Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Sean Doherty
Project Leader
Qin He
Project Manager
The Global Enabling Trade Report 2008 © 2008 World Economic Forum
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The Global Enabling Trade Report 2008 © 2008 World Economic Forum
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Contents
1.1 The Enabling Trade Index: Assessing the 3 Technical Notes and Sources 393
Factors Impeding International Trade
by Robert Z. Lawrence, Harvard University, and iii
Jennifer Blanke, Margareta Drzeniek Hanouz, Thierry Geiger, About the Authors 397
and Qin He, World Economic Forum
Acknowledgments 401
1.2 The Doha Round Negotiations on Trade Facilitation 35
by Richard Eglin, World Trade Organization (WTO)
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Partner Institutes
Partner Institutes
Albania Benin
Institute for Contemporary Studies (ISB) Micro Impacts of Macroeconomic Adjustment Policies (MIMAP)
Artan Hoxha, President Benin
Elira Jorgoni, Senior Expert and Project Manager Epiphane Adjovi, Business Coordinator
Denalada Kuzumi, Researcher Maria-Odile Attanasso, Deputy Coordinator
Fructueux Deguenonvo, Researcher
Algeria
Centre de Recherche en Economie Appliquée pour le Bosnia and Herzegovina
Développement (CREAD) MIT Center, School of Economics and Business in Sarajevo,
Youcef Benabdallah, Assistant Professor University of Sarajevo
Yassine Ferfera, Director Zlatko LagumdÏija, Professor
Z̆eljko S̆ain, Executive Director
Argentina
Jasmina Selimovic, Assistant Director
IAE—Universidad Austral
Marcelo Paladino, Vice Dean Brazil
Fundação Dom Cabral
Armenia
Marina Araújo, Research Assistant
Economy and Values Research Center
Carlos Arruda, International Relations Director and Coordinator
Manuk Hergnyan, Chairman
of the Innovation Center
Sevak Hovhannisyan, Senior Research Associate
Anna Makaryan, Research Associate Movimento Brasil Competitivo (MBC)
Jorge H. S. Lima, Project Coordinator
Australia José Fernando Mattos, President
Australian Industry Group Claudio Leite Gastal, Director v
Nicholas James, Economist
Tony Pensabene, Associate Director, Economics & Research Bulgaria
Heather Ridout, Chief Executive Center for Economic Development
Anelia Damianova, Senior Expert
Austria
Austrian Institute of Economic Research (WIFO) Burkina Faso
Karl Aiginger, Director Société d’Etudes et de Recherche Formation pour le
Gerhard Schwarz, Coordinator, Survey Department Développement (SERF)
Abdoulaye Tarnagda, Director General
Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan Marketing Society Burundi
Fuad Aliyev, Executive Director Center of Scientific Research in Economics (CURDES),
Ashraf Hajiyev, Project Coordinator National University of Burundi
Saida Talibova, Consultant Ferdinand Bararuzunza, Professor of Economics and Dean of
the Faculty of Economic and Management Sciences
Bahrain
Bahrain Competitiveness Council Cambodia
Jawad Habib, Member Economic Institute of Cambodia
Sok Hach, Director
Bahrain Economic Development Board
Tuy Chak Riya, Research Associate
Rima Al Kilani, Director, International Marketing
Hang Sambopisith, Researcher
Bangladesh
Cameroon
Centre for Policy Dialogue (CPD)
Comité de Compétitivité (Competitiveness Committee)
Debapriya Bhattacharya, Executive Director
Lucien Sanzouango, Permanent Secretary
Khondaker Golam Moazzem, Research Fellow
Mustafizur Rahman, Research Director Canada
Institute for Competitiveness and Prosperity
Belgium
Roger Martin, Chairman and Dean of the Rotman School of
Vlerick Leuven Gent Management School
Management, University of Toronto
Lutgart Van den Berghe, Professor, Executive Director and
James Milway, Executive Director
Chairman, Competence Centre Entrepreneurship,
Governance and Strategy Chad
Harry P. Bowen, Professor of Economics and International Groupe de Recherches Alternatives et de Monitoring du Projet
Business Pétrole-Tchad-Cameroun (GRAMP-TC)
Bieke Dewulf, Associate, Competence Centre Entrepreneurship, Antoine Doudjidingao, Researcher
Governance and Strategy Gilbert Maoundonodji, Director
Celine Nénodji Mbaipeur, Programme Officer
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Partner Institutes
Chile Germany
Universidad Adolfo Ibáñez WHU—Otto Beisheim School of Management
Andres Allamand, Dean, School of Government Michael Frenkel, Chair, Macroeconomics and International
Catalina Mertz, Director, Institute of Political Economy Economics
Sergio Selman, Project Coordinator
Greece
China Federation of Greek Industries
Institute of Economic System and Management Thanasis Printsipas, Economist, Research and Analysis
National Development and Reform Commission Antonis Tortopidis, Coordinator, Research and Analysis
Zhou Haichun, Deputy Director and Professor
Guatemala
Chen Wei, Research Fellow
FUNDESA
Dong Ying, Professor
Edgar A. Heinemann, President of the Board of Directors
Colombia Humberto Olavarría, Treasurer of the Board of Directors
National Planning Department Pablo Schneider, Director of the Development Initiative Centre
Orlando Gracia Fajardo, Entrepreneurial Development Director (CIDES)
Víctor Manuel Nieto, Advisor
Guyana
Carolina Rentería Rodríguez, General Director
Institute of Development Studies, University of Guyana
Croatia Karen Pratt, Research Associate
National Competitiveness Council Clive Thomas, Director
Martina Hatlak, Research Assistant
Hong Kong SAR
Mira Lenardic, Secretary General
The Hong Kong General Chamber of Commerce
Cyprus David O’Rear, Chief Economist
Cyprus College Research Center
Federation of Hong Kong Industries
Bambos Papageorgiou, Head of Socioeconomic and Academic
Alexandra Poon, Director
Research
Hungary
The Cyprus Development Bank
Kopint-Datorg, Economic Research
Maria Markidou-Georgiadou, Manager, International Banking
Ágnes Nagy, Project Manager
Services Unit and Business Development
Éva Palócz, Deputy General Director
Czech Republic
India
CMC Graduate School of Business
Confederation of Indian Industry
Dagmar Glueckaufova, Interim President and Academic Dean
Tarun Das, Chief Mentor
Daniela Sedlackova, Executive Assistant to the President
vi Veronika Stejskalova, Coordinator and Graphic Designer
Ajay Khanna, Deputy Director General
Shamsher S Mehta, Director General
Denmark
Indonesia
Copenhagen Business School
Kadin Indonesia
Department of International Economics and Management
M.S. Hidayat, Chairman
Lars Håkanson, Head of Department
Tulus Tambunan, Director
Anne Sluhan, Administrative Director
Ireland
Ecuador
Competitiveness Survey Group, Department of Economics,
Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral (ESPOL)
University College Cork
Escuela de Postgrado en Administración de Empresas (ESPAE)
Eleanor Doyle
Virginia Lasio, Acting Director
Niall O’Sullivan
Juan Tinoco, Project Assistant
Bernadette Power
Sara Wong, Professor
National Competitiveness Council
Egypt
Jason Cleary, Researcher
The Egyptian Center for Economic Studies
Adrian Devitt, Manager
Hanaa Kheir-El-Din, Executive Director and Director of Research
Ronan Lyons, Economist
Estonia
Israel
Estonian Institute of Economic Research
Manufacturers’ Association of Israel (MAI)
Evelin Ahermaa, Head of Economic Research Sector
Shraga Brosh, President
Marje Josing, Director
Dan Catarivas, Director, Foreign Trade and International
Ethiopia Relations Division
African Institute of Management, Development and Governance Yehuda Segev, Managing Director
Tegegne Teka, General Manager
Italy
Finland SDA Bocconi School of Management
ETLA—The Research Institute of the Finnish Economy Olga E. Annushkina, SDA Professor, Strategic and Entrepreneurial
Petri Rouvinen, Research Director Management Department, SDA Bocconi School of Management
Pasi Sorjonen, Head of the Forecasting Group Secchi Carlo, Full Professor of Economic Policy, Bocconi University
Pekka Ylä-Anttila, Managing Director Paola Dubini, Associate Professor, Bocconi University
France Jamaica
HEC School of Management, Paris Mona School of Business (MSB), University of the West Indies
Bertrand Moingeon, Professor, Associate Dean for Executive Patricia Douce, Survey Coordinator
Education Michelle Tomlinson, Survey Coordinator
Bernard Ramanantsoa, Professor, Dean of HEC School of Neville Ying, Executive Director and Professor
Management
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Partner Institutes
Japan Mali
Hitotsubashi University, Graduate School of International Groupe de Recherche en Economie Appliquée et Théorique
Corporate Strategy (ICS) (GREAT)
in cooperation with Keizai Doyukai Massa Coulibaly, Coordinator
Yoko Ishikura, Professor
Mauritania
Jordan Centre d’Information Mauritanien pour le Développement
Ministry of Planning & International Cooperation Economique et Technique (CIMDET/CCIAM)
Jordan National Competitiveness Team Chekroud Ould Bouhake
Amjad Attar, Director Aminata Niang
Kazakhstan Mauritius
Center for Marketing and Analytical Research (CMAR) Joint Economic Council of Mauritius
Dias Iskakov, Director of the Competitiveness Analysis Raj Makoond, Director
Department
Board of Investment, Investmauritius
Kenya Dev Chamroo, Director, Investment Promotion
Institute for Development Studies, University of Nairobi Kevin Ramkaloan, Manager, Investment Promotion
Paul Kamau, Research Fellow
Mexico
Dorothy McCormick, Director and Professor
Center for Intellectual Capital and Competitiveness
Walter Odhiambo, Research Fellow
René Villarreal Arrambide, President
Korea, Republic of René Alejandro Villarreal Ramos, General Director
Graduate Institute of Management, Seoul School of Integrated Instituto Mexicano Para la Competitividad (IMCO)
Science and Technologies (aSSIST) Roberto Newell Garcia, General Director
Dean Cheol Ho Shin, Professor of Strategy and International Juan Carlos Gonzalez Ibarguen, Analyst
Business Manuel J. Molano Ruiz, Consultant
Shin Hyo Kim, Senior Researcher
Ministry of the Economy
So Young Lee, Researcher
Veronica Orendain De Los Santos, Director of Promotion,
Kuwait Office for Investment Promotion
Economics Department, Kuwait University Eduardo J. Solis Sanchez, Chief of the Office for Investment
Mohammad Ali Alomar, Assistant Professor promotion
Reyadh Faras, Assistant Professor
Moldova
Mohammed El-Sakka, Professor
Center for Strategic Territorial Development
Kyrgyz Republic Ruslan Codreanu, Executive Director
vii
Economic Policy Institute “Bishkek Consensus” Andrei Smic, Program Coordinator
Lola Abduhametova, Program Coordinator
Mongolia
Marat Tazabekov, Chairman
Open Society Forum (OSF)
Latvia Munkhsoyol Baatarjav, Manager of Economic Policy
Institute of Economics, Latvian Academy of Sciences, Riga Erdenejargal Perenlei, Executive Director
Raita Karnite, Director
Morocco
Lesotho Université Hassan II
Mohloli Chamber of Business Fouzi Mourji, Professor of Economics
Refiloe Kepa, General Manager
Mozambique
Lithuania EconPolicy Research Group, Lda.
Statistics Lithuania Peter Coughlin, Director
Ona Grigiene, Head, Economical Survey Division
Namibia
Algirdas Šemeta, Director General
Namibian Economic Policy Research Unit (NEPRU)
Luxembourg Jonathan Adongo, Researcher
Chamber of Commerce of Luxembourg Mariama Deen-Swarray, Researcher
Jean-Christophe Burkel, Attaché, Economic Department Klaus Schade, Acting Director
Carlo Thelen, Member of the Managing Board
Nepal
Macedonia, FYR Centre for Economic Development and Administration (CEDA)
National Entrepreneurship and Competitiveness Council (NECC) Ramesh Chandra Chitrakar, Executive Director
Dejan Janevski, Project Coordinator Menaka Rajbhandari Shrestha, Researcher
Zoran Stavreski, President of the Managing Board Santosh Kumar Upadhyaya, Researcher
Saso Trajkoski, Executive Director
Netherlands
Madagascar Erasmus Strategic Renewal Center, Erasmus University Rotterdam
Centre of Economic Studies, University of Antananarivo Frans A. J. Van den Bosch, Professor
Pépé Andrianomanana, Director Henk W. Volberda, Professor
Razato Raharijaona Simo, Executive Secretary
New Zealand
Malaysia Business New Zealand
Institute of Strategic and International Studies (ISIS) Marcia Dunnett, Manager, Business Services
Mahani Zainal Abidin, Director-General Phil O’Reilly, Chief Executive
Dato’ Mohamed Jawhar Hassan, Chairman and Chief Executive
The New Zealand Institute
Officer
David Skilling, Chief Executive
Steven C.M. Wong, Assistant Director-General
Nigeria
National Productivity Corporation (NPC)
Nigerian Economic Summit Group (NESG)
Dato’ Nik Zainiah Nik Abdul Rahman, Director General
Felix Ogbera, Associate Director, Research
Chan Kum Siew, Senior Manager
Chris Okpoko, Senior Consultant, Research
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Partner Institutes
Norway Slovenia
BI Norwegian School of Management Institute for Economic Research, Faculty of Economics
Eskil Goldeng, Researcher Mateja Drnovs̆ek
Torger Reve, Professor Art Kovacic
Peter Stanovnik
Oman
The International Research Foundation South Africa
Azzan Al Busaidi, Chief Executive Officer Business Leadership South Africa
Salem Ben Nasser Al-Ismaily, Chairman Michael Spicer, Chief Executive Officer
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Partner Institutes
Uganda
Makerere Institute of Social Research, Makerere University
Robert Apunyo, Research Associate
Delius Asiimwe, Senior Research Fellow
Wilson Asiimwe, Graduate Fellow
Ukraine
CASE Ukraine, Center for Social and Economic Research
Dmytro Boyarchuk, Executive Director
Vladimir Dubrovskiy, Leading Economist
United States
US Chamber of Commerce
Jana Cary, Senior Director, Marketing Communications
David Hirschmann, Senior Vice President
Susan Reardon, Executive Director, National Chamber Foundation
Uruguay
Universidad ORT
Isidoro Hodara, Professor
Uzbekistan
ABN-TASMI INFORM
Venera Khayrulina, Director
Venezuela
CONAPRI—National Council for Investment Promotion
Silvia Castillo, Consulting Manager
Giuseppe Rionero, Research Manager
Vietnam
Central Institute for Economic Management (CIEM)
Dinh Van An, President
Phan Thanh Ha, Deputy Director, Department of Macroeconomic ix
Management
Pham Hoang Ha, Senior Researcher, Department of
Macroeconomic Management
Institute for Economic Research of HCMC
Tran Du Lich, Director
Doan Nguyen Ngoc Quynh, Researcher of the Research
Management and International Cooperation Department
Du Phuoc Tan, Head of the Research Management and
International Cooperation Department
Zambia
Institute of Economic and Social Research (INESOR),
University of Zambia
Mutumba M. Bull, Director
Patricia Funjika, Staff Development Fellow, Economics and
Business Research
Inyambo Mwanawina, Assistant Director and Coordinator,
Economics and Business Research
Zimbabwe
Graduate School of Management, University of Zimbabwe
A.M. Hawkins, Professor
Latvia, Lithuania
Stockholm School of Economics in Riga
Karlis Kreslins, Associate Professor
Anders Paalzow, Rector
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Preface
Preface
KLAUS SCHWAB,
Executive Chairman, World Economic Forum
The benefits of free trade are well known: trade opens of enabling trade, exploring issues such as the role of
new markets and allows countries to gain from special- logistics and transport efficiency in facilitating trade and
izing in producing those goods and services they do global efforts being made in the area of trade facilita-
best, it provides greater choice for consumers at a lower tion.
