dryers

Tray Dryer
Schematic of a typical batch dryer is shown in figure D.5. Tray dryers usually operate in
batch mode, use racks to hold product and circulate air over the material. It consists of a
rectangular chamber of sheet metal containing trucks that support racks. Each rack carries
a number of trays that are loaded with the material to be dried. Hot air flows through the
tunnel over the racks. Sometimes fans are used on the tunnel wall to blow hot air across the
trays. Even b affles are used to distribute the air uniformly over the stack of trays. Some
moist air is continuously vented through exhaust duct; makeup fresh air enters through the
inlet . The racks with the dried product are taken to a tray-dumping station.

Page 45
Fig D.5.: Tray dryer

These types of dryers are useful when the production rate is small. They are used to dry
wide range of materials, but have high labor requirement for loading and unloading the
materials, and are expensive to operate. They find most frequent application for drying
valuable products. Drying operation in case of such dryers is slow and requires several
hours to complete drying of one batch. With indirect heating often the dryers may be
operated under vaccum. The trays may rest on hollow plates supplied with steam or hot
water or may themselves contain spaces for a heating fluid. Vapour from the solid may be
removed by an ejector or vacuum pump. Freeze-drying involves the sublimation of water
from ice under high vacuum at temperatures well below 0C. This is done in special
vacuum dryers for drying heat-sensitive products.

Pan Dryer
The atmospheric pan drier has a jacketed round pan in which a stirrer or mill revolves
slowly, driven from below. The slow moving stirrer exposes fresh surfaces and thereby
raises the rate of evaporation and, hence, of drying. The pan drier is a batch machine and is
limited to small batches. Pan driers may be used first to evaporate a solution to its
crystallizing concentration and then can function as a crystallizer by sending cold water
instead of steam into the jacket. The effect of the stirrer during crystallization prevents the

Page 46
growth of large crystals and promotes formation of small, uniform crystals. The mother
liquor is then drained off and the crystals dried in the same apparatus.

Agitated Vacuum Dryer

The agitated vacuum dryer is one of the most versatile in the range and is similar in
principle to a pan dryer. The dryer essentially consists of a jacketed cylindrical vessel
arranged for hot water, steam or a suitable thermal fluid flow through the jacket for
heating. Doors are provided on the shell, at the top for loading the feed material and at the
bottom for discharging. The dryers are available in variety of sizes. The entire drying
chamber is well machined to insure small clearance with the agitator blade. Thus ensures
proper shuffling of the material and avoids localized over heating. Due to the agitation of
the product in the agitated vacuum dryer the drying time is substantially reduced. A choice
of the agitator design which can be arranged with or without heating depends on the
material characteristics and process requirements. While designing the shell one has to
consider the external pressure and the shaft designing includes fatigue consideration.
Designing the impeller needs consideration of characteristics of the material before and
after drying.

Continuous Dryer
Rotary Dryer

The rotary drier is basically a cylinder, inclined slightly to the horizontal, which may be
rotated, or the shell may be stationary, and an agitator inside may revolve slowly. In either
case, the wet material is fed in at the upper end, and the rotation, or agitation, advances the
material progressively to the lower end, where it is discharged. Figure D.6. shows a direct
heat rotary drier. Typical dimensions for a unit like this are 9 ft diameter and 45 ft length.
In direct-heat revolving rotary driers, hot air or a mixture of flue gases and air travels
through the cylinder. The feed rate, the speed of rotation or agitation, the volume of heated
air or gases, and their temperature are so regulated that the solid is dried just before
discharge.

Page 47
Fig D.6: Counter current direct heat rotary dryer

The shell fits loosely into a stationary housing at each end. The material is brought to a
chute that runs through the housing; the latter also carries the exhaust pipe. The revolving
shell runs on two circular tracks and is turned by a girth gear that meshes with a driven
pinion. The inclination is one in sixteen for high capacities and one in thirty for low ones. As
the shell revolves, the solid is carried upward one-fourth of the circumference; it then rolls
back to a lower level, exposing fresh surfaces to the action of the heat as it does so. Simple
rotary driers serve well enough when fuel is cheap. The efficiency is greatly improved by
placing longitudinal plates 3 or 4 in. wide on the inside of the cylinder. These are called
lifting flights. These carry part of the solid half-way around the circumference and drop it
through the whole of a diameter in the central part of the cylinder where the air is hottest
and least laden with moisture. By bending the edge of the lifter slightly inward, some of the
material is delivered only in the third quarter of the circle, producing a nearly uniform fall
of the material throughout the cross section of the cylinder. The heated air streams through
a rain of particles. This is the most common form of revolving rotary cylinder. It has high
capacity, is simple in operation, and is continuous.

