IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION, VOL. 54, NO.
2, FEBRUARY 2006
Frequency and Beam Reconfigurable Antenna Using
Photoconducting Switches
Chinthana J. Panagamuwa, Alford Chauraya, Member, IEEE, and J. (Yiannis) C. Vardaxoglou, Member, IEEE
AbstractA design for an optically reconfigurable printed
dipole antenna is presented. A wideband coplanar waveguide
(CPW) to coplanar stripline (CPS) transition is used to feed the
balanced printed dipole. Two silicon photo switches are placed on
small gaps in both dipole arms equidistant from the centre feed.
Light from two infrared laser diodes channelled through fiber
optic cables is applied to the switches. With the gaps in the dipole
bridged, the antenna resonates at a lower frequency. Measured
return loss results that compare well to the simulated values are
also presented, showing a frequency shift of nearly 40%. The
change in bore-sight gain along with radiation patterns are also
presented. Activating each switch individually results in a near
50 shift in beam nulls.
Index TermsDipole antenna, frequency control, optical
switches, silicon.
I. INTRODUCTION
W ITH the increase in demand for multiband antennas in
recent years, reconfigurable active antennas have be-
come an attractive option. A single reconfigurable antenna has
the possibility of switching to all the required frequencies, thus
eliminating the need for complicated wideband and multiband
antenna solutions.
Coplanar waveguide (CPW) and coplanar stripline (CPS)
have many advantages in RF circuit design. For example,
they allow the easy placement of shunt and series passive and
active devices, and have no need for via-holes to connect to the
ground plane. Tilley et al. [1] presented a CPW-fed CPS dipole
antenna with a wideband balun, which was later modified by
Kolsrud et al. [2] to include varactor diodes for frequency
tuning. Many designs have been proposed in the past that use
the variable reactance property of varactor diodes, but these
are normally accompanied by biasing lines and high biasing
voltages [3], [4]. PIN diodes in reconfigurable antennas have
also gained in popularity, as they require lower biasing voltages
[5], [6]. MEMS are limited by low-power handling capabilities
and mechanical failure due to moving parts. All these designs
require metallic biasing lines to be attached to the antenna
which can interfere with the radiation patterns [2], [5]. Using
fiber optic cables instead to activate optical switches have the
advantage of being electromagnetically transparent and so do
Manuscript received February 15, 2005; revised July 13, 2005. This work was
supported in part by Flomerics Ltd. and in part by Antrum Ltd. under contract
number ELJFV.
The authors are with the Wireless Communications Research Group,
Centre for Mobile Communications Research, Department of Electronic and
Electrical Engineering, Loughborough University, Leicestershire, LE11 3TU,
U.K. (e-mail: C.J.Panagamuwa@lboro.ac.uk; A.Chauraya@lboro.ac.uk;
J.C.Vardaxoglou@lboro.ac.uk).
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TAP.2005.863393
0018-926X/$20.00 2006 IEEE
449
not interfere with the radiation patterns of the antenna [7].
They also provide thermal and electrical isolation between the
antenna and the control circuitry. Here we have investigated
the effect of the switches on the design of a dipole antenna
(balanced feed has been maintained throughout) with a view to
achieving the maximum possible frequency shift. In addition,
beam null shifting has also been investigated by activating each
dipole arm switch individually.
II. SILICON SWITCHES
The switches on the antenna are diced from wafers of high
resistivity ( ) silicon ( ). When illuminated
by light, silicon changes from an insulator state to a near con-
ducting state by creating electron-hole pairs. The photons in-
cident upon the silicon must have enough energy to promote
electrons from the valence to the conduction band. Light in
the near infrared range is ideal for this process as it strikes a
balance between the absorption coefficient and the light pen-
etration depth, which are inversely proportional to each other
and related to the wavelength of the light. Removing the light
source returns the silicon to its previous state and so the reli-
ability of the switch is governed only by the properties of the
light source. Light delivery on silicon wafers for generation and
switching of frequency selective surface (FSS) arrays has been
extensively studied by Vardaxoglou [8][10]. Here, we improve
on the model regarding the properties of silicon under optical
illumination perpendicular to the direction of travel of the mi-
crowave signal.