cost, and it improves global efficiency in resource alloca- The Global Enabling Trade Report could not have
tion.The past half century has seen a significant opening been put together without the distinguished thinkers
to international trade around the world, contributing who have shared with us their knowledge and experi-
substantially to global economic welfare and reducing ence.We are grateful to our data partners—the Global
poverty.Yet, despite the key role that international trade Express Association (GEA), the International Air
plays in economic development, many obstacles remain Transport Association (IATA), the International Trade
to realizing its full potential. Given the importance of Centre (ITC), the United Nations Conference on Trade
trade for industrialized and developing countries alike, and Development (UNCTAD),The World Bank, and
the fundamental objective of The Global Enabling Trade the World Trade Organization (WTO)—for helping us
Report (GETR) is to explore the factors enabling trade to design and develop the ETI and for providing many
in individual economies. of the trade-related data used in its calculation.We thank
Trade barriers extend beyond the tariffs and quotas our industry partners in this Report—ABX LOGISTICS
traditionally considered to factors such as border admin- Worldwide, Agility, Deutsche Post World Net, DP xi
istration, infrastructure, and the domestic business envi- World, FedEx Corporation, Stena,TNT N.V., and
ronment. Over the past year, the World Economic UPS—for their support in this important venture.We
Forum has engaged key industry and thought leaders also wish to thank the editors of the Report, Robert Z.
through its Logistics & Transport Industry Partnership Lawrence of Harvard University and Jennifer Blanke,
Programme to carry out an in-depth analysis and assess- Margareta Drzeniek Hanouz, and John Moavenzadeh
ment of the obstacles hindering trade in economies from the World Economic Forum, for their energy and
around the world.The goal is to construct a platform their commitment to the project.We are also grateful to
for multistakeholder dialogue to explore how best to the management team of the Enabling Trade project,
remove these obstacles, in the interest of fostering inter- Sean Doherty and Qin He, for so effectively driving the
national economic development. process forward throughout the year. Appreciation also
Drawing on our expertise in developing tools for goes to Fiona Paua, Head of Strategic Insight Teams, and
benchmarking economic performance, the World other team members: Ciara Browne, Agustina Ciocia,
Economic Forum has developed the first Enabling Trade Thierry Geiger,Yasmina Makar, Irene Mia, Pearl
Index (ETI), which is at the core of this Report. The aim Samandari, and Eva Trujillo Herrera. Finally, we would
of the ETI, which covers 118 economies, is to provide a like to commend our network of 142 Partner Institutes
strategic tool for measuring a range of policy-related worldwide, without whose enthusiasm and hard work
issues that contribute to hindering trade. It ranks nations the annual administration of the Executive Opinion
according to the factors and policies facilitating the free Survey and this Report would not be possible.
flow of goods across national borders and to destination.
By providing detailed assessments of the trade-enhanc-
ing environments in countries worldwide, the results can
be used by all stakeholders to work together to increase
their economies’ participation in the global economy,
thereby contributing to national growth and prosperity.
The Report contains detailed profiles for each of the
118 economies featured in the study, as well as an
extensive section of data tables with global rankings
covering all of the indicators included in the ETI. In
addition, the Report includes insightful contributions
from a number of trade experts and industry practition-
ers.These essay contributions examine different aspects
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Executive Summary
Executive Summary
ROBERT Z. LAWRENCE, Harvard University
JENNIFER BLANKE, SEAN DOHERTY, and MARGARETA DRZENIEK HANOUZ, World Economic Forum
International trade is widely recognized as an important facilitating the free flow of goods over borders and to
driver of economic development.Trade is associated destination.
with higher growth and poverty reduction. It allows The ETI was developed within the context of the
countries to reap the benefits of specialization, ushering World Economic Forum’s Industry Partnership
competition into domestic markets and increasing Programme for the Logistics & Transport sector.This
choice for consumers and inputs for producers. It allows was done in close collaboration with our data partners:
the exploitation of economies of scale, fosters innova- the Global Express Association (GEA), the International
tion, and tends to encourage better policies. Air Transport Association (IATA), the International
However, despite the recognized benefits of trade, Trade Centre (ITC), the United Nations Conference on
many obstacles remain. Some of these obstacles are Trade and Development (UNCTAD),The World Bank,
intentional, specifically aimed at limiting market access; and the World Trade Organization (WTO).We have also
some have been justified on the grounds of infant received important feedback from a number of key
industry protection. But for the most part tariffs and companies that are industry partners in the effort, name-
other policy-related trade barriers are erected by gov- ly ABX LOGISTICS Worldwide, Agility, Deutsche Post
ernments wishing to shield those who lose in the short World Net, DP World, FedEx Corporation, Stena,TNT
term because of increased foreign competition. Other N.V., and UPS.
obstacles to trade are unintended consequences related The Index breaks the enablers into four overall xiii
to the human and physical infrastructure, and to institu- issue areas, or subindexes: (1) market access, (2) border
tional frameworks that have been developed over the administration, (3) transport and communications infra-
years in each country.Whatever their origins, these bar- structure, and (4) the business environment.The first
riers have the consequence of limiting the flow of trade, subindex measures the extent to which the policy and
generally lowering welfare at the aggregate. cultural framework of the country welcomes foreign
The World Economic Forum has embarked on a goods into the country. Once goods have been allowed
multiyear project of research and dialogue in collabora- in to the country, the second subindex assesses the extent
tion with international trade experts and leaders from to which the administration at the border facilitates their
the logistics and transport industry.This Report serves as entry. Once goods have made it over the border, the
a concrete resource, providing a measure of the extent third subindex takes into account whether the country
to which countries have in place all of the necessary has the transport and communications infrastructure
attributes to enable the free flow of trade into a country necessary to facilitate the movement of the goods from
and to destination. By bringing together the work of the border to destination. Finally, the fourth subindex
many institutions and other actors, we hope to highlight looks at the overarching regulatory and security envi-
the numerous efforts and successes in this area, bringing ronment impacting the transport business in the country.
them to new audiences so they may serve as building Each of these four subindexes is composed of a
blocks for further improvements. number of pillars of enabling trade, of which we use 10
We hope to raise awareness about the importance in all.These are:
of trade for development, and the many factors that can
hinder or facilitate trade. Our aim is to provide business- 1. Tariffs and non-tariff barriers
es and policymakers with insights into priorities for 2. Proclivity to trade
reform in each country, helping them to more fully 3. Efficiency of customs administration
benefit from the opportunities offered by global trade. 4. Efficiency of import-export procedures
5. Transparency of border administration
6. Availability and quality of transport
The Enabling Trade Index
A principal aim of this Report is to measure the extent infrastructure
to which countries around the world have in place the 7. Availability and quality of transport services
factors and policies for enabling trade. Chapter 1.1 8. Availability and use of ICTs
introduces a new index, the Enabling Trade Index 9. Regulatory environment
(ETI), which measures the factors, policies, and services 10. Physical security
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Executive Summary
Each of these pillars is, in turn, made up of a num- Sweden is ranked 3rd, receiving top marks for its
ber of individual variables.The dataset includes both transport and communications infrastructure, where it is
hard data and Survey data from the World Economic ranked 1st out of all 118 countries. Sweden has high-
Forum’s Executive Opinion Survey.The hard data were quality transport infrastructure and excellent transport
obtained from publicly available sources, international services, and the country has fully harnessed the use of
organizations, and trade experts (for example, IATA, the ICTs so important for the logistics and transport indus-
ITC, the WTO, and UNCTAD).The Survey is carried try. Sweden’s border administration is ranked 2nd, attrib-
out among CEOs and top business leaders in all utable to its high efficiency and transparency, with cus-
economies covered by our research.The Survey provides toms procedures that are not overly burdensome, requir-
unique data on many qualitative institutional and busi- ing, for example, few days and documents to import
ness environment-related issues, as well as a number of goods into the country.With regard to market access,
specific issues related to trade.The exact methodology Sweden has few tariffs, as is the case of other European
underlying the construction of the ETI is described in Union (EU) countries, placing it 3rd, although the
Chapter 1.1. country does impose significant non-tariff barriers
(ranked lower at 64th). More generally, Sweden demon-
strates a very strong proclivity to trade, ranked 3rd out
The Enabling Trade Index 2008 rankings of all countries.
Tables 1–5 show the rankings of all 118 countries in the Norway, ranked 4th, demonstrates its greatest
overall ETI as well as in each of the four subindexes and strengths in two areas: market access and border admin-
each individual pillar. istration. Norway is ranked 2nd out of all countries for
the ease of access into the country’s market, with low
The top 10 non-tariff barriers, a high share of duty-free imports
Two Asian economies—Hong Kong and Singapore— allowed into the country, and demonstrated openness to
occupy the top two positions in the ETI rankings.This multilateral trade rules through its participation in many
result bears witness to these countries’ openness to trade-related international agreements. As well as allowing
international trade and investment as part of their suc- goods easy access into the market, Norway also ensures
xiv cessful economic development strategy. Hong Kong’s that the goods make it over the border with little hassle.
positive outcome rests on very good results in all four The efficiency and transparency of its border adminis-
subindexes.The economy’s very open market, mirroring tration are both ranked 8th, and the procedures required
a pro-trade attitude and a high dependence on exports to import are so efficient as to place the country 5th. In
and imports, as well as the secure and open business addition, the business environment in the country is also
environment contribute to this good result. Hong Kong in the top 10, a ranking particularly related to the high
does not apply tariffs on imported products and the levels of physical security in the country that ensure the
business environment is open to investment and foreign safe arrival of goods to destination.
workers. At the same time, transport and telecommuni- Canada is the top-ranked North American country
cations infrastructure is well developed and border at 5th, ahead of the United States by 9 ranks. Canada is
administration is efficient, although businesses express ranked 3rd overall for its market access, with tariffs that
some concerns about the level of corruption. are not significantly higher than in the European Union,
Compared with Hong Kong, Singapore boasts a relatively low non-tariff barriers, and a high share of
highly efficient and transparent border administration, an duty-free imports allowed into the country. Canada’s
equally open business environment, and a well-devel- border administration is also among the top 10, with
oped transport and communications infrastructure. efficient clearance procedures and few documents
Customs procedures are assessed as the least burdensome required to import, as well as high levels of transparency
and the cost of importing goods is the lowest among the in the border administration’s activities. In addition,
countries covered. However, access to Singapore’s mar- Canada is ranked 3rd for the availability and quality of
ket is fairly difficult, as reflected in its 27th rank on the its transport infrastructure, facilitating the movement of
relevant subindex. Although tariff rates remain very low, goods to market once they are allowed over the border.
access is hampered by non-tariff barriers (84th) and little Denmark is ranked 6th. In addition to its low tar-
openness to multilateral trade rules.The country boasts iffs, the country also benefits from an excellent border
well-developed transport infrastructure and excellent administration, with import-export procedures that are
transport services, and improvements to the ICT infra- so efficient as to place the country 1st in this category.
structure could further increase the ease of getting The transparency of the border administration is also
goods across borders in Singapore.The country’s excel- ranked 1st, with extremely low levels of trade-related
lent business environment facilitates operations of corruption. In addition, Denmark has excellent transport
traders through an investment regime that is open to infrastructure (ranked 4th) and strong communications
FDI and hiring foreign labor, although more open bilat- infrastructure (ranked 7th).The country also benefits
eral Air Service Agreements would be beneficial. from very high levels of physical security, ranked 2nd
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Executive Summary
overall in this category, with low levels of crime and ment in the country. At the same time, some aspects of
violence and a very reliable police force. the regulatory environment are not conducive to
The main strength of Finland, ranked 7th just after enabling trade, in particular laws that do not encourage
Denmark, is its business environment, which is ranked FDI and legal obstacles to hiring foreign labor. Although
1st out of all countries covered.The country benefits Japan is a very export-oriented economy, imports of
from rules fostering foreign ownership and greater ease goods appear to be hampered by administrative proce-
in hiring foreign labor than in many other European dures. In particular, businesses consider customs proce-
countries, as well as an excellent security environment. dures to be somewhat cumbersome, which are ranked
Like the other Nordic countries, Finland’s border 38th overall.This is also reflected in the fairly high cost
administration also gets top marks, with customs proce- to import: the cost of importing goods is almost three
dures that are not burdensome and a particularly low times higher than in Singapore, the best performer on
cost to import, perhaps explaining the high transparency this measure. Once goods are over the border, the coun-
and low level of corruption related to its border admin- try features excellent infrastructure-related services,
istration (ranked 3rd). ranked 7th for this indicator. In particular, postal and
Germany and Switzerland round out the European logistics services stand out for their quality and efficiency.
countries in the top 10, ranking 8th and 9th, respective- However, it must be noted that Japan’s overcrowded
ly. Germany benefits from an excellent business environ- roads and the fairly low airport density negatively affect
ment (ranked 4th), with a regulatory environment that is the environment for trade.
conducive to the functioning of the logistics and trans- Taiwan and Korea follow at 21st and 24th overall.
port industry, and an excellent security environment for Both economies boast very good infrastructure.