ROTATING DRUM
Rotating drum dryers, also known simply as drum dryers, dry material on the surface of a
heated, rotating roll. The liquid feed of a drum dryer is applied onto one or more slowly
rotating steam-heated rolls. The dried product is removed by a knife-like mechanism. Drum
dryers are primarily used to dry slurries and pastes. They are available in several types;
single drum, double drum, double drum vacuum, and twin drum. Selection is based on
production rate, heat transfer, and system design.

In single drum dryers, the feed is applied to the heated drum by applicator rolls. The
number of applicator rolls used controls the application of the material, which determines

Page 48
the characteristics of the dried product. The dried product is removed by side blades and
dropped onto a conveyor, which takes the product to the next step in the production line.

In double drum dryers, the material enters in the center and is spread onto the two heated
metal rolls. The material is dried and removed by the side blades as the rolls rotate. The
product is dropped onto conveyor belts and is taken to the next unit in the process.
Conditions affecting a given unit's drying capacity are feed rate, nip gap, roll diameter, and
steam pressure.

Double drum dryers can also operate in a vacuum. Vacuum systems are particularly
favorable when a sterile environment is required for drying or when a porous structure is
desired. Twin drum dryers are equipped with a splash feed at the bottom. The feed is
splashed onto the heated rolls, which rotate away from each other. The dried material is
removed by side blades and dropped onto conveyors.

ADVANTAGES

Large drying capacity

Relatively low cost
Large variety of feed and product moistures possible
Easy to operate

DISADVANTAGES

Big and bulky, requires a large amount of space

ROTARY
Rotary dryers dry material by heated air while being transported along the interior of a
rotating cylinder. Rotary dryers consist of a rotating cylindrical shell that can be horizontal
or slightly inclined. In a rotary dryer the heat transfer mechanism can be either direct or
indirect. Direct-heat rotary dryers are more common than indirect-heat rotary dryers.
Shown here is a rotary dryer getting installed. Direct-heat rotary dryers dry the wet feed
through direct contact with a hot gas. The gas flow can be cocurrent or countercurrent to
the feed stream.

The feed dries as it is transported along the interior of the rotating cylinder. The shell acts
as both a stirrer and a conveying device. Generally, direct-heat rotary dryers are equipped
with flights, like the ones pictured below, on the interior for lifting and showering the feed

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through the gas stream as it passes through the cylinder. In horizontal rotating cylinders,
the flights move the particles down the cylinder. Choice of flight design depends on the
characteristics and flowrate of the material being dried.

One of the most common types of indirect-heat rotary dryers is the steam-tube rotary
dryer, shown below. It consists of a slowly rotating, almost horizontal shell with heat-
transfer tubes along the outside walls. Steam enters the heat-transfer tubes through an
inlet at the discharge end of the dryer. The feed enters at one end through a feeder and
exits at the other. It is moved toward the discharge by the inclined rotation of the shell.

ADVANTAGES

Effects of operating parameter changes predictable

DISADVANTAGES

Kiln/ rolling action difficult to quantify

Sensitive to load and gas velocity variations

FLASH
Flash drying is used to dry materials that can be transported by an air stream in large
volume. The picture below shows two flash dryers used for evaporation at 15 tons per
hour.

Flash dryers process a continuous feed of wet particulate material that is dried and
transported by a stream of warm or hot air. Flash dryers are similar in design to spray or
fluidized bed dryers.

Flash dryers are grouped into two types; conventional and alternate. The main difference
between the two types is that the alternate dryer includes a manifold centrifugal classifier.
An example of a conventional dryer is a pneumatic-conveyor dryer, in which the hot gas
lifts the material vertically while drying it. These dryers can be single or multi-stage. The
schematic below shows a single stage pneumatic-conveyor dryer.

The wet feed and hot air enter the dryer at the bottom of the conveying duct. Drying takes
place in the conveyor, which has a residence time between 0.5 and 3.5 seconds. The
material is then transferred to a dry product collection system consisting of a cyclone

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separator and filters. Dry product is removed and the used gas is vented. Some systems
also incorporate a recycle stream.

ADVANTAGES

Rapid heat and mass exchange, avoiding overheating of sensitive products.

High heat transfer rates due to good contact between particles and gas.
Circulation approaches ideal mixing, resulting in uniform product moisture
concentration.
Simple equipment with few moving parts.

DISADVANTAGES

Suspension and entrainment control problems.

Particle size limited to fine powders.
Susceptible to overloading.
Possible abrasion or dust formation due to high gas velocity.

FLUIDIZED BED
In fluidized bed dryers, wet particulate feed is fluidized by the drying gas. A hot or warm
gas passes upward through the wet particulate feed so that the material can dry while
remaining fluidized. Depending on their design, fluid-bed dryers can be run in continuous
or batch modes. They can also be used to heat and cool or even to coat particles in the same
unit.

