GREEK AND

ROMAN ART
C.800 BCE 100 CE A TASTE FOR NATURALISM

Detail of Garden Fresco Painting and sculpture produced in

c.20 BCE Museo Nazionale
Romano, Rome, Italy
The Romans started a fashion for the heyday of ancient Greece and Rome
decorating their homes with scenes
of gardens and orchards. The most
famous fresco of this type is this
provided the building blocks of Western
example, which once adorned the
Villa of Livia to the north of Rome. art. Later ages looked back on it as an
It was located in a subterranean
chamber, which was probably used era of supreme achievements, which
as a cool retreat in summer.
they could barely hope to emulate. The
artworks of the two civilizations were
both noble and imposing, yet were still
produced in a manner that seemed realistica far cry from the clumsy
stylizations that succeeded them. This admiration for classical art was based
primarily on sculpture, since more of it survived, but the reputation of painting
was still high. Ancient writers praised it to the skies, and as more paintings
have come to light, many of these contemporary claims seem justied. The
Greeks and the Romans shared a passion for capturing reality, whether in
trompe l'oeil illusionistic effectsin which the painted object appears to be
realor in strikingly natural-looking garden scenes and still-life paintings.
 GREEK AND ROMAN ART 033

CONTEXT The Classical world

c.900 BCE The rst Greek city-states begin

The age of empires
The artistic traditions of both Greece and
Rome had very deep roots. The initial stimulus
came from the cultures that had preceded
them but, as their power and inuence grew,
new sources of inspiration were soon found.
Both civilizations ourished through a mix of
conquest and trade, which exposed them
to an ever-widening circle of contacts.
In Greece, the local inuences came from the
waning civilizations of the Minoans (in modern-
day Crete) and the Mycenaeans (in mainland
Greece). The country itself developed as a
group of independent city-states, which were
ercely competitive. In vase production, for
example, the two main centers were Athens
and Corinth, which vied continually for new
foreign markets for their wares. Greek colonists
also had an impact. By the 7th century BCE,
(5th4th century BCE), when Greek art and
architecture reached its peak. Following
the campaigns of Alexander the Great, the
triumphs of Greek art were then transmitted
far and widethroughout the Mediterranean,
across to North Africa, and into parts of Asia.
The course of Greek painting is harder to
codify, since so little has survived. It was always
in demand thoughthe Romans, in particular,
were in awe of it. They wrote about it, they
copied it, andas the balance of power
between the two civilizations shiftedthey
acquired it. Rome began as a kingdom, became
a republic, and reached its heights as an empire.
But even at the height of its pomp, it still
deferred to the sheer quality of Greek painting.
The survival of Roman painting is in general
almost as patchy as that of ancient Greece,
to be formed.
c.620500 BCE The Etruscans reach
the height of their power in Italy.
c.480323 BCE The Classical period in
Greece includes a golden age of art,
literature, and philosophy.
356323 BCE During his short life,
Alexander the Great builds his nation into
a huge empire, reaching as far as India.
218 BCE Hannibal crosses the Alps into
Italy with his Carthaginian army.
146 BCE Macedonia ofcially becomes a
Roman province, and the rest of Greece
is effectively under Roman control.
27 BCE Following his defeat of Antony and
Cleopatra in 31 BCE, Octavian exercises full
control over Romes territories. Four years
later, he assumes the title Augustus and
becomes the rst Roman Emperor.
79 CE The tragic destruction of Pompeii
by a volcanic eruption preserves a wealth

settlers in North Africa returned with dazzling
reports of the glories of Egyptian art.
It took time for these diverse inuences to
merge into a national style. This process was
not completed until the Classical period
KEY EVENTS
but the preservation of Pompeiis artworks is of Roman art for the future.
a conspicuous exception. The treasures of this
buried city show that the Romans continued
to collect Greek easel paintings or have them
copied, either as murals or as mosaics.

I WAS EVER OF THE

OPINION THAT THE
ANCIENT ROMANS
DID FAR EXCEED ALL
THAT HAVE COME
AFTER THEM
1570 | Andrea Palladio
Italian architect and writer

The Parthenon
Built on the highest point of the Acropolis in
Athens, the Parthenona temple dedicated
to Athenais one of the most celebrated
monuments of the Classical age in Greece.
034 ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL

BEGINNINGS
THE GREEK HERITAGE
Only a tiny proportion of the paintings produced in
the Classical world have survived, so it is hard to gain
a balanced picture of their development. Easel
paintings and murals were undoubtedly the more
prestigious forms of art, winning extravagant praise
in the writings of Pliny and other ancient writers, but
painted vases have proved more durable. Most vases
that have survived were retrieved from tombs and,
although they were often broken, it has been possible
to piece together substantial numbers of them.
The Greek tradition stemmed from Mycenaean and
Minoan examples, producing its rst truly independent
style during the Geometric phase, when abstract
ornamentation was the dominant approach. Figurative
elements were gradually introduced, partly through
contacts with the Near East, culminating in the
black-gure and red-gure vases that mark
the pinnacle of Greek achievement in pottery.