businesses operating in the country.The transport and Infrastructure-related services are efficient and widely
communications infrastructure is also among the best in available, and the use of ICTs is widespread, which
the world, with transport services in particular ranked improves the connectivity of companies and the ability
2nd out of all countries: the logistics industry gets to track consignments.Weaknesses in both countries
excellent marks for competence (ranked 4th), shipping is include obstacles to market access and a business envi-
easy and affordable (also ranked 4th), and its postal serv- ronment that does not facilitate the entry of foreign
ice is among the best in the world (ranked 3rd). investment and labor. xv
Switzerland gets particularly good marks for market China occupies the 48th position.This fairly low
access (ranked 5th). Although its tariffs overall are slight- position for one of the world’s most successful exporters
ly higher than EU countries, mainly because of higher highlights a number of underlying weaknesses in China’s
tariffs on agricultural goods, its non-tariff barriers are economy and its trading regime. Above all, China is a
comparatively low. As with the Nordic countries, fairly closed country. Although its economic success
Switzerland’s security environment is also excellent, and relies heavily on exports, imports are still severely inhib-
it benefits from a supportive regulatory environment, ited by tariff and non-tariff barriers, despite the coun-
with open bilateral Air Service Agreements and a rela- try’s accession to the WTO.The country ranks 108th
tive ease of hiring foreign labor, particularly compared out of 118 economies on tariff barriers, which amount
with several other European countries. Switzerland’s to almost 15 percent.The country’s border administra-
border administration also gets good marks, particularly tion is fairly efficient; importing products is not costly,
for its transparency and lack of corruption (ranked 6th). although it can be quite time-consuming. A particular
New Zealand closes the top 10 at 10th position. Its concern when exporting and importing is the lack of
highly efficient and transparent border administration transparency of border administration, which can be
contributes to this good rating, as do the country’s low particularly heavy for foreign businesses. Because of
tariff and non-tariff barriers. New Zealand applies low large export volumes, the country is well connected to
tariffs, and imports almost 80 percent of products duty- international markets, yet its transport infrastructure is
free.The country’s business environment is characterized not on a par with the world’s best. In particular, airport
by high levels of physical security and is fairly welcom- density and the quality of air transport infrastructure are
ing to foreign investment, although obstacles persist fairly low.The quality and availability of transport serv-
with respect to hiring foreign labor. Upgrading the ices, however, are among the best in the world, ranked
quality of infrastructure, in particular roads and railroads, 17th overall. Improvements to the regulatory and securi-
will be necessary to further facilitate the flow of goods ty environment would further enable trade. In particu-
to destinations in the country. lar, greater encouragement of FDI and more openness
to foreign air transport service providers would help.
Asia Further down the rankings we find India, at 71st
Outside the top 10, in Asia, Japan occupies the 13th place. India’s weak position reflects a mixed performance
position in the ETI ranking. Free market access and the on the four pillars of the ETI.While it boasts fairly
export orientation of local companies contribute to this good border administration and an acceptable business
rating, as well as the excellent physical security environ- environment, market access continues to be severely
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SUBINDEXES
Market Border Transport and communi- Business
OVERALL INDEX access administration cations infrastructure environment
Country/Economy Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score
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Table 1: The Enabling Trade Index 2008 (cont’d.)
SUBINDEXES
Market Border Transport and communi- Business
OVERALL INDEX access administration cations infrastructure environment
Country/Economy Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score
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Executive Summary
PILLARS
MARKET ACCESS 1. Tariff and non-tariff barriers 2. Proclivity to trade
Country/Economy Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score
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Executive Summary
Table 2: The Enabling Trade Index: Market access (cont’d.)
PILLARS
MARKET ACCESS 1. Tariff and non-tariff barriers 2. Proclivity to trade
Country/Economy Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score
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PILLARS
BORDER 3. Efficiency of customs 4. Efficiency of import- 5. Transparency of
ADMINISTRATION administration export procedures border administration
Country/Economy Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score
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Table 3: The Enabling Trade Index: Border administration (cont’d.)
PILLARS
BORDER 3. Efficiency of customs 4. Efficiency of import- 5. Transparency of
ADMINISTRATION administration export procedures border administration
Country/Economy Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score
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PILLARS
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNI- 6. Availability and quality 7. Availability and quality 8. Availability and
CATIONS INFRASTRUCTURE of transport infrastructure of transport services use of ICTs
Country/Economy Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score
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Table 4: The Enabling Trade Index: Transport and communications infrastructure (cont’d.)
PILLARS
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNI- 6. Availability and quality 7. Availability and quality 8. Availability and
CATIONS INFRASTRUCTURE of transport infrastructure of transport services use of ICTs
Country/Economy Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score
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Executive Summary
PILLARS
BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT 9. Regulatory environment 10. Physical security
Country/Economy Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score
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Table 5: The Enabling Trade Index: Business environment (cont’d.)
PILLARS
BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT 9. Regulatory environment 10. Physical security
Country/Economy Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score
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Executive Summary
restricted. Indeed, India ranks 105th on the relevant France is ranked 19th.The country’s greatest strength
component with, unlike most other countries, tariff bar- is its transport infrastructure quality (ranked 2nd), with
riers representing a more serious impediment than non- its excellent roads, railroads, ports, and air transport
tariff barriers. Only a small share of goods is imported infrastructure.The country also shows a strong proclivity
duty-free. India’s border administration meets many to trade (ranked 10th), with a large share of imports
needs of importers and exporters. Ranked 55th on this allowed duty-free into the country and demonstrated
indicator, a vast number of customs-related services is openness to multilateral trade rules, although non-tariff
available in India and clearance entails low pecuniary barriers are non-negligible (66th).The country’s border
costs, although it is time-consuming. Border administra- administration, while ranked among the top 20, is seen
tion continues to be affected by corrupt practices, how- as somewhat less efficient and transparent than Europe’s
ever, hampering an efficient transport of goods across leaders, with more time and cost to import than many
borders.Trade-related infrastructure and the relevant other countries. France’s regulatory environment is an
services are equally fairly well developed in India, rank- additional hindrance to the cross-border flow of goods,
ing 52nd in the overall sample. However, although the with bilateral Air Service Agreements that are not
country is well connected through maritime routes, it deemed open (66th), some restrictions on FDI (47th),
needs more airports and high-quality roads. India’s busi- and difficulties in hiring foreign labor in the country
ness environment is in line with the country’s overall (76th).
assessment, with the regulatory environment ranked Estonia is the highest-ranked recent accession
64th and security assessed at 56th among the countries country to the European Union, at 25th. Most notable
assessed. is the efficiency of the country’s border administration
(5th) and of its specific import-export procedures
Europe and North America (11th), with little time, cost, and hassle for importing
The United States is ranked 14th.The country benefits goods.The country’s communications infrastructure
from its transport and communications infrastructure, compares well with that of its peers, although the trans-
which is among the best in the world (ranked 3rd). It portation infrastructure and provided services could be
also offers good market access (ranked 6th), with rela- improved.The picture in terms of market access is
xxvi tively low tariffs and non-tariff barriers and a strong somewhat mixed, with low tariffs in line with EU rates
proclivity to trade, as demonstrated by its relative open- (although higher than those that existed pre-EU-acces-
ness to multilateral trade rules. On the other hand, the sion) and a high share of duty-free imports allowed into
country’s border administration is seen as lacking some the country, but high non-tariff barriers (80th).
efficiency. For example, customs procedures are seen as Italy, at 33rd, is ranked lowest of the pre-2004
comparatively burdensome (ranked 42nd), and there is a accession EU15 countries, bar Greece, and lowest of the
relatively high cost to import (ranked 65th). In addition, G7 group of rich economies.The country compares rel-
there are some concerns about security in the country. atively well in terms of market access to its peers, and
The United Kingdom is ranked 16th.The country benefits from relatively good transport services (21st).
is endowed with a comparatively good transport and On the other hand, the transportation infrastructure
communications infrastructure (ranked 8th), particularly requires upgrading (51st), and border administration
related to the quality of its transport services. Its border could also be improved (38th), particularly by reducing
administration gets relatively good marks (ranked 14th), the time and cost to import and improving its trans-
with low levels of trade-related corruption, clearance parency (40th).The greatest obstacles lie in the business
perceived to be relatively efficient (13th), and few docu- environment, particularly regulatory impediments to
ments required to import (3rd), although it is somewhat foreign direct investment (100th) and foreign ownership
costly (77th) and requires more time than in several (93rd), as well as some concerns about safety and securi-
European countries (27th). Its evaluation in the area of ty in the country (48th).
market access is mixed: while it exhibits the same low Turkey is ranked close behind Italy and Greece at
tariffs as other EU countries, and allows a large share of 38th, and ahead of several countries that have recently
exports over the border duty free (11th), its non-tariff joined the European Union.Turkey affords good market
barriers are high enough to place the country 58th. In access (8th) with notably lower non-tariff barriers than
addition, while elements of the business environment in most EU countries. On the other hand, the country’s
are conducive to moving goods over borders, with rules transport and communications infrastructure is less
encouraging FDI and allowing for the employment of developed than in most European countries, and its bor-
foreign labor, there are some concerns. Bilateral Air der administration is rated as comparatively inefficient
Service Agreements could be more open (ranked 35th), (55th) and lacking transparency (51st). In addition, the
and there are some safety and security concerns in the regulatory environment could be more conducive to the
country, particularly compared with the best-performing cross-border flow of goods with more supportive policies
European countries. encouraging FDI and less restrictive policies on hiring
of foreign labor.
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Russia, at 103rd, is the lowest-ranked European Air Service Agreements and policies encouraging for-
country by a wide margin, trailing the nearest-ranked eign investment, yet the relatively high levels of crime
large emerging market “BRIC” country, Brazil, by 23 and violence are potentially problematic for getting
places. Russia’s main comparative strength is its trans- goods to destination in the country.
portation and communications infrastructure (60th), Costa Rica is followed by a number of Central
although by international standards it requires significant American and Caribbean countries that cluster closely
upgrading.The country impedes access to the market together in the middle ranking, ranging from Panama in
with very high tariffs (100th), and allows only a small 46th position to the Dominican Republic and Honduras
share of goods to enter the market duty-free (95th).The at 63rd and 64th, respectively. Efficient border adminis-
country’s border administration receives poor marks tration contributes to the good showing of Panama, but
(92nd), requiring much time and cost to import, and investment in infrastructure and the use of ICTs would
lacking transparency. In addition, Russia’s regulatory improve the ease of getting goods across borders in the
regime is one of the least conducive to cross-border region.
trade out of all countries (ranked second to last, at Mexico, which occupies the 65th position, shows
117th), and physical security in the country remains a even results across all four subindexes of the ETI.
serious concern (96th), particularly by European stan- Market access is hampered by a fairly high tariff rate of
dards. Attention to these areas is warranted to improve about 11 percent. At the same time, however, this is
the cross-border flow of goods into the country. levied on only about 20 percent of all imported products,
with the large majority imported duty-free.This points
Latin America and the Caribbean to a certain openness to international trade, which is
Chile leads the ranking in Latin America, coming in at also reflected in the large number of bilateral trade
27th position, and is ahead, by a wide margin, of second- agreements and multilateral trade-related treaties signed
ranked Costa Rica at 44th. Part of Chile’s economic by the country. On the other hand, the country’s border
success can be attributed to trade liberalization and administration could be streamlined (ranked 65th over-
improvements to the business environment made in all). It is also very costly to import goods—moving one
recent years; this is reflected in the country’s good results container over the border costs seven times more than
on the ETI. It has also laid the foundations for Chile’s in the best-performing country on this indicator, xxvii
export success. Border administration is efficiently Singapore. Although the country does not boast a high-
organized and corruption in related agencies is under quality transport infrastructure (of concern given
control. At the same time, the country boasts a favorable Mexico’s large size), infrastructure-related services as
business environment, open to FDI and hiring foreign well as the telecommunications infrastructure are fairly
labor.The country’s weaknesses are to be found in the well developed. And Mexico’s regulatory environment is
market access component and with respect to the trans- somewhat conducive to cross-border trade, with, in par-
port and telecommunications infrastructure. Imports ticular, its rules encouraging foreign ownership. However,
continue to be burdened with tariffs and non-tariff bar- the lack of security in the country is of significant
riers, and although tariffs are not high in absolute terms, concern, as it may cause additional costs to shippers.
they apply to most imported products, or 69 percent of Argentina follows, at 78th position.The country’s
the total. In addition, the country’s infrastructure facilities particular strengths lie in relatively high proclivity to
are in need of upgrading. In particular, the country’s trade, and in fairly efficient import-export procedures.
roads do not get good marks for quality, and the avail- Despite these positive aspects, importing remains rela-
ability and quality of infrastructure-related services tively costly, thereby hindering trade. Increasing trans-
could be enhanced. parency in institutions related to border administration
Costa Rica is at 44th, the second-ranked country in would further facilitate trade operations and reduce the
Latin America.The overall rank disguises a mixed per- cost of trading across borders. Infrastructure services are
formance on the four categories assessed by the Index. widely available and telecommunications infrastructure
Costa Rica stands out for its openness to imports with is well developed, two factors that facilitate trade in
both tariff and non-tariff barriers being relatively low. Argentina.The low level of physical security, however,
The country’s border administration is quite efficient where Argentina ranks 112th out of 118 countries, is a
and transparent, although customs procedures are con- major impediment to enhancing the country’s trade
sidered to be somewhat burdensome, which is also performance. Equally, the regulatory environment—in
reflected in the fairly long time it takes to import goods. particular, FDI-related regulations—are not conducive
The country’s weak spot is its underdeveloped transport to moving goods across borders.
infrastructure and related services. Here, in particular, Just two positions further down the rankings is
the quality of transport infrastructure, railroads, roads, Brazil, at 80th position. Brazil’s markets continue to be
and ports are poorly assessed by the business communi- fairly closed, with tariffs and, to a lesser extent, also non-
ty.The country’s regulatory environment for importers tariff barriers inhibiting goods imports.The country’s
is among the top 10 in the world, with open bilateral border administration is assessed fairly favorably, at 66th
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Executive Summary
position, although businesses complain that customs pro- tariffs.The low share of duty-free imports and the reluc-
cedures are burdensome. And although transport infra- tance to engage in multilateral trade rules coupled with
structure—in particular, railroads, roads, and ports—is low reliance on export markets points to a low priority
fairly underdeveloped, which is not surprising for a that is attached to trade by the authorities. In particular,
country of Brazil’s level of development, the logistics opening up the country to imports would provide sig-
industry is well assessed in terms of competence and nificant benefits—the increased competition would
reliability. Equally, telecommunications infrastructure is make the economy more productive, thereby reducing
relatively widely available and used.The country boasts reliance on primary resources and boosting growth rates.