Fluid-bed dryers can be categorized as stationary or vibrating. Stationary fluid bed dryers
can run in batch, plug flow, mixed mode, or in stages. In stationary fluid-bed dryers wet
material is fed at the top and dried by an upstream of hot gas, usually air. Dry product is
removed at the bottom, and the air is cleaned through a cyclone and discharged at the top
of the unit.

Many factors could prevent particles from becoming fluidized, such as nonuniformity or
stickiness. Ideally, the material being dried should not be too dense or cause uneven air
distribution. Vibrating fluid-bed dryers, such as the one shown below, are used to avoid
problems caused by nonuniform or sticky particles. Materials are fluidized by oscillation of
the bed units, rather than by the flow of air.

ADVANTAGES

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 No mechanical moving parts, resulting in low maintenance.
Rapid heat and mass exchange, avoiding overheating of sensitive products.
High heat transfer rates.
Even flow permits continuous, automatically controlled, large scale operation.

DISADVANTAGES

Sensitive to load variations.

Feed particle size must be equal to or less than 100 microns.

SPRAY
Spray dryers consist of a large vertical cylindrical chamber. Material to be dried is sprayed
as droplets into a stream of hot gas.

Spray dryers transform a solution, suspension, or paste into a dried product by spraying
the fluid into a warm or hot drying medium that is usually air. They can operate
countercurrently, cocurrently, or as a mixed flow process.

In a typical spray dryer, the cylindrical chamber has a short conical bottom. Liquid feed is
pumped into a spray disk atomizer set in the roof chamber. The liquid is atomized into
small drops, which are thrown radially into a stream of hot gas entering near the top of the
chamber. Manipulating the temperature of this hot gas stream allows control over the
porosity of the dried particles. Once drying is complete, the gas and solids are cooled and
separated in a cyclone separator, where any entrained particles of solid are removed.

The atomizer is the most important part of any spray dryer. It determines the size, size
distribution, trajectory, and speed of the droplets. The pictures below show two commonly
used atomizers. On the left is a rotary atomizer and on the right is a pressure nozzle
atomizer. Rotary atomizers typically spin at a rate of 5,000 to 25,000 rpm. See the Nozzles
section of the encyclopedia for more information.

The drop size determines the drying rate by regulating the available heat transfer surface
and it also controls the size of the dried particle. Additionally, a larger drop size requires a
larger drying chamber. Drying chambers are often found to be 20 m or taller.

Once the material has passed through, it can be collected easily from the chamber's bottom
if it is a coarse powder but fine powders have to be collected from bag filters.

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Since spray drying propels large amounts of fine dust into the air, there is a risk of fire or
dust explosion. However, with proper safety measures these explosions are very rare.
Spray dryers are equipped with pressure venting systems, and are often operated in an
inert atmosphere to help prevent ignition.

Spray dryers span a broad range of applications. They can be found in food, dairy, and
plasma processes, as well as in the production of pharmaceuticals, organic and inorganic
chemicals, rubber latex, ceramic powders, and detergents. The spray dryer pictured below
on the left is used for dairy applications, and the one pictured on the right is used in the
production of coffee.

ADVANTAGES

Product properties and quality are effectively controlled

High heat-transfer coefficients at high temperature differences
Easy to descale
Relatively inexpensive

DISADVANTAGES

Poor heat transfer at low temperature differences or with viscous liquids

Requires a large amount of floor space and is heavy
High holdup
Highly energy intensive, but use of multiple drying stages can allow for recycling of
heat
Nozzles and atomizers are easily plugged

CONVEYOR
Conveyor dryers are used for products that require gentle handling and large-scale
production. A conveyor dryer continuously transports material horizontally on a
perforated screen through which warm air is blown. There are three types of conveyor
dryers; single conveyor dryers, multi-stage conveyor dryers, and multiple conveyor dryers.
Pictured below is a single pass conveyor dryer.

Wet particulate material moves through a conveyor dryer on a perforated conveyor that
allows warm air to pass through. This warm air dries the material as it moves through the
dryer.

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The single conveyor dryer is the most widely used conveyor dryer. The dryer consists of
several cells. As the conveyor moves through each cell the material is exposed to different
process conditions. When the material reaches a certain point in the drying process, the air
flow switches from up-flow to down-flow so that the semi-dry material is not blown off the
conveyor. The last cell or set of cells is often used to cool the product.

Staging is the use of separate conveyors arranged in series so that one conveyor transfers
its products to the next. This design is used when a large amount of shrinkage occurs
during the drying process. As many as four conveyors can be arranged in series.