Intrinsic silicon has an equal free electron and hole
density of 1.498 giving a conductivity of just
0.439 [11]. Silicon used in this study is n-type
doped with Phosphorus to increase the static conductivity to
16.67 At thermal equilibrium the phosphorus
doped silicon has a higher density of free electrons than holes.
The product of the free electron density and the free hole
density is believed to be constant for low dopant densities
(i.e., less than 1 dopant atom for silicon atoms) [12].
Assuming the carrier mobilities do not change for low dopant
densities, the free electron and hole densities that correspond
to a static conductivity of 16.67 can be found as
and , respectively.
These are representative of the initial carrier densities of
doped silicon in the dark state. When illuminated with light,
an equal number of excess electrons and holes are generated
in pairs (electron density and hole density ), adding to the
initial free carrier densities ( and ) . Lee et al. [13] related
the excess free carrier density ( ) to the relative complex
450 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION, VOL. 54, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 2006
Fig. 1. Change in static, alternating, and equivalent conductivity with
increasing silicon total free carrier density at 2 GHz.
permittivity ( ) of the semiconductor. Including the initial
carrier densities ( and ), the equation becomes
(1)
where
and is the charge of an electron; is permittivity of vacuum;
is complex relative permittivity of the electron-hole plasma
( ); is the relative permittivity of the semicon-
ductor without the plasma; is the effective mass of the charge
carrier; and is the charge carrier collision frequency.
Inserting the complex relative permittivity derived in (1) into
Maxwell-Ampre Law [11], the equivalent conductivity ( ) of
silicon is shown to be made up of a static ( ) and alternating
( ) part.
(2)
where
(3)
(4)
(5)
and are the carrier mobilities for free electrons and holes,
respectively. The equivalent conductivity accounts for the con-
ductivity due to free carriers as well as the polarizing effect
caused by the applied alternating field. The change in all three
conductivities with increasing total free carrier density (
) are given in Fig. 1.
The silicon switches were implemented on transmission
lines first by Chauraya [14]. Building on these studies, the
performance of a microstrip transmission line using a 1 mm
Fig. 2. (a) An example of an optically activated switch in a microstrip trans-
mission line. (b) Experimental setup used for delivering near infrared light.
Fig. 3. Measured S-parameters of the switched microstrip line under 0, 10,
and 200 mW optical illumination.
2 mm 0.3 mm silicon dice as a switch placed over a 0.25-mm-
gap in the line is evaluated in Micro-stripes [15]. An example
of a silicon switch used in a transmission line is given in Fig. 2.
Here, a 50- transmission line is printed on a Taconic TLY-5
substrate with a dielectric constant of 2.2. The silicon switch is
held in place using a silver loaded epoxy.
In order to simulate the switched transmission line, the de-
rived values for equivalent conductivity ( ) plotted in Fig. 1
and their corresponding real permittivity ( ) values are used to
define the properties of the silicon dice. The simulated -Pa-
rameter results are compared with measured results obtained by
varying the optical power incident on the silicon between 0 and
200 mW. By matching simulated and measured -Parameter re-
sults, each optical power used is assigned equivalent conduc-
tivity and permittivity values that can be used in a simulation
environment. The measured -Parameters for the switched line
under 0, 10, and 200 mW are given in Fig. 3. At 2 GHz, the
switch provides an isolation of 15 dB and an insertion loss of
just 0.68 dB with 200 mW of optical power.
The equation given in (1) assumes a uniform carrier gener-
ation throughout the silicon. However, the light intensity de-
creases with increasing penetration depth, less free-carriers are
generated in the bulk of the silicon creating a conductivity gra-
dient in the cross section. This was simulated by using a number
of layers of silicon, each stacked on top another and each with a
higher conductivity than the previous. This complex design sig-
nificantly increased the simulation time with no improvement in
the results and so was deemed to be unnecessary.
PANAGAMUWA et al.: FREQUENCY AND BEAM RECONFIGURABLE ANTENNA 451

Fig. 4. Lumped element equivalent circuit of the silicon switch.

Fig. 6. (a) Optically reconfigurable CPS dipole antenna (dimensions given in

millimeters). (b) CPW-Slotline T-junction.

Fig. 5. Measured S-parameters at 200 mW compared to those obtained from

the equivalent circuit.