an open and competitive air transport sector. However, Tunisia comes in 49th on the ETI, with high marks
as in other countries in the region, a significant impedi- on the business environment and a fairly efficient border
ment to fostering trade across borders remains the poor administration.Yet the country’s markets remain shel-
security situation in the country. tered from international competition, with some of the
highest tariff barriers in the entire sample ranked 114th
Middle East and North Africa out of 118 countries. At the same time,Tunisia’s border
The United Arab Emirates (UAE) comes in at 23rd administration is fairly efficient and its business environ-
position globally, right after Spain and ahead of Korea ment is secure, although additional opening up to FDI
and Estonia.This very good result at the global level and labor migration would benefit the country’s trade
is not surprising when one considers the impressive performance. Equally, investment in infrastructure and
development of Dubai over recent years into the most the use of ICTs would further enable the country to
important transport and logistics hub in the region, and take advantage of the benefits of trade.
the UAE has made significant efforts to improve the Saudi Arabia ranks 53rd and shows fairly even per-
business environment for the transport and logistics formance across all the four categories of the ETI.
sector.The good results in the ETI testify to the Although Saudi Arabia has very low non-tariff barriers,
world-class transport infrastructure (23rd), very good tariffs are somewhat higher and levied on 81 percent of
infrastructure-related services, and a conducive and all imports, which corresponds to a low 96th rank glob-
secure business environment, characterized in particular ally on this category.The country, which just recently
xxviii by its ease of hiring foreign labor.The most important acceded to the WTO, ratified only a small share of the
obstacle to trading across borders in the UAE remains relevant multilateral trading agreements. And although
the restricted access to the country’s goods markets formal administrative procedures for importing are fairly
through pervasive tariffs (through a uniform 5 percent easy, the overall efficiency of border agencies is not on a
tariff rate).This is reflected in the fairly low 50th rank par with international standards. Improvements to the
out of 118 countries on the market access pillar of the business environment would also benefit traders, in par-
ETI.This high incidence of trade barriers appears to be ticular regarding regulations related to FDI, which
rooted in the low standing of trade on the country’s appear to deter international businesses from engaging
agenda, as witnessed by the very small portion of in the country.
imports that enters the country duty-free. Here, the Egypt ranks a low 87th for the ease of getting
UAE ranks 107th out of 118 economies. goods across the border.The country’s relative strengths
At 28th, Israel places second in the Middle East and include a fairly conducive business environment, espe-
North Africa region, between two countries that have cially with regard to the ease of hiring foreign labor and
successfully harnessed trade for development, Chile and the fairly well developed transport infrastructure, includ-
Malaysia.With its high-quality infrastructure, firmly ing the associated services. Egypt stands out positively
organized border administration, and intensive use of for its maritime connectivity and the related services,
ICTs, the country presents a number of important where it ranks in the top 20, as well as for the quality of
advantages. It is a fairly open economy, with companies its roads. Although importing goods is neither costly nor
serving broad international markets and 80 percent of time consuming, importers raise concerns about the
imports allowed into the country duty-free (8th rank). efficiency of customs and other border agencies.The
At the same time, Israel’s trade performance could bene- high tariffs, which apply to 70 percent of all imported
fit from improvements to the business environment, goods, as well as the tariff barriers, constitute the most
which, although open to foreign businesses, is penalized important impediment to enabling trade in Egypt.
by the vulnerable security situation and barriers to hir-
ing foreign labor. Sub-Saharan Africa
Bahrain, at 37th position, right behind Greece and Mauritius is the highest-ranked country in the sub-
ahead of Turkey and Cyprus, is the third-placed country Saharan African region, at 40th, ahead of some EU
from the region. Although Bahrain is fairly open to for- countries and all of the BRICs. As one might expect of
eign investment and boasts a fairly good business envi- a small open economy, Mauritius ensures a high level of
ronment, the country remains, despite its small size, rela- market access (11th), with low tariffs and particularly
tively protected from international competition through low non-tariff barriers, as well as allowing a large share
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Executive Summary
of duty-free imports into the country.The country also Kenya is ranked 86th overall. Similar to Uganda,
has well-rated border administration, with relatively little Kenya demonstrates good market access by regional
time, cost, and hassle related to getting goods over the standards (55th), with a high share of duty-free imports
border. In addition, levels of security in the country are (43rd) and relative openness to multilateral trade rules
good, particularly by regional standards. And while the (56th). On the other hand, once goods are allowed in
country’s transportation and communications infrastruc- the country, the border administration is characterized
ture compares well with those of other countries in the by inefficiencies and a lack of transparency, and the
region, this remains the main area for improvement, country’s transport and communications infrastructure is
particularly with regard to upgrading transportation quite underdeveloped (90th).The greatest concerns in
services. the country are related to the security situation, ranked
South Africa is ranked 2nd in the region at 59th, 108th overall, increasing the difficulty of getting goods
the only other sub-Saharan country in the top half of to destinations.
the rankings. Contrary to Mauritius, South Africa’s main
strength as measured by the Index is its transport and General findings from the ETI
communications infrastructure (45th), particularly attrib- The results across the regions have shown that, on aver-
utable to the quality of air transport and roads, as well as age, high-income countries tend to do well in the over-
the comparatively high quality of transport services in all rankings, a tendency that is generally attributable to
the country (34th).The country’s border administration their more developed institutional and infrastructure
is seen as somewhat inefficient (57th), although it is environments.We also note a tendency for small
characterized by relative transparency (36th). Market economies to rank higher, which is not surprising given
access proves a bit more difficult (67th), with relatively the importance of trade for their overall economic per-
high tariffs and non-tariff barriers. However, the main formance.Yet performance remains varied, with some
area of concerns relate to the regulatory environment, countries doing much more than others to enable the
which is not entirely conducive to cross-border trade free flow of trade.
(86th), as well as serious concerns about safety levels in The ETI methodology points to the large number
the country (100th) related to the high cost of crime of factors that affect trade. In this context, enhancing the
and violence for businesses in the country. benefits from trade, in particular for developing coun- xxix
Namibia follows South Africa in the regional rank- tries, requires not only further liberalization of national
ings, at 77th overall. Namibia’s main strength lies in the trade policies, but also efforts to improve performance
quality and availability of its transport infrastructure on a wide range of other factors. It therefore provides
(27th), particularly the quality of its roads and railroads, support to the inclusion of trade facilitation as a feature
although transport services remain limited in the coun- of the Doha Round.
try. On the other hand, market access remains impeded
by high tariffs (80th). Further, the border administration
is characterized by inefficiencies (92nd) and some trade- Selected issues of enabling trade
related corruption (74th). In addition, similar to South This Report also features a number of excellent contri-
Africa, the regulatory environment does not foster the butions from trade experts, dealing with issues related to
movement of goods over borders (99th) and physical reducing barriers to trade and national trade perform-
security remains an area of concern (81st), albeit to a ance.These special contributions are highly relevant and
lesser degree than in South Africa. complement the analysis of the ETI in Chapter 1.1, the
Uganda, ranked 4th in the region at 79th, follows Country/Economy Profiles, and the Data Tables found
closely behind Namibia, but with quite a different pro- in Part 2 of the Report.
file. Uganda’s main comparative strength is in its regula- In Chapter 1.2,“The Doha Round Negotiations on
tory environment (33rd), with rules encouraging FDI Trade Facilitation,” Richard Eglin of the WTO provides
and the ease of hiring foreign labor. Uganda is also an update on the Doha Round negotiations in the area
characterized by higher levels of market access (58th). of trade facilitation.The author describes how successive
Although it imposes high tariffs, non-tariff barriers are rounds of negotiation under the General Agreement on
so low as to place the country 1st on this indicator. In Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and the WTO have seen the
addition, the country allows the entry of some imports average import tariffs on manufactured products in
duty-free (58th).The country’s border administration is industrialized countries fall from 20–30 percent to less
also somewhat efficient by regional standards (62nd), than 4 percent, and non-tariff barriers regulated.
although the cost for importing remains very high. On Attention has turned to less obvious obstacles, and trade
the other hand, unlike Namibia, the country’s trans- facilitation was added to the subjects being negotiated in
portation infrastructure is comparatively underdeveloped the Doha Round.The trade facilitation negotiations do
(90th). And like most other countries in the region, not pretend to target the entire logistical supply chain,
security concerns remain an obstacle. but cover how nations control the way in which goods
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Executive Summary
move across their borders through various inspection The Logistics Performance Index (LPI), a key input
and approval stages. to the broader Enabling Trade Index, draws from a
The negotiations have three objectives: improving worldwide survey of logistics professionals in freight for-
the relevant GATT rules, providing less-developed warders and express carriers. Respondents were asked to
countries with technical assistance and support, and rate the performance, in several logistics competencies,
improving coordination between customs authorities. All of countries with which they conduct business.This
of the main elements of an agreement have been tabled, type of data adds an external perspective on a country’s
and an extensive program of technical assistance is well performance to the domestic data also used.
underway. However, although negotiations are well The LPI provides insight into the cost of poor
advanced, as part of the “Single Undertaking,” trade logistics and the sources of those costs. Hedging against
facilitation cannot be completed separately from other uncertainty induces significant costs in many developing
subjects under negotiation in the Doha Round. countries, with traders concerned about the reliability of
The prospects for a successful conclusion are good, supply chains. Predictability and transparency are there-
which would result in significant benefits for business fore key components of logistics performance. Significant
and consumers. A successful outcome would help reduce differences are observed among countries at similar levels
the transaction costs for the world’s least competitive of development. A two-way relationship exists between
producers and poorest consumers, who currently need to good logistics and increased trade. Countries doing well
shoulder additional costs of US$1,000 or more for each here are also likely to do well in export diversification
container of goods imported or exported. and overall growth.
In Chapter 1.3, “Additional Taxes and the Indirect In Chapter 1.5, entitled “Facilitating Cross-Border
Evidence on Trade Protection,” Mondher Mimouni, Movement of Goods: A Sustainable Approach,” Poul
Xavier Pichot, and Lionel Fontagné from the International Hansen and Liliana Annovazzi-Jakab from UNCTAD
Trade Centre (ITC) take a detailed look at different discuss how access to global maritime routes for land-
types of taxes and how they affect trade. In their chapter, locked countries can be improved through transit corri-
the authors classify and compare additional taxes from a dors. Assuming that trade is an engine for economic
dataset covering over 70 countries.They conclude that growth, job creation, and poverty reduction, the authors
xxx the resulting trade barriers can be very high, though state that with tariff reductions in place, firms’ success
concentrated in particular sectors. depends more and more on their ability to offer efficient
These levies can be grouped as customs charges, and low-cost trade services and logistics.The trade and
pseudo-tariffs, regional taxes, excise duties, environmen- transport facilitation agenda looks to maximize efficiency
tal charges, intellectual property, sales, and other taxes. while safeguarding legitimate regulatory objectives.
An analysis of the data shows that the most-affected Focusing on the special case of landlocked develop-
product is prepared foodstuffs, and that 11 countries in ing countries, which include many of the poorest
the sample have average additional taxes above 10 percent. nations of the world, the chapter addresses the issue of
The highest rates are found in areas, such as alcohol transit cooperation. Some very successful solutions have
or cigarettes, where health or ethical concerns apply. been implemented in the European Union, Southeast
However, such taxes could be used for other reasons, in Asia, and Southern and Western Africa, with varying
particular for protecting certain categories of products support from formal bilateral or multiparty agreements.
from competition from foreign substitutes not domesti- The problems seen in transit are similar to the more
cally produced (e.g., rum in Iceland).The far higher general trade impediments, poor service provision, insti-
impact of these non-tariff barriers, relative to tariffs, and tutional challenges, and recourse to unofficial payments
the relatively little attention given to them, suggests as a resolution.
potential for further research in this area. The chapter discusses in detail the factors that
Jean-François Arvis, Monica Alina Mustra, and John contributed to making the UNCTAD-led initiative for
Panzer from the World Bank, together with Lauri Ojala regional corridor development between Zambia and
and Tapio Naula from the Turku School of Economics Namibia, Laos and Thailand, and Paraguay and Uruguay
in Finland, authors of Chapter 1.4, entitled “Connecting a success. By bringing together clusters of users, govern-
to Compete:Trade Logistics in the Global Economy,” ment agencies, and service providers, the UNCTAD
discuss an index, developed by the World Bank, that initiative was able to develop practical solutions. Develop-
assesses logistics performance across countries.The ing trust and a sense of ownership among the different
authors illustrate how the increase in global production actors was important for reducing bottlenecks in the
sharing and the shortening of product life cycles put a physical and procedural chains. Interestingly, operators
new premium on moving goods in a predictable, timely, from transit countries were often the most active in the
and cost-effective way.Therefore the quality of logistics efforts. Ultimately, the findings offer operational solu-
can have a major bearing on a firm’s decisions about tions, directly applicable to the region and providing a
which country to locate in, which suppliers to buy toolkit for other efforts.
from, and which consumer markets to enter.
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Executive Summary
Chapter 1.6, “Countdown to 2015: Improving
Access and Openness to Help Achieve the Millennium
Development Goals" by Gene Huang, Chief Economist
for FedEx Corp., explores the impact greater “Access”
—to goods, services, ideas and information—has on
improving social and economic conditions in markets
around the world. Building on the 2006 Access Index
commissioned by FedEx, it looks at how open and effi-
cient trade flows and greater access can help to achieve
the Millennium Development Goals.
The chapter looks at Chile and Estonia as two
countries that have embraced the possibilities of open-
ness, drawing correlations between national policies that
support the principles of Access and development in
these two countries.
Furthermore, the author considers arguments about
how an open approach to trade can be shaped to deliver
environmental benefits and individual empowerment.
He cites programs designed to foster these principles
and describes ways in which governments and the pri-
vate sector can help to enable openness and assist indi-
viduals in taking advantage of the opportunities brought
about by greater Access.
Part 2 of the Report is a comprehensive data section
that contains detailed country/economy profiles for each
of the 118 economies covered. It features the main trade
indicators as well as the ETI results at the subindex, pillar, xxxi
and individual indicator level, presented as strengths and
weaknesses.The last section of the Report contains data
tables for each of the individual variables used in the
computation of the ETI.Technical notes and sources,
included at the end of Part 2, provide details on the
characteristics and sources of the hard data variables
included in the Report.