Multiple conveyor dryers are used when the product requires long, gentle drying. The
material is dried as it passes from one vertically arranged conveyor to the next. The red
arrows indicate the flowpath of air through the dryer. In this design the dryer is not
separated into cells, so the process conditions remain constant throughout the process.

Conveyor dryers are mainly used in food production. Single conveyor dryers are used to
dry snack foods, nuts, seeds, bread products, pet food, coconut, gelatin, starches, meat, and
other protein products. Multi-stage conveyor dryers are used for products that may shrink
while drying, such as spices, fruits, and vegetables. Below is a single conveyor dryer used
for drying tobacco. Multiple conveyor dryers are especially suited for the drying of cereals
and pasta, as well as some of the other products mentioned above.

ADVANTAGES

Can handle a variety of solids continuously and with very gentle action
Close control of process conditions
Various designs available allow flexibility in process design
Simple machine
Easy to clean and maintain

DISADVANTAGES

Bed of wet material must be permeable

Important to distribute feed carefully since there is no opportunity to rearrange
it

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TRAY
Tray dryers are a common form of batch dryers that can use indirect or direct heat transfer.
A typical batch tray dryer consists of an enclosed, insulated housing in which trays
containing solids are placed on shelves. Direct heat transfer is achieved by circulating a
large volume of hot gas between the trays. Indirect heat transfer requires the use of heated
shelves.

Tray dryers can be operated under vacuum with indirect heat transfer. In this type of
operation, the trays rest on hollow metal plates filled with steam or hot water. The vapors
from the solid are removed by an ejector or a vacuum pump. Optimum operation of a tray
dryer depends on maintaining constant temperature and uniform air velocity over the
drying material. The trays are usually square or rectangular and are stacked in such a way
as to allow sufficient airflow between them.

Fresh air enters through the inlet and is circulated by a fan which passes the air over
heaters. The heated air is distributed uniformly over the stack of trays by baffles, drying the
material on the trays. Moist air is continuously vented through the exhaust.

Tray dryers are used for materials with long drying cycles, between 12 and 24 hours. They
are also used when the production of several different products requires strict batch
identity and thorough cleaning of equipment between batches, as in small color-pigment
drying plants.

The tray dryer shown below can be used in processes involving bakery products, fruit,
vegetables, bird seed, pet treats, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and pigment.

ADVANTAGES

Can process a variety of materials

DISADVANTAGES

Requires extensive manual labor

Low output rate
Non-uniform air flow causing overheating
Low capacity

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THIN-
THIN-FILM
Thin-film dryers are continuous agitated dryers that use minimal heat.

Unlike traditional agitated dryers, which operate at high temperatures, thin-film dryers
operate at low pressures (0.01 bar or less) and low temperatures. By using less heat the
dryer has a lower retention time and the walls of the dryer do not foul, which is a common
problem in some dryers. They also operate using minimal utilities, have a compact design,
and have high specific evaporation capacity.

There are two types of thin-film dryers: horizontal and vertical. Choosing which one to use
depends on the consistency of the feedstock, the volatile component contained in the feed
stream, product behavior, and desired form of the final product.

A thin-film dryer consists of a cylinder with a heating jacket that contains a close clearance
rotor. The heating jacket is set at a certain temperature, predetermined by the feedstock,
and is heated using electrical, steam, water, or thermal oil. The blades of the rotor spread
the material evenly over the heated wall forming a thin film on the wall.

A bow wave builds up on the side of rotation of the blade, shown above, and then as the
material goes through the clearance it enters the calming zone on the opposite side of the
blade. As this continues the volatile component of the material evaporates, leaving a dried
material.

In vertical thin-film dryers the material begins the boil in the preheating zone. At this point
evaporation and the formation of solid particles begin in the slurry zone. After some time
the drying process comes to an end in the powder zone, which mostly contains the solid
particles. The amount of time that the material spends in each of these zones depends on
the feed rate, the volatility of the volatile component, and the operating conditions. The
vapors that are produced during evaporation flow into and condense in an external
condenser.

Horizontal thin-film dryers operate using blades shaped like shovels, known as mixing
blades, to move the material and break up the lumps. At the same time fixed clearance
blades distribute the material evenly over the heating wall.

Thin-film drying is used when the material to be dried is temperature sensitive. Some of
these materials include specialty chemicals, polymers, food products, and pharmaceuticals.

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This is a commonly used dryer in the pharmaceutical industry since these products require
very specific processing conditions, such as low temperature drying.

ADVANTAGES

Low energy consumption

Compact
Flexibility in operation
Only needs a single pass to dry material
Can handle many feedstock consistencies
Low operation temperature
High heat-transfer rate
Stirred tanks
Continuous
High turbulence in product layer
Completely closed design

DISADVANTAGES

Not suitable for coarse feedstock

Won't produce granular final products

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