A lumped element equivalent circuit representing the silicon

switch (Fig. 4) in a microstrip transmission line has been devel-
oped through first principles. Building on the equivalent circuit
of a gap in a transmission line (three capacitors C1, C2, C4), ad- Fig. 7. Photograph of the switched dipole antenna.
ditional components are included to account for the photocon-
ducting effect of the silicon, namely R2 and C3. Series inductors
The CPW is an unbalanced transmission line but since the dipole
(L1 and L2) and resistors (R1 and R3) are added to account for is a balanced antenna, a transformation of the input signal is
losses in the switch. In order to maintain some symmetry in the
required. The circular balun is used to convert the unbalanced
switch, C1 is identical to C4, R1 to R3, and L1 to L2. Lumped
CPW to a balanced CPS [18], [19]. The balun is based on a
element circuits in the literature [16], [17] cover microstrip lines
CPW to slotline T-junction shown in Fig. 6(b) [20]. If output 2
printed on a silicon substrate and so differ from this design as is terminated in an open circuit, there is a complete transfer of
there is no conduction through the dielectric here.
current from the CPW to the slotline leaving at output 1. Current
The values of the lumped elements are tuned in order to match
in the centre feed of the CPW flows directly onto the top half of
measured -Parameters under optical illumination varying from
the slotline and the backward currents on the ground planes of
0 to 200 mW. For illustration purposes, the comparison between
the CPW combine through the bond wire to form the current on
the measured and equivalent circuit -parameters is given in
the bottom half of the slotline, thus transforming the CPW mode
Fig. 5. Analysis of a number of such graphs shows with in-
to a slotline mode. Finally, reducing the width of the slotline
creasing optical power, the gap capacitances ( , ) increase
creates the CPS. In the antenna structure, the circular stub acts as
while the gap resistances ( , , ) decrease, indicating it is
an open circuit with a non uniform impedance, giving a greater
a capacitive switch. Silicon oxide used for passivating the switch
bandwidth match. Simulations of two back-to-back transitions
unfortunately degrades the ohmic contact between the silicon
show an insertion loss better than 1.5 dB in the switching range
and the copper tracks, thus, reducing dc conductivity. However,
of the dipole antenna.
at frequencies above 1 GHz the effect of this is not observed.
The dipole resonates when its length is equal to where
is the effective wavelength. is given by where
III. SWITCHED DIPOLE ANTENNA is the wavelength in free-space and is the effective dielec-
The schematic of the dipole antenna is shown in Fig. 6(a) tric constant. Although the effects of dielectric loading cannot
along with a photograph in Fig. 7. It is printed on 1.17-mm- be ignored, the absence of a ground plane under the antenna re-
thick TLY-5 substrate that has a dielectric constant ( ) of 2.2. duces the value of close to 1.2. The dipole is printed with
There is no ground plane on the underside of the printed dipole, two gaps, each one 14.4 mm from the end of each arm. 1 mm
allowing the antenna to radiate above and below the substrate. 1 mm 0.3 mm silicon dice are then placed over the gaps and
The antenna is fed at the CPW using a 50- SMA connector. are held in place using silver loaded epoxy, which ensures good
452 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION, VOL. 54, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 2006
Fig. 8. Simulated change in return loss with increasing silicon conductivity.
Fig. 9. Measured change in return loss with increasing optical illumination.
contact between the copper and silicon. Two 980-nm lasers op-
erating at 200 mW (maximum output) are coupled to two glass
fiber optic cables, which are then angled over the silicon wafers
using plastic clamps. When both switches are turned off, the sil-
icon acts as an insulator and so the dipole resonates at its shorter
length of 33.5 mm. When both lasers are operating at 200 mW,
the silicon conducts and the gaps are bridged, increasing the
dipole arm lengths to 62.3 mm and hence reducing the reso-
nance frequency.
IV. RESULTS
A. Frequency Shifting
The simulated change in Return Loss as the conductivity is
increased from the off state is shown in Fig. 8. Measured return
loss results compare well with those obtained from simulations
and are shown in Fig. 9. From both switches on to both switches
off, the resonant frequency shifts from 2.26 GHz to 3.15 GHz.
This is a shift of 39.4%. The bandwidth is 9.5% for the
on and 13.4% for the off states.
With the gradual increase in optical power illuminating
the switches, the match at 3.15 GHz begins to deteriorate. At
0.7 mW, the resonance has shifted to 2.7 GHz but the match
Fig. 10. Change in measured boresight gain with increasing optical
illumination.
is poor. Further increase in optical power to 20 mW gives a
good match at 2.26 GHz and the shift in frequency is complete.