ARTISTIC INFLUENCES

The art of both Greece and Rome had a long pedigree, stretching back into prehistoric
times. The key inuences on Greek art came from the Cyclades islands, Mycenae on
mainland Greece, and the Minoan civilization on Crete, while the Romans followed in the
path of the Etruscans. Decorated Etruscan tombs at Tarquinia and Cerveteriboth now
World Heritage sitesemphasize the importance of the art of that civilization.

The Minoans were inuenced by Greek

Dolphin Fresco, detail,
fresco-painting techniques. They ourished 3rd millennium BCE, has
on Crete from around 2500 BCE, producing been carefully reconstructed
ne works of art with religious overtones in the Queens Megaron
as well as purely decorative muralsin (great hall). Palace of
Knossos, Crete
great palaces, especially Knossos.

Greek colonists took their customs

The Diver, c.480 BCE,
and material culture to foreign lands, depicts a gure that
spreading their painting traditions and is thought to symbolize
resulting in local variations. This image is the journey from life
from a Greek tomb in Italyits style is into death. Paestum,
provincial, with little attempt at grandeur. Campania, Italy

The Mycenaean civilization, which

The Warrior Vase,
ourished in Greece in the Late Bronze 13th century BCE, is unique
Age, grew out of the city of Mycenae in in its iconographya phalanx
the northeastern Peloponnese. It is best of marching soldiers. National
known for pottery, which was an important Archaeological Museum,
Athens, Greece
inspiration for later Greek vase painters.

The color red was made from cinnabar, one of Cinnabar was thought
the rarest and most expensive pigments in the to turn black if exposed to
ancient world. Patrons specied the amount to sunlight or moonlight. To
be used as a statement of their wealth. Pliny prevent this, artists coated
the Elder recommended diluting cinnabar with it in a mix of oil and
goats blood or crushed berries to make it last. candle wax.
 GREEK AND ROMAN ART 035

TURNING POINT
Full view
Dionysus Cup
Exekias c.530 BCE Staatliche
Antikensammlungen, Munich, Germany

The Dionysus Cup is a truly masterful

blend of function and design in the
black-gure technique, in which
gures were painted in black on a red
clay background. The vessel is a
kylixa shallow wine-cupand would
have been mainly used at symposia
(drinking parties), where the guests
reclined on couches. As they drank,
the image at the bottom of the cup
was revealed. Exekias has chosen as
his subject an episode from a Homeric
hymn about Dionysus, the wine-god,
who was captured by pirates in his
youth. To escape, he turned the mast
into a vine, complete with clusters of
grapes. Terried, the pirates jumped
overboard, where they were
transformed into dolphins. Dionysus
reclines like one at a symposium,
enjoying the scene that he has
created. The narrative is condensed
into a single, harmonious image,
with the seven dolphins balanced
by the seven bunches of grapes.

Exekias
active Athens, Greece, c.550520 BCE

Exekias was the greatest of the

Greek vase painters working in the
black-gure technique. A potter and
a painter, he was highly inventive in
both elds. Sixteen signed pieces
have survived and, in all, around
40 paintings are attributed to him.
He combined great precision and
naturalism with imaginative air,
choosing unusual subjects and
often endowing them with genuine
psychological depth. He also
excelled at adapting his designs
to the awkward surfaces of
different kinds of vessels.
BIOGRAPHY
036 ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL

TIMELINE ETRUSCAN ART

Painting ourished in the Classical world,
though it is hard to appreciate this, since so
little remains. The most famous painters of
antiquityZeuxis, Apelles, Parrhasius,
Apollodoruswere all active during the 5th
or 4th century BCE, but not a single original
work has survived. The wall paintings that
were preserved in and around Pompeii offer
a tantalizing glimpse of the Greek and
Roman artistic heritage that was destroyed.
Corinthian Aryballos
c.650 BCE
Louvre, Paris, France
This type of perfume flask, with
a human or animal head, was
extremely popular throughout
the Mediterranean. The battle
scene indicates that it was
designed for use by a man.
The Etruscans emerged in northern Italy in
around the 8th century BCE and remained a potent
force for the next 500 years. Their artistic style
contains a mix of Greek, Phoenician, and Asian
inuences. The Romans drew inspiration from
their art, which is typied by the painted tombs
at Tarquinia and Cerveteri. The wrestling bouts
pictured here were staged at funeral games.
Detail of Wrestlers, Tomb of the Augurs, Italy