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Part 1
Selected Issues on Enabling Trade
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analysis reflects the broad range of obstacles to interna- The importance of infrastructure
tional trade. Based on the evidence we will describe in One source of these price discrepancies is the distance
this chapter, we have adopted a wide swath in con- between markets.There is overwhelming evidence that
structing the index, including not simply traditional international trade is very sensitive to distance.8 The
indicators that reflect tariffs and transportation costs but most obvious cause is transportation costs.9 Even in a
also measures of infrastructure quality, customs adminis- perfect market, prices could differ because transportation
tration performance, and the domestic regulatory and costs reduce the incentive for arbitrage. Confirmation
security environment. that transportation costs matter is provided by the find-
Through this endeavor, we hope to raise awareness ing that distance matters more for commodities with
about the importance of the large number of measures high weight-to-value ratios, and for goods transported
that can facilitate trade, and to provide countries with across land rather than oceans.10
the ability to benchmark their performance vis-à-vis Indeed, transportation costs have often been more
others. By comparing their performance with that of important than trade barriers in inhibiting trade.This
other countries both overall and with respect to the has been the case historically. Overall, between 1820 and
components of the index, countries will get a better 2000, according to Lindert and Williamson, only 18 per-
appreciation of their strengths and weaknesses.The goal cent of the reduction in intercontinental price gaps
is to provide a cross-country analysis of the enablers of between the United States and Europe was due to poli-
trade, highlighting to national policymakers the obstacles cies liberalizing trade while 82 percent of the decline
to trade that require policy attention, and to enable dia- was due to cheaper transportation.11 In the 19th centu-
logue between the private and public sectors for improv- ry, the large drops in intercontinental transportation
ing the environment for trade at the national level. costs—the result of innovations such as the steamship—
The next section of this chapter will describe the led price differences between the United States and
large variety of obstacles to trade at the national level, Europe to narrow even though the United States actual-
preparing the ground for the description of the new ly raised its tariffs significantly! Currently, US import
Enabling Trade Index, described in the section that data indicate that insurance and freight costs are twice
follows. those of tariff revenues.
4 Clark, Dollar, and Micco (2004) find that, for most
Latin American countries, transport costs are a greater
Enabling trade barrier to US markets than import tariffs.12 They point
The case for enabling trade is well illustrated by the sig- out that these costs are not simply a function of distance
nificant international price differences across countries. but also of the quality of the infrastructure. Improving
In a market that is fully integrated, similar goods should the efficiency of a port from the 25th to the 75th per-
have similar prices regardless of where they are sold— centile in their sample, for example, reduces shipping
the “law of one price.” One common explanation for costs by 12 percent. (On average, they find that having
differences in final goods prices is that they include dis- bad ports is equivalent to being 60 percent farther away
tribution costs that are not tradable, but even when from markets.) Similarly, Limao and Venables (2001)
these margins are taken into account, Bradford and demonstrate the role of infrastructure more broadly in
Lawrence (2004) find that sizable differences remain. determining transportation costs.They use data on the
They report that the prices on goods selected as compa- costs of shipping the same container from Baltimore,
rable in purchasing power parity studies typically differ Maryland, to different parts of the world, and measure
by 20 percent between the United States and Canada, infrastructure using indicators of road, rail, and telecom-
30 percent between the United States and Europe, and munications.13 In their sample, a destination with infra-
50 percent between the United States and Japan. structure in the 25th percentile has transportation costs
Moreover, similar results could be found in a large num- that are 12 percent higher than the destination with
ber of studies that compare prices internationally.These median infrastructure quality. And the median land-
include findings that (1) the law of one price does not locked country has transportation costs that are 55 per-
hold internationally even for standardized products,3 (2) cent higher than the median coastal economy.14
the degree of price dispersion across countries is far As Grossman (1998) has pointed out, however, in
greater than within them;4 (3) the law of one price level many econometric studies the role of distance is far
(purchasing power parity) holds, if at all, only in the greater than could be attributed to transportation costs
very long run,5 and (4) that firms have a significant alone. One reason is that distance is associated with a
capacity to engage in international price discrimination host of additional nonpecuniary costs relating to time
and routinely “price to market.”6 All told, these price involved in search, preparation and scheduling, move-
differences imply that obstacles to full international inte- ment, communication, likelihood of theft, loss, quality
gration remain significant.7 This also indicates the gains deterioration, and inventory management.15 A study by
that can come for consumers and users of intermediate Djankov, Freund, and Pham explores the role played by
inputs from an increase in trade. additional transportation time using World Bank data on
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quality with respect to these attributes associated with barriers. High trade barriers may mean less trade and
Latin American countries were to rise to the levels asso- less reason to invest in high-quality infrastructure and
ciated with the European Union, Latin American trade reduce transportation costs. Hummels argues, for exam-
would expand by 30 percent.They observe that this ple, that shipping firms with pricing power will charge
expansion is roughly equivalent to what we would higher prices for transporting goods protected by trade
expect from the reduction of Latin American tariffs to barriers because these make the demand for their serv-
US levels.24 Similarly, Blomberg and Hess find that the ices less responsive to price.30 Similarly, Fink, Mattoo,
presence of terrorism, as well as internal and external and Neagu emphasize the importance of strengthened
conflict, is equivalent to having a 30 percent tariff on disciplines on restrictive business practices in maritime
trade.25 They observe “This is larger than estimated tar- shipping.31
iff-equivalent costs of border and language barriers and Second, some of these issues cannot be adequately
tariff-equivalent reduction through GSPs and WTO par- dealt with through independent actions at the national
ticipation.” Similarly, Gani and Prasad find that institu- level, but require international cooperation and coordi-
tional quality as captured by measure of government nation. Obvious examples include compatible infrastruc-
effectiveness, regulatory quality, control of corruption, ture and communications systems as well as mutual
and rule of law has an important impact on the trade of recognition and cooperation with respect to standards,
Pacific Island Countries. 26, 27 technical specifications, and conformity assessments.
In sum, there are a large variety of effects that Moenius (2004) finds, for example, that a 1 percent
enable the flow of trade. Although governmental tariff increase in bilaterally shared standards between the
and non-tariff barriers at the border and the costs of United States and its trading partners increases US trade
transportation exert significant effects, the costs of trade volumes by $6 billion.32
are affected by a host of other considerations as well. In Third, these issues are of particular importance for
their comprehensive survey, for example, Anderson and developing countries. According to Martinez-Zarzoso
van Wincoop conclude that taking a more comprehen- and Marquez-Ramos (2005), “geographical distance,
sive view of trade costs suggests that they could account being landlocked, [and] technological and social factors
for a tax-equivalent of 170 percent for rich countries seem to be more important for the poorest than the
6 with the presumption that they are far higher for poor richest countries.Transport infrastructure and technolo-
countries.28 Wilson, Mann, and Otsuki have shown that gy can be considered as barriers to trade for those coun-
improvements in port efficiency, customs environment, tries with lower endowment levels.”33 One reason is that
regulatory environment, and “e-business” could boost their exports (products such as food, fruits, flowers, and
trade considerably. Measures that raised the countries in clothing) are often perishable and thus more sensitive to
their sample of 75 countries that were below average delays. Disdier and Head report that distance matters
half way to the average of the sample would yield a gain more for developing-country trade.34 In addition, many
of US$377 billion in their manufactured goods trade.29 are far from their markets, have poor interconnectivity
This review of the literature provides support for with their neighbors,35 and lower value per unit exports
the index developed in this chapter. In an attempt to that are more affected by transportation costs. In today’s
capture the full range of factors that contribute to these international economy, many developing countries want
costs, the index takes account of four major elements: to become part of global supply chains that can provide
formal border barriers, border administration, transport just-in-time production sharing. Moreover, in develop-
and communications infrastructure, and regulatory and ing countries it is often the case that inputs cannot be
security measures that affect the business environment. sourced locally. Not making the whole product but per-
As the previous discussion has made clear, some of these forming the parts of the production process for which
costs are pecuniary—these include trade duties and pay- they have a comparative advantage requires trading sys-
ments for services such as transportation, communica- tems that are efficient and inexpensive.36
tions, and security. Other costs take nonpecuniary forms Finally, some the barriers to trade may arise simply
such as the additional time required to obtain informa- because national policies and practices differ from
tion, transport products, and obtain necessary clearance country to country. Obstacles of this type could reflect
and documentation as well as the costs associated with institutions that are deeply rooted and result from local
the losses that occur as a result of damage and theft. But preferences for specific public goods and policies. In
all these costs are likely to affect trade. considering reforms, the benefits from these practices
We end this section with four observations before obviously need to be weighed against the benefits from
proceeding to the detailed description of the index. trade. On the other hand, it could also be the case that
First, while we present these factors individually, there is adopting new measures because they could promote
evidence that they can interact in a multiplicative fashion; trade could yield benefits beyond their trade impacts.
thus weaknesses in one area can raise costs in others.
Corruption, for example, and a nontransparent policy
mechanism could lead to higher tariff and non-tariff
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Transport and
Market Border
communications
access administration
infrastructure
Destination
Border
Business environment
Regulatory Physical
environment security
(providing a sense of competition in the air transport To keep this project at a feasible scope, we have
sector), as well as the extent to which the policy envi- explicitly focused on the flow of imports into a country
ronment encourages foreign direct investment. in the ETI. Of course, it is important to note that most
The security environment in each country is of of these factors stimulate the flow of both exports and
great importance for ensuring the delivery of goods to imports. Introducing elements explicitly enabling the
destination. In this context, the physical security pillar flow of exports will be the subject of future research in
specifically gauges the level of national violence (in this ongoing project studying obstacles to trade.
terms of general crime and violence in addition to the
threat of terrorism), as well as the reliability of the
police services to protect businesses from criminals. The Enabling Trade Index 2008 rankings
Each of these pillars is, in turn, made up of a num- Tables 1–5 show the rankings of all 118 countries in the
ber of individual variables.The dataset includes both overall ETI as well as in each of the four subindexes and
hard data and Survey data from the World Economic individual pillars. As would be expected, the ETI results
Forum’s Executive Opinion Survey.The hard data were provide an important component for explaining the
obtained from publicly available sources, international variation in cross-country trade, as discussed in Box 1.
organizations, and trade experts (for example, IATA, The sections below review the rankings of the following
the ITC, the WTO, and UNCTAD).The Survey is car- five overall regions and groupings: Asia and the Pacific,
ried out among CEOs and top business leaders in all Europe and North America, Latin America and the
economies covered by our research.The Survey provides Caribbean, the Middle East and North Africa, and sub-
unique data on many qualitative institutional and busi- Saharan Africa. Box 2 provides a higher-level analysis of
ness environment–related issues, as well as a number of the difference in enabling trade assessments across 10
specific issues related to trade. different regional groupings.
The 10 pillars are regrouped into the four subindexes
described above, as shown in Figure 1, and the overall Asia and the Pacific
score for each country is derived as an unweighted aver- Two Asian economies—Hong Kong and
age of the four subindexes.The details of the composition Singapore—occupy the top two positions in the ETI
of the ETI are shown in Appendix A. ranking.This result bears witness to these countries’
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As explained in the text, the World Economic Forum’s Enabling • BORDERij takes the value 1 if i and j share a common
Trade Index (ETI) is an attempt to measure the extent to which border, and is 0 otherwise;
countries have in place all of the necessary attributes for
enabling the free flow of trade into individual countries, and to • LLOCKEDij takes the value 1 if i, j, or both are
destination. landlocked, and is 0 otherwise;
This box presents the preliminary results of an empirical
study that uses a gravity model in order to assess how the ETI • CURRij takes the value 1 if i and j share the same
contributes to explaining variations in bilateral trade flows. currency, and is 0 otherwise. This variable is
The baseline gravity model predicts that the closer and the constructed using data from the International
bigger two trading partners are, the more they trade. This model Organization for Standardization (ISO) and reflects
has produced some of the most robust and powerful results in the situation as of 2006;
the field of international trade and in the social sciences in gen-
eral. Since the 1960s, researchers have been seeking to give • COLONYij takes the value 1 if i and j have at any point in
the model a theoretical underpinning—with some success— time maintained, or still maintain, a colonial relationship,
and to improve its predictive power by introducing new vari- and is 0 otherwise. Data come from CEPII;
ables in order to account for trade frictions (e.g., transaction
costs, information costs, transportation costs). The ETI is an • LANGij takes the value 1 if i and j share at least one
attempt to measure how individual countries overcome these common official language, and is 0 otherwise. Data
frictions; a high score in the overall ETI is an indication that a come from CEPII; and
country is relatively successful at doing so.
In light of the above, we formulate the following hypothesis: • the two dependent variables ETIi and ETIj represent
for any given country pair (i, j), the higher the ETI score for i the overall ETI scores achieved by countries i and j,
and/or j, the more voluminous the trade between the two coun- respectively.
tries, everything else being held constant. In order to verify our
hypothesis, we specify the following augmented gravity model:
The gravity model is often estimated using ordinary least
9
squares (OLS). The problem with this method is that it suffers
ln (IMPij ) = 0 + 1 • ln(GDPi ) + 2 • ln(GDPj ) from selection bias. By excluding the pairs of countries that
+ 3 • ln(DISTij ) + 4 • BORDERij report no bilateral trade, OLS overestimates the explanatory
+ 5 • LLOCKEDij + 6 • CURRij power of independent variables, thus producing biased results.
+ 7 • COLONYij + 8 • LANGij In order to address this selection bias we use a Heckman
+ 9 • ETIi + 10 • ETIj + εij (1) two-step estimation method, which produces consistent and
efficient results.1 This approach first uses a selection equation
—a probit model—to determine the probability of two countries
where:
trading with each other. In a second step, an OLS regression is
run to estimate the model (see Equation 1) for those country
• the dependent variable IMPij represents the total value
pairs that report positive trade flows.
of imports of country i from country j or, symmetrically,
Country pairs for which trade data are missing are
the exports of j to i. When import data are not available,
retained—unlike in OLS—and it is assumed that no trade
export data, if available, are used instead. Trade data
occurs between the two countries. Those observations repre-
come from the United Nations’ Comtrade database and
sent the censored observations in the probit estimation, for
are for 2006;
which we construct the latent variable IMPBINij taking the
value 1 whenever i and j report some bilateral trade, and 0
• GDPi and GDPj correspond to the gross domestic prod-
otherwise.2
uct of i and j, respectively, in US dollars and at current
The results of the estimation of the Heckman outcome
prices. Data are for 2006 and come from the October
equation are reported in Table 1. 3 The coefficients on the vari-
2007 edition of the International Monetary Fund’s
ables traditionally included in the baseline gravity model bear
World Economic Outlook Database;
the expected signs and are highly significant. A doubling in the
GDP of one of the two trading partners causes bilateral trade to
• DISTij is the distance between i and j expressed in
more than double. Furthermore, countries sharing a common
kilometers. The distance is weighted to account for the
border tend to trade more than noncontiguous countries. So do
geographic distribution of population within a country.
nations with a common official language, which usually betrays
Data come from the Centre d’Etude Prospectives et
the existence of cultural ties—an important determinant of
d’Information Internationales (CEPII). Population figures
trade. On the other hand, the farther apart two countries are,
are for 2004;
the less they trade. Similarly, trade with or between landlocked
(Cont’d.)