Although the match at 2.26 GHz degrades slightly, the increase
in optical power from 20 to 200 mW sees an improvement in
the efficiency of the silicon switch. As seen in Fig. 10, this
translates to a higher antenna efficiency giving an increase in
the boresight gain of 1 dBi at 2.26 GHz. There is only a 0.5-dBi
increase in gain when the optical power is changed from 50 to
200 mW and so the antenna could be operated at lower optical
powers with only a slight compromise in performance.
There is a clear shift in antenna gain as it switches from both
on to both off, with gain changing from 2.9 to 4 dBi. The rip-
ples on the measurements are attributed to the limitations of the
anechoic chamber. The difference in gain at 2.26 GHz and at
3.15 GHz between both on and both off states are about 10 and
5.3 dBi, respectively.
Previous work by the author using a dipole with a different
feed and a smaller frequency shift [7] has shown that with
200 mW of optical power, the dipole behaves very similar
to a full length dipole (62.3 mm long) in terms of resonance
frequency and gain. Further increase in optical power causes
electron-hole recombination processes that are more prevalent
in high free carrier densities to become more active. They im-
mediately recombine electrons freed by the increased photons
and thus hamper any further increase in silicon conductivity.
Therefore, beyond 200 mW no further noticeable increase in
gain is observed.
The resonance of a shorter length dipole (33.5 mm) is slightly
higher than that of a switched dipole in the off state. This is
due to the capacitive loading effect introduced by the silicon
dice. Prior to fixing the silicon dice in place, the dipole behaves
similar a 33.5-mm-long dipole. A thorough investigation was
carried out to establish the maximum frequency shift while the
match was kept below . Positioning the switches closer
to the antenna feed improves the shift but at the expense of the
return loss. The optimum distance for each switch from the ends
of the dipole was 14.4 mm.
The measured and simulated -plane radiation patterns for
both operational states are shown in Fig. 11. There is good cor-
relation between measured and simulated patterns. When both
PANAGAMUWA et al.: FREQUENCY AND BEAM RECONFIGURABLE ANTENNA
Fig. 11. Measured and simulated E-plane radiation patterns for the printed
antenna with both switches (a) ON and both switches (b) OFF.
Fig. 12. Measured return loss and boresight gain for the antenna when
switches are activated individually.
switches are on or off, the patterns conform well to the typ-
ical figure-of-eight patterns expected from a standard half wave-
length dipole and they all have very wide beam widths. Com-
paring both switches on with both switches off, the forward
-plane pattern shapes are very similar indicating that the acti-
vation of the switches are not having a detrimental effect on the
radiation patterns. The slight change in the reverse pattern is due
to interaction with the CPW ground plane, which is more pro-
nounced in the off state because the width of the CPW ground
plane is comparable to the length of the dipole.
B. Null Shifting
In addition to these standard modes of operation, each side
of the dipole was switched on individually and return loss and
gain measurements taken. These are presented in Fig. 12. When
only the right switch is on the antenna resonates at 2.70 GHz and
with just the left switch on, it resonates at 2.69 GHz. These are
frequency shifts of 19.4% and 19.0%, respectively, from the on
state. For right switch on and left switch on, the band-
widths are 8.8% and 11.3%, respectively. When only one switch
is used, the antenna resonates in between the other two extremes
and this is also reflected in the gain maxima. The boresight gain
here is about 3.1 dBi.
Individual operation of the silicon switches creates an offset
feed as one dipole arm becomes longer than the other. Fig. 13
shows how the -Plane pattern rotates to the left when only the
left switch is activated and conversely how it rotates to the right
453
Fig. 13. Measured and simulated E-plane radiation patterns for the printed
antenna with (a) only left switch ON and (b) only right switch ON.
when only the right switch is operated. In both these operational
states, the resonance frequency is fixed close to 2.7 GHz. When
shifted right, the maximum gain is 12 off boresight and when
shifted left, the maximum gain is 7 off boresight. This mis-
match is due to the asymmetry in the balun and CPW ground
planes with respect to the dipole arms. A much larger shift of
about 50 in the dipole pattern nulls is observed when the sil-
icon switches are activated alternatively.