Vase painting styles
The Greeks move into northern
Syria in the 9th century BCE.
This affects the style of vase
painting, with Asian motifs
now being featured alongside
the more traditional geometric
patterns. Corinth remains the
most important center of
pottery production.
CONTEXT
Archaic period
The Archaic age begins
to blossom in ancient
Greece from c.730 BCE.
New city-states are
founded, trading Roman republic
contacts are extended, Rome becomes a republic in 510 BCE. The
and colonies are set last king is expelled and his place is taken by
up in many parts of two officials called praetors (later consuls),
the Mediterranean. who are elected each year.

800 BCE 750 700 650 600 550 500

Etruscan origins
The Etruscans
emerge on the Italian
mainland c.690 BCE,
rapidly superseding the
Villanovan people. They
produce remarkable
tomb paintings as part
of an elaborate cult
of the dead.

Geometric Amphora
c.800 BCE
Large, geometric amphorae were
often used as grave markers
at this time. Precise bands of
zigzag or interlocking patterns
were combined with friezes of
grazing animals or, occasionally,
mourners and burial carts.
Winged Gorgon
c.7th century BCE
Museo Archeologico
Regionale Paolo Orsi,
Syracuse, Sicily, Italy
This colorful clay relief was
probably used to decorate the
side of an altar. It displays
the fearsome Medusa carrying
her offspring, the winged
horse Pegasus. The distinctive
kneeling pose was a standard
way of representing a figure that
was either running or flying.
 GREEK AND ROMAN ART 037

Artemis and
Actaeon Bell Krater Pan Painter
Pan Painter c.470 BCE active Athens, Greece c.480450 BCE
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, MA
This is the opposite side of the Pan Painters One of the greatest of the red-gure vase painters, the Pan
name piece, portraying a tragic episode from Painter worked in a lively, theatrical style. More than 160 of his
Greek legend. While out hunting, Actaeon
works have survived. He was probably trained by Myson, a

BIOGRAPHY
surprises Artemis in her secluded grotto. In
revenge, the virgin goddess sets his own hounds leading artist of the preceding generation, and he developed
upon him, watching as they tear him apart. a sizable repertoire, ranging from religious and mythological
themes to scenes of everyday life. The artist takes his name
from a spirited depiction of the Greek god Pan, who chases a
startled goatherd (on the reverse of the vessel illustrated left).

450 400 350 BCE

Temple of Zeus Parthenon completed

The temple of Zeus at
Olympia is completed
in 456 BCE. Built to
house a magnificent
statue of the god, it is
acclaimed as one of
the Seven Wonders
of the Ancient World.
Begun in 447 BCE, the
Parthenonthe temple
dedicated to Athena on the
Acropolis in Athens
is completed in 432 BCE.
The building is richly
adorned with sculpture,
much of which survives today.

Apelles
born Colophon, Ionia [now Turkey]; active 4th century BCE

Hailed as the greatest painter of ancient Greece,

BIOGRAPHY

Apelles was a native of Ionia, in Asia Minor. He

became court painter to Philip of Macedon and his
son, Alexander the Great. Apelles was famed for his
portraits and his graceful depictions of Aphrodite, but
sadly none of them have survived to the present day.

Alexander the Great as Zeus

After Apelles c.350 BCE
Casa dei Vetti, Pompeii, Italy
This small but majestic wall painting was discovered
at Pompeii. It is a 1st century BCE Roman copy of a
lost Greek original from c.350 BCE. Scholars speculate
that it derives from a portrait by Apelles, since it
corresponds very closely to a description by Pliny
the Elder, the Roman writer.
038 ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL

Dioskurides of Samos
born Samos?, Asia Minor active c.1st century BCE

Little is known about Dioskurides, a mosaicist who

BIOGRAPHY

produced a pair of theatrical scenes for the Villa of

Cicero. He was evidently working from a pattern book,
since later, painted copies of his Street Musicians have
survived. He was highly skilled, using minute tesserae
and even painting the mortar between the stones.