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countries is less voluminous, ceteris paribus. Because in the increase in the ETI score of exporter j boosts its exports to i by
probit estimation the dummy COLONY perfectly predicts the some 39 percent, while an improvement in importer i’s score
value of IMPBIN, it is dropped from the subsequent estimation. raises trade by 19 percent.4
In addition, the Heckman estimation requires the probit estima- These results suggest for instance that if the ETI scores of
tion to have at least one more independent variable than the Guyana (2.95) and Venezuela (2.85) were to improve by 1 point,
outcome equation. Variable CURR is therefore dropped. imports to Guyana from Venezuela would increase by 58 per-
cent, all other things being held equal. The difference between
the lowest average ETI score of two trading partners, Algeria
and Chad, and the highest average score, achieved by
Table 1: Results for the Heckman outcome equation Singapore and Hong Kong, is a full three points.5 In theory, clos-
ing the gap would treble trade between the two African nations.
The addition of ETI performance to a standard gravity
Constant –30.95*** model produces satisfying empirical results. The contribution of
(0.544) the ETI to explaining variations in bilateral trade flows is positive
ln(GDPi ) 0.993***
and sizeable, thereby confirming the trade-enabling feature of
(0.0136)
the index components taken altogether. The publication of the
lln(GDPj ) 1.167***
second edition of the ETI will make possible further research, in
(0.0136)
ln(DISTij ) –1.094***
particular time comparison and panel data analysis.
(0.0242)
BORDERij 1.360***
(0.131) Notes
LLOCKEDij –0.551*** 1 See Gronau 1974 and Heckman 1976. For a recent application of the
(0.0468) Heckman method to international trade, see Helpman et al. 2006.
LANGij 0.974*** 2 The Enabling Trade Index covers 118 countries. This represents 13,806
possible country pairs (i.e., 118 times 117), 12,057 of which have positive
(0.0618) import flows; 1,749 pairs report either no trade or zero trade.
10 ETIi 0.192*** 3 Intermediate results are available from the authors.
(0.0307) 4 Recall the semi-log specification of the model: variable ETI simply is the
ETIj 0.388*** ETI score of i or j, while the explained variable IMP is log-transformed.
(0.0298) 5 Burundi and Chad post the lowest average ETI score (2.65), yet the two
countries reported no bilateral trade in 2006.
Observations 12,057
R2 0.716
The coefficients on ETIi and ETIj are both positive and highly
significantly different from zero, yet they differ in magnitude.
The impact on trade of the score achieved by exporting country
j is almost twice that of importing country i. Indeed, a one-point
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An analysis of the performance of regional groupings from the to the region’s markets, in particular in Canada. Evidently the
Enabling Trade Index (ETI) sheds light on common characteris- infrastructure in both countries is world class, although security
tics across regions that help explain their performance in the measures in the United States put a significant burden on the
ETI and make it possible to interpret countries’ performances in country’s importers, as discussed in the country-level analysis
light of regional averages. The regional rankings shown in of this chapter.
Figure 1 demonstrate that North America, the European Union The East Asian NICs provide a success story on how to
(EU), and the East Asian newly industrializing countries (NICs) take advantage of the globalizing world economy to boost eco-
are the most advanced regions in terms of enabling trade nomic growth rates. Hong Kong and Singapore turned their
across borders. Although trade benefits countries at all stages small size and proximity to the large markets in Asia into a com-
of development and gains are likely to be higher if trade part- petitive advantage by developing regional trade and logistics
ners are more diverse, the ETI results show that less-developed hubs. Efficiently organized public administrations, as reflected
economies are not presently in a position to fully benefit from in the positive assessment of the border administration and the
the liberalization of trade policies that have taken place over wide range and high quality of available logistics services, con-
the past decades. Many obstacles remain in place in these tributed to this success, as did excellent infrastructure facilities
countries. One common hindrance to trade across less-devel- and an entrepreneur-friendly business environment.
oped regions is the poorly adapted transport and telecommuni- Over the past half century, the European Union has gone
cations infrastructure. In the context of the Doha Round of trade the furthest of all regional trading agreements worldwide in dis-
negotiations, which aim at increasing the participation of devel- mantling barriers to trade within its borders. This is reflected in
oping countries in global trade, these results call for investment its overall good performance in the ETI. It reduced border
in infrastructure and for an upgrading of trade facilitation mech- administration to a minimum, harmonized standards, and even
anisms. introduced a common currency. With this, the EU countries are
The average performance of the United States and some of the most open markets worldwide for merchandise
Canada receives the highest overall score on the ETI among the exports, although it must be noted that the region’s agricultural
regions shown. For many years, North America, one of the policy remains a significant hurdle for exporters from non-mem-
world’s largest markets, has been at the forefront of the trade ber countries.
liberalization process. This is reflected in the very open access 11
0
US and East Asian EU27 Central and MENA Latin CIS and Sub- South Asia
Canada NICs Eastern America & Mongolia Saharan
Europe Caribbean Africa
(Cont’d.)
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In most Central and Eastern European countries, the The North African countries have instead chosen to pursue
process of accession to the European Union brought about sig- closer trade ties with the European Union. A particular success
nificant advantages for their trade performance, and although story is Israel, which within a short period of time radically
they perform less well than the top-performing regions shown in changed the country’s trade patterns by increasing the share of
the figure, they outperform most developing regions on the ETI. high-technology products in exports.
The desire to join the European Union provided a strong incen- In Latin America and the Caribbean, despite progress
tive to fulfill the accession criteria, which included liberalizing achieved in improving the business environment and liberalizing
trade and improving the business and regulatory environments.1 trade over the past years, the region has fallen behind the rest
At the same time, border administration was significantly of the world in terms of share in global trade in the second half
streamlined and infrastructure was upgraded. This allowed of the 20th century, as outlined in the World Trade Organization
these countries to exploit wage differentials and increase (WTO)’s International Trade Statistics (Figure 2). As the ETI
exports of goods to the European Union significantly, in great results underscore, underdeveloped infrastructure remains a
part by attracting export-oriented foreign direct investment. significant impediment to enhancing Latin America’s trade per-
Although the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region formance. In addition to poor infrastructure, many countries
groups a number of very diverse countries, many of them clus- need to further pursue trade liberalization in order to fully bene-
ter around the middle of the ETI ranking. Almost all of them fit from the positive effects of trade. In this respect, countries
remain relatively sheltered from international competition such as Costa Rica or, to a lesser extent, Chile could serve as
through tariff and non-tariff barriers, albeit at different levels. positive examples for the region.
Overall, because of their diversity, countries from the region Although countries of the Commonwealth of Independent
have pursued very different strategies of integration into the States (CIS) maintain close trade links with each other, they still
global economy; some countries have progressed with respect exhibit many obstacles that inhibit the flow of goods across bor-
to factors that enable trade more than others. The resource-rich ders, and their ETI scores are somewhat low on average. In
economies of the Gulf that built their wealth on hydrocarbon most of these countries, a thorough overhaul of public institu-
exports are now increasingly competing in global markets, in tions will be necessary to facilitate trade; upgrading institutions
particular in service sectors such as transportation and finance. will also contribute to improved overall economic performance.
12
Africa
Figure 2: World trade by region Asia
South and Central America
Middle East
Europe
60
North America
50
Share of total world trade
40
30
20
10
0
1948 1953 1963 1973 1983 1993 2003 2006
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SUBINDEXES
Market Border Transport and communi- Business
OVERALL INDEX access administration cations infrastructure environment
Country/Economy Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score
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SUBINDEXES
Market Border Transport and communi- Business
OVERALL INDEX access administration cations infrastructure environment
Country/Economy Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score
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PILLARS
MARKET ACCESS 1. Tariff and non-tariff barriers 2. Proclivity to trade
Country/Economy Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score
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PILLARS
MARKET ACCESS 1. Tariff and non-tariff barriers 2. Proclivity to trade
Country/Economy Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score
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PILLARS
BORDER 3. Efficiency of customs 4. Efficiency of import- 5. Transparency of
ADMINISTRATION administration export procedures border administration
Country/Economy Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score
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PILLARS
BORDER 3. Efficiency of customs 4. Efficiency of import- 5. Transparency of
ADMINISTRATION administration export procedures border administration
Country/Economy Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score
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PILLARS
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNI- 6. Availability and quality 7. Availability and quality 8. Availability and
CATIONS INFRASTRUCTURE of transport infrastructure of transport services use of ICTs
Country/Economy Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score
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PILLARS
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNI- 6. Availability and quality 7. Availability and quality 8. Availability and
CATIONS INFRASTRUCTURE of transport infrastructure of transport services use of ICTs
Country/Economy Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score
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PILLARS
BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT 9. Regulatory environment 10. Physical security
Country/Economy Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score
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PILLARS
BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT 9. Regulatory environment 10. Physical security
Country/Economy Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score
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openness to international trade and investment as part of is also reflected in the fairly high cost to import: the
their successful economic development strategy. Hong cost of importing goods is almost three times higher in
Kong’s positive result rests on very good results in all Japan than in Singapore, the best performer on this
four subindexes.The country’s very open market, mir- measure. Once goods are over the border, the country
roring a pro-trade attitude and a high dependence on features excellent infrastructure-related services, ranked
exports and imports as well as its secure and open busi- 7th for this indicator. In particular, postal and logistics
ness environment, contribute to this good result. Hong services stand out for their quality and efficiency.
Kong does not apply tariffs on imported products, and However, it must be noted that Japan’s overcrowded
the business environment is open to investment and for- roads and fairly low airport density negatively affect the
eign workers. At the same time, transport and telecom- environment for trade.
munications infrastructure is well developed and border Australia comes in 17th, with its good perform-
administration is efficient, although businesses express ance with respect to the efficiency of border administra-
some concerns about the level of corruption. tion, infrastructure, and business environment being off-
Compared with Hong Kong, Singapore boasts a set by high market barriers.The country applies tariffs
highly efficient and transparent border administration, an that are significantly higher than in many other coun-
equally open business environment, and well-developed tries at a similar level of development, placing Australia
transport and communications infrastructure. Customs at 86th position on this indicator. Lowering these tariffs
procedures are assessed as the least burdensome and the could contribute to boosting the country’s trade per-
cost of importing goods is the lowest among the coun- formance.
tries covered. However, access to Singapore’s market is Taiwan and Korea follow at 21st and 24th overall.
fairly difficult, as reflected in the 27th rank on the rele- Both economies boast very good infrastructures.
vant subindex. Although tariff rates remain very low, Infrastructure-related services are efficient and widely
access is hampered by non-tariff barriers (84th) and little available, and the use of ICTs is widespread, which
openness to multilateral trade rules.The country’s well- improves the connectivity of companies and the ability
developed transport infrastructure and excellent trans- to track consignments.Weaknesses in both economies
port services and improvements to the ICT infrastruc- include obstacles to market access and a business envi-
24 ture could further increase the ease of getting goods ronment that does not facilitate the entry of foreign
across borders in Singapore.The country’s excellent investment and labor.
business environment facilitates operations of traders Malaysia ranks a high 29th overall, the best-
through an investment regime that is open to FDI and performing country in developing Asia. Efficient border
hiring foreign labor, although more open bilateral Air administration, the low cost of importing goods, and
Service Agreements would be beneficial. manifold customs services facilitate imports. Improve-
New Zealand closes the top 10 at 10th position ments to the transparency of border administration
for countries from all regions. Its highly efficient and would further enhance this strength (the country is
transparent border administration contributes to this ranked 37th on this indicator). In terms of infrastructure,
good rating, as do the country’s low tariff and non-tariff Malaysia is well connected to the rest of the world, with
barriers. New Zealand applies low tariffs, and imports highly developed transport infrastructure and numerous
almost 80 percent of products duty-free.The country’s and efficient transport services available.The regulatory
business environment is characterized by high levels of environment is also conducive to trade through its
physical security and is fairly welcoming to foreign openness to foreign investment, labor, and air service
investment, although obstacles persist with respect to providers. Improving the usage of the latest technologies
hiring foreign labor. Upgrading the quality of infrastruc- would further allow Malaysian entrepreneurs to raise the
ture, in particular roads and railroads, will be necessary efficiency of their import and export operations.
to further facilitate the flow of goods to destinations in China occupies the 48th position.This fairly low
the country. position for one of the world’s most successful exporters
Japan occupies the 13th position in the ETI highlights a number of underlying weaknesses in China’s
ranking. Free market access and the export orientation economy and its trading regime. Above all, China is a
of local companies contribute to this rating, along with fairly closed country. Although its economic success
the excellent physical security environment in the coun- relies heavily on exports, imports are still severely inhib-
try. At the same time, some aspects of the regulatory ited by tariff and non-tariff barriers, despite the country’s
environment are not conducive to enabling trade, in accession to the WTO.The country ranks 108th out of
particular laws that do not encourage FDI and legal 118 economies on tariff barriers, which amount to
obstacles to hiring foreign labor. Although Japan is a almost 15 percent.The country’s border administration
very export-oriented economy, imports of goods appear is fairly efficient; importing products is not costly,
to be hampered by administrative procedures. In partic- although it can be quite time-consuming. A particular
ular, businesses consider customs procedures to be some- concern when exporting and importing is the lack of
what cumbersome, which are ranked 38th overall.This transparency of border administration, which can be
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administration also gets top marks, with customs proce- barriers are high enough to place the country 58th. In
dures that are not burdensome and a particularly low addition, while elements of the business environment
cost to import, perhaps explaining the high transparency are conducive to moving goods over borders, with rules
and low level of corruption related to its border admin- encouraging FDI and allowing for the employment of
istration (ranked 3rd). foreign labor, there are some concerns. Bilateral Air
Germany and Switzerland round out the Service Agreements could be more open (ranked 35th),
European countries in the top 10, ranking 8th and 9th, and there are some safety and security concerns in the
respectively. Germany benefits from an excellent busi- country, particularly compared with the best-performing
ness environment (ranked 4th), with a regulatory envi- European countries.
ronment that is conducive to the functioning of the France is ranked 19th.The country’s greatest
logistics and transport industry, and an excellent security strength is its transport infrastructure quality (ranked
environment for businesses operating in the country. 2nd), with its excellent roads, railroads, ports, and air
The transport and communications infrastructure is also transport infrastructure.The country also shows a strong
among the best in the world, with transport services in proclivity to trade (ranked 10th), with a large share of
particular ranked 2nd out of all countries: the logistics imports allowed duty-free into the country and demon-
industry gets excellent marks for competence (ranked strated openness to multilateral trade rules, although
4th), shipping is easy and affordable (also ranked 4th), non-tariff barriers are non-negligible (66th).The coun-
and its postal service is among the best in the world try’s border administration, while ranked among the top
(ranked 3rd). 20, is seen as somewhat less efficient and transparent
Switzerland gets particularly good marks for mar- than Europe’s leaders, with more time and cost to
ket access (ranked 5th). Although its tariffs overall are import than many other countries. France’s regulatory
slightly higher than those of EU countries, mainly environment is an additional hindrance to the cross-bor-
because of higher tariffs on agricultural goods,39 its non- der flow of goods, with bilateral Air Service Agreements
tariff barriers are comparatively low. As with the Nordic that are not deemed open (66th), some restrictions on
countries, Switzerland’s security environment is also FDI (47th), and difficulties in hiring foreign labor in the
excellent, and it benefits from a supportive regulatory country (76th).