V. CONCLUSION
An optically reconfigurable CPW-fed CPS dipole antenna
has been successfully designed and tested. A frequency shift
of 39.4% is achieved from both switches on to both switches
off. The antenna exhibits ideal forward -plane radiation pat-
terns and good boresight gain during both switches on and both
switches off operation. In addition, switching on of just one
switch results in a resonance in the middle of the two extremes
and is accompanied by a boresight gain of 3.1 dBi. Switching
between arms, the direction of maximum gain shifts by 19
maintaining the same resonance frequency. There is also a much
larger shift of about 50 in the -plane pattern nulls. The an-
tenna can be switched from 2.26 GHz to 2.7 GHz to 3.15 GHz,
all the while maintaining good match and gain. In fact, using the
different switching combinations, a or better with
a gain better than 1 dBi can be achieved from 2.1 GHz through
to 3.6 GHz. No adverse effects due to fiber optic cables or the
silicon wafers were observed.
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Chinthana J. Panagamuwa was born in 1977 in
London, U.K. He received the M.Eng. degree in
electronic and electrical engineering in 2000, and
the Ph.D. degree in optically controlled microwave
switches and frequency reconfigurable antennas in
2005, both from Loughborough University, Leices-
tershire, U.K.
His main research interests are in optical control of
silicon switches, frequency and beam reconfigurable
antennas, and low SAR handset antennas. He is cur-
rently a Research Associate at Loughborough Uni-
versity investigating low SAR and high efficiency ferrite loaded antennas for
mobile handsets.
Alford Chauraya (S99M02) was born in 1970 in
Zimbabwe. He received the B.Tech. (Hons.) degree
in electrical engineering and the M.Sc. degree in
communications engineering from University of
Zimbabwe in 1994 and 1996, respectively.
He is currently working toward the Ph.D. degree
in wireless communications engineering at Lough-
borough University, Leicestershire, U.K. Since
2002, he has worked as an Research Associate with
the Wireless Communications Research Group, De-
partment of Electronic and Electrical Engineering,
Loughborough University. His current area of research is in the field of electro-
magnetic band gap (EBG) structures with emphasis on reconfigurable antenna
applications and optically tunable microwave devices. His work involves the
design, analysis, and measurement of various optically controlled systems for
microwave and mmwave applications.
J. (Yiannis) C. Vardaxoglou (M87) received the
B.Sc. degree in mathematics (mathematical physics)
and the Ph.D. degree from the University of Kent,
Canterbury, U.K., in 1981 and 1985, respectively.
In January 1988, he was appointed Lecturer in
Communications with the Department of Elec-
tronic and Electrical Engineering, Loughborough
University of Technology, Leicestershire, U.K. He
was promoted to the position of Senior Lecturer in
January 1992, and in 1998, was appointed Professor
of Wireless Communications. He holds the Chair
of Wireless Communications at Loughborough University and is the Founder
of the Centre for Mobile Communications Research (CMCR). He established
the Wireless Communications Research (WiCR) group at Loughborough
University. He also heads the Centre for Mobile Communications Research.
He has pioneered research, design, and development of frequency selective
surfaces (FSS) for communication systems and has commercially exploited a
number of his innovations. He has been active in the analysis and design of
small low-specific absorption rate (SAR) material loaded antennas for mobile
telephony and electromagnetic band gap (EBG) structures for subsystem appli-
cations. His current research interests include array antennas, FSS, radomes,
leaky wave resonant antennas, optical control of microwaves and devices,
periodic surfaces and EBG/AMC/LH materials, and material-loaded mobile
telephone antennas. He has served as a consultant to various industries, holds
three patents, and is the Technical Director of Antrum Ltd. He has published
over 130 refereed journals and conference proceeding papers and has written a
book on FSS.
Dr. Vardaxoglou is currently the Chairman of the executive committee of the
IEEs Antennas and Propagation Professional Network and he chairs the IEEEs
distinguish lecturer program of the Antennas and Propagation society. He Chairs
the Executive Committee of Metamorphose, EU FP6 Network of Excellence
of Metamaterials. He chaired the 1st and 2nd IEE Antenna Measurements and
SAR (AMS02 and AMS04) conferences and has been on the organizing com-
mittee of the 2001 and 2003 IEE International Conferences on Antennas and
Propagation. He was the general Chair of the 1st Loughborough Antennas and
Propagation Conference (LAPC05).