Dioskurides of Samos,
Lost work
A famous painting
celebrating the military
prowess of Alexander
the Great is produced
c.300 BCE. Although
the picture itself has
not survived, it is known
through a Roman copy
found at Pompeii, the
Alexander Mosaic.
Mosaic of Street
Musicians
1st century BCE
Museo Archeologico
Nazionale, Naples, Italy
This striking mosaic was
recovered from the Villa of
Cicero in Pompeii. It is
probably a copy of
a Greek painting from
the 3rd century BCE.
The theatrical masks
suggest that it represents
a scene from a comedy.

300 BCE 250 200 150 100

Carthage rises Rome conquers

From c.310 BCE, Rome extends its power and
Carthage rises to influence throughout the
dominance in the 2nd century BCE. The capture
Mediterranean, of Numantia in 133 BCE brings
embarking on a most of Spain under its rule,
struggle with the while the province of Asia
Greeks for control Minor (modern-day Turkey)
of Sicily. is established.

Trompe l'Oeil
Doorway
2nd century BCE
Pompeii, Italy
One of the chief traits that the
Romans inherited from the
Greeks was a love of illusionistic
effects. Many of the wall
paintings at Pompeii feature
remarkably convincing trompe
l'oeils of doors, columns, and
architectural details. This arch
and doorway, for example, are
entirely painted.
 GREEK AND ROMAN ART 039

PERFECTLY PRESERVED
The Aldobrandini
Wedding Pompeii has become a crucial site for the
c.27 BCE 14 CE Vatican study of Roman painting. In 79 CE Mount
Museum, Vatican City Vesuvius erupted, killing thousands and
This fresco was discovered burying the thriving port under thick layers of
in 1601 in the remains of a

CONTEXT
ash and pumice. The dry, airless conditions
Roman mansion. It takes its
helped preserve scores of wall paintings,
name from its first owner,
Cardinal Aldobrandini. It has providing a unique insight
a mythological theme, with into Roman culture.
Ruins at Pompeii
Venus attending to the
bride in the center.

Revolt of Spartacus
A far-reaching slave
rebellion in 73 BCE
shakes Roman
confidence. Spartacus,
a Thracian captive,
escapes from a
gladiator school in
Capua and raises a
huge army that inflicts
a string of humiliating
defeats on Roman
forces. He is eventually
defeated by Marcus
Crassus in 71 BCE.

50 1 CE 50 100 CE

Colosseum opens
Rome's first permanent
amphitheater, the Colosseum,
opens in 80 CE. The dedication
ceremony is followed by 100
days of games.

Trajan's Column
In c.107 CE work begins on
Trajan's Column, a spectacular
monument with relief carvings
celebrating the achievements
of Emperor Trajan. In particular,
it commemorates his
victorious campaigns in Dacia
(in modern-day Romania).
Woman Selling Cupids
1st century BCE 79 CE
Museo Archeologico
Woman Playing Nazionale, Naples, Italy
a Kithara The Romans loved portraying cupids
c.5040 BCE in humorous vignettesdrinking
Metropolitan Museum
of Art, New York, NY
wine, playing children's games, or
This sumptuous fresco even performing household chores.
was designed for the villa Several Neoclassical artists were fond
of P. Fannius Synistor at of this particular theme, producing
Boscoreale. The womans their own versions (see p.223 ).
rich attire has given rise to
suggestions that she may be
a Macedonian queen, pictured
with her daughter or sister.
040 ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL

MASTERWORK
Villa of the
Mysteries Frescoes
c.6050 BCE
Pompeii, Italy

This unparalleled example of a monumental cycle

of Roman paintings was discovered in the Villa of
the Mysteries, situated on the outskirts of Pompeii.
By good fortune, the building sustained relatively
little damage during the eruption of Mount Vesuvius
in 79 CE, and most of the paintings have survived in
reasonable condition.
The frescoes take the form of a frieze, covering
three walls of an oecus (large saloon) at the
southwestern corner of the villa. The precise details
of the imagery are still disputed, but most critics
agree that the paintings relate to the initiation rites
for a cult of Dionysus reserved solely for women.
At the heart of the frieze, the god reclines with his
satyrs and other woodland companions. These
mingle with the women taking part in the ceremonies,
which appear to include a symbolic marriage and a
ritual scourging. The gures in the detail pictured here
include a child reading from a scroll, a woman bearing
a tray of food, and a seated priestess unveiling an
unseen object that will be used in the rites.
The patron of these paintings is unknown,
but was clearly a person of considerable means.
This is evident from the lavish use of cinnabar,
a prohibitively expensive red pigment.

...FOR THE EYE IS

ALWAYS IN SEARCH
OF BEAUTY
c.20 BCE | Vitruvius Pollio
Roman architect and engineer, author
of De Architectura
GREEK AND ROMAN ART 041