26 environment, with open bilateral Air Service Estonia is the highest-ranked recent accession
Agreements and a relative ease of hiring foreign labor, country to the European Union, at 25th. Most notable
especially compared with several other European coun- is the efficiency of the country’s border administration
tries. Switzerland’s border administration also gets good (5th) and of its specific import-export procedures
marks, particularly for its transparency and lack of cor- (11th), with little time, cost, and hassle for importing
ruption (ranked 6th). goods.The country’s communications infrastructure
The United States is ranked 14th.The country compares well with that of its peers, although the trans-
benefits from its transport and communications infra- portation infrastructure and provided services could be
structure, which is among the best in the world (ranked improved.The picture in terms of market access is
3rd). It also offers good market access (ranked 6th), with somewhat mixed, with low tariffs in line with EU rates
relatively low tariffs and non-tariff barriers and a strong (although higher than those that existed pre-EU-acces-
propensity to trade, as demonstrated by its relative open- sion) and a high share of duty-free imports allowed into
ness to multilateral trade rules. On the other hand, the the country, but high non-tariff barriers (80th).
country’s border administration is seen as lacking some Italy, at 33rd, is ranked lowest of the pre-2004
efficiency. For example, customs procedures are seen as accession EU15 countries, bar Greece, and lowest of the
comparatively burdensome (ranked 42nd), and there is a G7 group of rich economies.The country compares rel-
relatively high cost to import (ranked 65th). In addition, atively well in terms of market access with its peers, and
there are some concerns about security in the country. benefits from relatively good transport services (21st).
The United Kingdom is ranked 16th.The coun- On the other hand, the transportation infrastructure
try is endowed with a comparatively good transport and requires upgrading (51st), and border administration
communications infrastructure (ranked 8th), particularly could also be improved (38th), particularly by reducing
related to the quality of its transport services. Its border the time and cost to import and improving its trans-
administration gets relatively good marks (ranked 14th), parency (40th).The greatest obstacles lie in the business
with low levels of trade-related corruption, clearance environment, particularly regulatory impediments to
perceived to be relatively efficient (13th), and few docu- foreign direct investment (100th) and foreign ownership
ments required to import (3rd), although it is somewhat (93rd), as well as some concerns about safety and securi-
costly (77th) and requires more time than in several ty in the country (48th).
European countries (27th). Its evaluation in the area of Turkey is ranked close behind Italy and Greece at
market access is mixed: while it exhibits the same low 38th, and ahead of several countries that have recently
tariffs as other EU countries and allows a large share of joined the European Union.Turkey affords good market
exports over the border duty-free (11th), its non-tariff access (8th) with notably lower non-tariff barriers than
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developed, two factors that facilitate trade in Argentina. trade on the country’s agenda, as witnessed by the very
The low level of physical security, however, where small portion of imports that enters the country duty-
Argentina ranks 112th out of 118 countries, is a major free. Here, the UAE ranks 107th out of 118 economies.
impediment to enhancing the country’s trade perform- At 28th, Israel places 2nd in the Middle East and
ance. Equally, the regulatory environment—in particular, North Africa region, between two countries that have
FDI-related regulations—are not conducive to moving successfully harnessed trade for development, Chile and
goods across borders. Malaysia.With its high-quality infrastructure, firmly
Just two positions further down the rankings is organized border administration, and intensive use of
Brazil, at 80th position. Brazil’s markets continue to be ICTs, the country presents a number of important
fairly closed, with tariffs and, to a lesser extent, also non- advantages. It is a fairly open economy, with companies
tariff barriers inhibiting goods imports.The country’s serving broad international markets and 80 percent of
border administration is assessed fairly favorably, at 66th imports allowed into the country duty-free (8th rank).
position, although businesses complain that customs pro- At the same time, Israel’s trade performance could bene-
cedures are burdensome. And although transport infra- fit from improvements to the business environment,
structure—in particular, railroads, roads, and ports—is which, although open to foreign businesses, is penalized
fairly underdeveloped, which is not surprising for a by the vulnerable security situation and barriers to hir-
country of Brazil’s level of development, the logistics ing foreign labor.
industry is well assessed in terms of competence and Bahrain, at 37th position, right behind Greece and
reliability. Equally, telecommunications infrastructure is ahead of Turkey and Cyprus, is the third-placed country
relatively widely available and used.The country boasts from the region. Although Bahrain is fairly open to for-
an open and competitive air transport sector. However, eign investment and boasts a fairly good business envi-
as in other countries in the region, a significant impedi- ronment, the country remains, despite its small size, rela-
ment to fostering trade across borders remains the poor tively protected from international competition through
security situation in the country. tariffs.The low share of duty-free imports and the reluc-
tance to engage in multilateral trade rules coupled with
Middle East and North Africa low reliance on export markets points to a low priority
28 The economically very diverse economies of the Middle that is attached to trade by the authorities. In particular,
East and North Africa display varying degrees of success opening up the country to imports would provide sig-
in enabling trade, yet, as the ETI results confirm, most of nificant benefits—the increased competition would
them forego significant benefits from trade because of make the economy more productive, thereby reducing
the high level of protection from international competi- reliance on primary resources and boosting growth
tion.The countries in the region are spread out across rates.
almost the entire ETI ranking, with the United Arab Tunisia comes in 49th on the ETI, with high
Emirates leading at 23rd, followed by Israel and Bahrain marks on the business environment and a fairly efficient
at 28th and 37th, respectively.Tunisia, as the best-per- border administration.Yet the country’s markets remain
forming North African country, comes in at 49th posi- sheltered from international competition, with some of
tion, significantly ahead of neighboring Algeria, which is the highest tariff barriers in the entire sample, ranked
the weakest performer in the region at 108th. 114th out of 118 countries. At the same time,Tunisia’s
The United Arab Emirates (UAE) comes in at border administration is fairly efficient and its business
23rd position globally, right after Spain and ahead of environment is secure, although additional opening up
Korea and Estonia.This very good result at the global to FDI and labor migration would benefit the country’s
level is not surprising when one considers the impres- trade performance. Equally, investment in infrastructure
sive development of Dubai over recent years into the and the use of ICTs would further enable the country
most important transport and logistics hub in the to take advantage of the benefits of trade.
region, and the UAE has made significant efforts to Saudi Arabia ranks 53rd and shows a fairly even
improve the business environment for the transport and performance across all the four subindexes of the ETI.
logistics sector.The good results in the ETI testify to the Although Saudi Arabia has very low non-tariff barriers,
world-class transport infrastructure (23rd), very good tariffs are somewhat higher and levied on 81 percent of
infrastructure-related services, and a conducive and all imports, which corresponds to a low 96th rank glob-
secure business environment, characterized in particular ally on this category.The country, which just recently
by its ease of hiring foreign labor.The most important acceded to the WTO, ratified only a small share of the
obstacle to trading across borders in the UAE remains relevant multilateral trading agreements. And although
the restricted access to the country’s goods markets formal administrative procedures for importing are fairly
through pervasive tariffs.40 This is reflected in the fairly easy, the overall efficiency of border agencies is not on a
low 50th rank out of 118 countries on the market par with international standards. Improvements to the
access pillar of the ETI.This high incidence of trade business environment would also benefit traders, in par-
barriers appears to be rooted in the low standing of ticular regarding regulations related to FDI, which
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dency that is generally attributable to their more-devel- 4 Rogers and Smith 2001.
the more controversial issues in the Doha Round is 13 Limao and Venables 2001.
related to the inclusion of the so-called Singapore Issues 14 Being landlocked and far away from major markets has a signifi-
(Competition, Investment,Transparency in Government cant impact on economic development. See for example, Gallup
et al. 1999.
Procurement, and Trade Facilitation). In the aftermath of
15 Rauch 1999.
the ill-fated Cancun Ministerial Conference, it was
determined that the necessary consensus to introduce 16 Djankov et al. 2006.
three of these issues was not present. However, the 17 Hummels 2007.
fourth issue—Trade Facilitation—was included in the 18 Evans and Harrigan 2005.
negotiations, and has featured prominently.The analysis 19 McCallum1995.
in this Report provides considerable support for this
20 In a study grounded in rigorous theory, Anderson and van
decision. It suggests that agreements on trade facilitation Wincoop (2003) find that national borders reduce trade between
are a vital complement to agreements on reducing for- industrialized countries by amounts of between 20 and 50 percent.
mal trade barriers and trade-distorting measures. Indeed, 21 Messerlin and Zarrouk 2000.
30 an agreement on trade facilitation could be one of the 22 Huang and Whalley 2006.
most consequential achievements of a completed Doha 23 Sadikov 2007.
Round.
24 Anderson and Marcouiller 2002.
We hope that, by providing an objective account of
25 Blomberg and Hess 2006.
the factors enabling trade across borders, the findings of
our research will enhance dialogue between private and 26 Gani and Prasad 2006.
public sectors and will thereby contribute to reducing 27 Levchenko (2007) builds on the literature of incomplete contracts
to argue that institutional quality also affects the composition of
obstacles to trade for the benefit of economic growth trade.
and development.
28 Anderson and van Wincoop 2004.
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38 For landlocked countries, the access to ports is measured. Heckman, J. J. 1976. “The Common Structure of Statistical Models of
Truncation, Sample Selection and Limited Dependent Variables
39 This is in part attributable to the fact that we are taking into and a Simple Estimator for Such Models.” Annals of Economic
account a trade weighted measure. Tariffs on nonagricultural and Social Measurement (5): 475–92.
goods in Switzerland are low. However, those on agricultural
goods are high, likely providing a significant deterrence to Helpman E., M. Melitz, and Y. Rubinstein. 2006. “Trading Partners and
importers. The overall measure is therefore one of low trade- Trading Volumes.” Preliminary and incomplete draft. March.
weighted tariffs.
Huang, H. and J. Whalley. 2006. “Baumol-Tobin and the Welfare Costs
40 The United Arab Emirates apply a uniform tariff of 5 percent on of National Security Border Delays.” NBER Working Paper 12296.
almost all imported goods. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.
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This appendix provides details about the construction Subindex B: Border administration
of the Enabling Trade Index (ETI).
Pillar 3: Efficiency of customs administration
The ETI is composed of four subindexes: the market
3.01 Burden of customs procedures
access subindex; the border administration subindex; the 3.02 Customs services index (hard data)
transport and communications infrastructure subindex;
and the business environment subindex.These subindexes Pillar 4: Efficiency of import-export procedures
4.01 Effectiveness and efficiency of clearance 2
are, in turn, composed of the 10 pillars of the ETI
4.02 Time for import (had data)
shown below: tariff and non-tariff barriers, proclivity 4.03 Documents for import (hard data)
to trade, efficiency of customs administration, efficiency 4.04 Cost to import (hard data)
of import-export procedures, transparency of border
administration, availability and quality of transport infra- Pillar 5: Transparency of border administration
5.01 Irregular payments in exports and imports
structure, availability and quality of transport services,
5.02 Corruption Perceptions Index (hard data)
availability and use of ICTs, regulatory environment,
and physical security.These pillars are calculated on the
basis of both “hard data” and “Survey data.” Subindex C: Transport and communications
The Survey data are mainly derived from the infrastructure
responses to the World Economic Forum’s Executive
Opinion Survey and range from 1 to 7. Survey data Pillar 6: Availability and quality of transport
infrastructure
from the World Bank’s Logistics Performance Index
(LPI) Survey have also been included; the hard data Availability of transport infrastructure
6.01 Airport density (hard data)
were collected from various sources.The LPI data and
6.02 Transshipment connectivity index (hard data)
the hard data are described in detail in the Technical 6.03 Paved roads (hard data)
Notes and Sources section at the end of this Report. All 6.04 Road congestion (hard data)
of the data used in the calculation of the ETI can be
32 Quality of transport infrastructure
found in the Data Tables section of the Report. 6.05 Quality of air transport infrastructure
The hard data indicators used in the ETI, as well 6.06 Quality of railroad infrastructure
as the results from the LPI survey, are normalized to a 6.07 Quality of roads
1-to-7 scale in order to align them with the Executive 6.08 Quality of port infrastructure
Opinion Survey’s results.1
Pillar 7: Availability and quality of transport services
Each of the pillars has been calculated as an 7.01 Liner Shipping Connectivity Index (hard data)
unweighted average of the individual component vari- 7.02 Ease and affordability of shipment 2
ables.The subindexes are then calculated as unweighted 7.03 Competence of the logistics industry 2
averages of the included pillars. In the case of the avail- 7.04 Ability and ease of tracking 2
7.05 Timeliness of shipments in reaching destination 2
ability and quality of transport infrastructure pillar,
7.06 Postal service efficiency
which is itself composed of two subpillars (availability
of transport infrastructure and quality of transport Pillar 8: Availability and use of ICTs
infrastructure), the overall pillar is the unweighted aver- 8.01 Firm-level technology absorption
age of the two subpillars.The overall ETI is then the 8.02 Mobile telephone subscribers (hard data)
8.03 Broadband Internet subscribers (hard data)
unweighted average of the four subindexes.The vari-
8.04 Internet users (hard data)
ables of each pillar and subpillar are described below. 8.05 Telephone lines (hard data)
If a variable is one of hard data, this is indicated in
parentheses after the description.
Subindex D: Business environment
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Notes
1 The standard formula for converting each hard data variable to the
1-to-7 scale is
The sample minimum and sample maximum are the lowest and
highest scores of the overall sample, respectively. For those hard
data variables for which a higher value indicates a worse outcome
(e.g., tariff barriers, road congestion), we rely on a normalization
formula that, in addition to converting the series to a 1-to-7 scale,
reverses it, so that 1 and 7 still correspond to the worst and best
possible outcomes, respectively:
2 The LPI data are derived from the World Bank Logistics Perception
Index (LPI) Survey, which is based on a 1-to-5 scale. LPI data
were normalized to a 1-to-7 scale using the above formula in
order to align it with the Executive Opinion Survey results.
33
(Cont’d.)
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What is at stake?
Over the past few years, a wealth of empirical evidence
has been gathered on the transaction costs that are
imposed on international trade by poor-quality border
management and logistics. Moving goods from the farm
or factory gate to markets overseas often involves a long
and complicated supply chain, with the risk that a single
bottleneck along the way can seriously affect the entire
process. Connecting efficiently to markets is particularly
critical for developing countries, whose firms and farm-
ers typically do not enjoy a high enough margin of com-
petitiveness internationally to be able to absorb high
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transaction costs.Their ability to move their produce transaction costs, and for many of them the costs of
across borders quickly, reliably, and cheaply can mean poor trade facilitation have a bigger impact than their
the difference between their success or failure in inte- tariffs on the domestic price of imported goods. In
grating into the global economy. short, the stakes involved in completing the Trade
The WTO Trade Facilitation negotiations do not Facilitation negotiations and implementing the results
pretend to target the entire logistical supply chain. A sig- successfully are high for many WTO Members, particu-
nificant share of the costs of getting goods to markets larly the majority of developing countries.
arises in areas such as ocean and inland transport, port
management, and warehousing. For the most part, these
areas lie well outside the purview of the WTO, although Negotiating objectives
the Doha Round negotiations on Trade in Services can Mandates for formal WTO negotiations are often fought
play an important role in helping to increase competi- over bitterly by governments, since they set the parame-
tiveness, productivity, and efficiency in these activities. ters for the final results.These mandates can end up laced
The Trade Facilitation negotiations cover a relatively with compromise language that conceals unresolved
narrow, but still significant, link in the chain—the differences at the time a Round is launched, and when
actions that governments take to control and administer these surface further down the road, as inevitably they
the way in which goods move across their national bor- do, they risk bringing the negotiations to a halt while
ders, through the various documentary and physical they are sorted out.
inspection stages to clearing customs and receiving The mandate for the Trade Facilitation negotiations
approval from border agencies such as the health and is refreshingly clear and straightforward. It sets out three
safety or revenue authorities. objectives:
There are no precise figures of the costs that poor
trade facilitation, narrowly defined, imposes on business • to clarify and improve GATT rules on the move-
and consumers, but data collected by the World Bank ment, release, and clearance of goods, including
for its excellent annual report on the costs of “Doing goods in transit, with the aim of reducing the trans-
Business” in its member countries come close.These action costs of trade;
36 data cover all of the official procedural requirements
involved in exporting and importing a standardized con- • to develop special provisions for developing coun-
tainer of goods, and measure them in terms of the num- tries and least-developed countries (LDCs) and pro-
ber of documents required, the time taken from start to vide them with technical assistance and capacity-
finish, and the overall cost of meeting the requirements. building support that will help them to implement
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and better trade facilitation policies and practices; and
Development (OECD) countries set the benchmark for
best practice as a regional group, requiring on average • to improve communication and cooperation
about 5 separate documents and clearing the goods in between the customs authorities of WTO
an average of 10 days at an average cost of about Members.
US$950 per container.1 In contrast, in sub-Saharan
Africa almost double the number of documents are The most important target of these negotiations is to
required: goods take from 35 days (for exports) to 44 assist developing countries and LDCs to implement
days (for imports) to clear at an average cost per con- trade facilitation reforms and to adopt better practices
tainer of between US$1,660 (for exports) and US$1,986 that will enable them to move goods across their borders
(for imports).The overall world champion at trade facil- more efficiently than they do today.The negotiations are
itation is Singapore, where 4 documents are required not inconsequential for the industrial countries such as
and goods are cleared in, at most, 5 days at an average the United States or those in the European Union.They
cost of around US$400 per container. At the other end too have scope to make reforms and improve their prac-
of the scale are many of the low-income developing tices, and better GATT rules will bring outside pressure
countries, in particular the landlocked developing coun- on them to move in that direction as well as helping to
tries whose trade facilitation costs can mushroom as a avoid unnecessary trade disputes between them from
result of the effort required to move goods in transit by flaring up, as they have done at times in the past.
road or rail through their neighbors to their nearest Overall, however, it is the developing countries and
international port.2 LDCs that have the most to gain.They have the biggest
Handicapping the world’s least competitive produc- deficit to make up in reaching standards of international
ers and poorest consumers with additional transaction best practice and the accent has been placed firmly on
costs of US$1,000 or more for each container of goods assisting them do that in practical terms by providing
that they manage to export or import is clearly absurd. them with technical and, where necessary, financial sup-
The trade barriers they face in their main export mar- port, not on litigating against them through the WTO’s
kets are, in most cases, far less significant than these legal system.
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Procurement, and Trade Facilitation—were promoted assistance under this needs-assessment program, and the
heavily, by the European Union in particular, at the secretariat is organizing missions at the rate of five or six
WTO’s Ministerial Conference in Singapore in 1996. countries per month to respond to these requests, with
Trade Facilitation was always the least contentious of the the help of customs experts from other intergovernmen-
four issues, but even so it did raise concerns, especially tal agencies such as the World Bank and the World
among low-income developing countries, that it would Customs Organization as well as from the national
overload the capacity of these countries to upgrade their administrations of other WTO Members. Over the
trade infrastructure by requiring them to take on addi- course of a one-week workshop held in each country’s
tional, expensive but unfunded WTO obligations.When national capital, representatives from all relevant border
proposals to launch negotiations on the other three agencies meet together to study the proposals, learn
Singapore Issues were finally dropped at the WTO’s from the experts how other countries manage their cus-
Cancun Ministerial Conference in 2003, attention toms and border procedures, and assess what steps they
turned to crafting a negotiating mandate for Trade would need to take to raise their own trade facilitation
Facilitation that would allay these concerns. practices up to international norms. Experience has
The result provided ex ante assurance to developing shown that, beyond the preparation of a detailed needs
countries and LDCs on three points: they would receive assessment, one of the most valuable and rewarding
help to participate fully in the negotiations so that the results of the exercise is to generate better understanding
substantive issues of most commercial interest to them and closer cooperation among the different national
would be taken fully on board; they would receive gen- agencies involved in the border management process.
erous technical assistance and capacity-building support That alone can begin yielding practical results on the
to implement the results of the negotiations; and, on a ground and lower the transaction costs of the country’s
somewhat more defensive note, they would not be trade, even before official negotiations have been com-
required to undertake new WTO obligations until that pleted.
assistance and support has been provided. Once the The finished needs assessment for each WTO
negotiations got going and it became clear that develop- Member government is an important input to the com-
ing countries and LDCs were enthusiastic about sharing pletion of the negotiating process back in the WTO
38 fully in the potential benefits of a final agreement, atten- headquarters in Geneva. Negotiators are currently
tion turned to designing an effective delivery mecha- working on a framework to implement the eventual
nism to ensure that the technical assistance and capacity- Trade Facilitation agreement that would see developing
building support is provided and that it does produce countries and LDCs scheduling their trade facilitation
real trade facilitation results on the ground, where it reforms in three categories:
counts.
Enhancing the ability of low-income developing • those reforms that they have already undertaken or
countries to participate effectively in the negotiating that they consider can be undertaken relatively easi-
process may sound like a mere detail, but it matters a ly and that they can therefore agree to implement
great deal for those that can afford to maintain only a straight away, as soon as the agreement is finalized;
very limited staff at their permanent missions in Geneva
and that require the presence of customs and other • a second category that the national needs-assess-
experts from capitals at the negotiating table to make ment exercise has shown they would require time
sure that their own commercial interests are well repre- to carry out; and
sented. A facility has therefore been set up to cover the
costs of periodically bringing experts from low-income • a third category for which they require not only
countries to Geneva for the negotiating sessions, thanks time but also technical assistance and capacity-
to funding that, to date, comes from Norway and the building support in order to complete satisfactorily.
United Kingdom.
As for the second and third points of assurance pro- Since the trade facilitation situation on the ground differs
vided in the negotiating mandate, negotiations to create from country to country, each Member government’s
an effective delivery mechanism for technical assistance schedule is likely to differ too, but that is not a real con-
and capacity-building support are still underway, but the cern.The aim is not to line up all WTO Members at
broad lines that will be involved are already fairly clear. the start, but to help them all to reach the finish success-
The first step, which is already being organized by fully, especially those that need the help most.
the WTO Secretariat, involves expert support to indi- Following up on the third category of commitments
vidual developing countries to help them review their in a Member government’s schedule—those that require
current trade facilitation practices and to assess what not only time but also technical assistance and capacity-
more they would need to do to implement in full the building support to implement fully—will clearly be an
package of draft proposals that is on the table today. essential part of the process. It will require close cooper-
About 70 WTO Member governments have requested ation between the WTO and other intergovernmental
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is that direct policy instruments, such as tariffs and the In other words, additional taxes are authorized as long as
tariff equivalents of quotas, are less important than other they are not used in a discriminatory manner; however,
policies. A rough estimate of the tax equivalent of typical it is not easy to identify in which cases discrimination
trade costs for industrialized countries is 170 percent.4 occurs. Additional customs charges, for instance, are de
This number breaks down as follows: 21 percent facto discriminating against imports. Excise duties on
transportation costs have to be added to 44 percent bor- products that are neither exported nor manufactured
der-related trade measures (possibly including additional domestically but imported only (rum in Iceland, for
taxes), plus 55 percent retail and wholesale distribution instance) affect imports but not domestic production,
costs.Transportation costs include both directly meas- and so on. Accordingly, we adopt an approach that is
ured freight costs and a 9 percent tax equivalent of the open minded and takes into account all taxes, whatever
time value of goods in transit.The border-related barrier their purpose.
is a combination of direct observation and inferred
costs. All in all, total international trade costs are the sum
of 44 percent and 21 percent, hence 74 percent.5 A tentative classification of additional taxes
This is to be compared with the direct evidence on In order to shed light on these taxes, extensive informa-
border costs: tariff barriers for a country such as the tion and data have been collected for a series of coun-
United States are typically negligible on average; and, tries.We propose a tentative classification as follows:
more generally, on average are less than 5 percent for
rich countries even when the largely protected agricul- • A first series of charges are collected at the border.
tural sector is taken into account. This is the group called customs. What we group
Anderson and van Wincoop rely on estimations of here are typically inspection charges, customs serv-
ad valorem equivalents of non-tariff barriers when it ice charges, statistical charges, and so on.
comes to obtaining the 44 percent border-related trade
measures.The traditional means for obtaining such fig- • A second series of charges are very similar to tariffs,
ures relies on a theoretically founded gravity equation in even if they are not recorded as such.This group is
which information on the presence of non-tariff meas- called pseudo-tariffs, and it includes safeguard clause
42 ures (NTMs) as documented in UNCTAD’s Trade tariffs, temporary additional tariffs, transport equal-
Analysis and Information System (TRAINS) database is ization taxes, and so on.
introduced. Using the estimated value of the price elas-
ticity of imports (the sensitivity of imports to changes in • A third category groups all additional charges levied
price), the impact of the NTMs on the volume of trade on behalf of regional unions: we call this group
can be translated into an ad valorem tariff equivalent. regional taxes.
Kee et al. (2006) propose the most extensive computa-
tion of such ad valorem equivalents.6 • A fourth category corresponds to all excise duties.
Still, NTMs, as partially recorded in TRAINs, are Very often alcohol and tobacco are affected, but
only part of the story. Fontagné et al. (2005) show that there are other rationales, such as luxury and sin
deviations from the expected trade patterns are typically taxes.This is the group we call excise duties.
large when international trade is compared with domes-
tic trade, which provides the correct benchmark in • The next category is used on behalf of the protec-
terms of economic integration.7 The very large ad val- tion of the environment and public health. From
orem equivalents of border effects are resilient to the recycling fees and taxes on solid wastes and petrole-
introduction of tariffs and TRAINs-type NTMs.This um to charges for national health insurance, the
means that additional regulation, charges, and hidden scope of this category is very wide.We group all
obstacles must hinder trade. Additional charges are one these charges under the item environment.
example of hidden charges, and have not been investi-
gated thoroughly so far despite being clearly recognized In addition to these five categories are the follow-
in the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) ing three groups of taxes: one corresponding to “intel-
part II article III: lectual property” levies, one corresponding to “sales
taxes” and a group, designated not elsewhere specified
The contracting parties recognize that internal taxes (NES), for additional unclassified taxes.8
and other internal charges, and laws, regulations and In the tables and figures of this chapter, pseudo
requirements affecting the internal sale, offering for stands for pseudo-tariffs, excise stands for excise duties,
sale, purchase, transportation, distribution or use of IPT stands for intellectual property levies, sales stands for
products, and internal quantitative regulations requir- sales taxes, and NES stands for the unclassified taxes.
ing the mixture, processing or use of products in
specified amounts or proportions, should not be
applied to imported or domestic products so as to
afford protection to domestic production.
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Table 1: Average additional taxes for the country sample, by sector (2007), percent
Total
additional
Description Customs Environment Excise IPT Pseudo Regional Sales NES taxes VAT
Live Animals; Animal Products 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.2 0.1 0.4 7.7
Vegetable Products 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.1 0.6 7.4
Animal or Vegetable Fats and Oils and Their Cleavage 0.4 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.2 1.3 10.4
Products; Prepared Edible Fats; Animal or Vegetable Waxes
Prepared Foodstuffs; Beverages, Spirits, and Vinegar; 0.1 0.0 36.5 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.2 0.5 37.5 10.5
Tobacco and Manufactured Tobacco Substitutes
Mineral Products 0.2 0.1 6.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.1 7.0 13.2
Products of the Chemical or Allied Industries 0.2 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.1 0.7 12.7
Plastics and Articles Thereof; Rubber and Articles Thereof 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.1 0.6 13.2 43
Raw Hides and Skins, Leather, Furskins and Articles Thereof; 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.6 0.0 0.8 13.6
Saddlery and Harness; Travel Goods, Handbags, and Similar
Containers; Articles of Animal Gut (Other Than Silk-worm Gut)
Wood and Articles of Wood; Wood Charcoal; Cork and 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.3 12.6
Articles of Cork; Manufactures of Straw, of Esparto or of
Other Plaiting Materials; Basketware and Wickerwork
Pulp of Wood or of other Fibrous Cellulosic Material; 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.1 0.5 13.0
Recovered (Waste and Scrap) Paper or Paperboard;
Paper and Paperboard and Articles Thereof
Textiles and Textile Articles 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.1 0.6 14.2
Footwear, Headgear, Umbrellas, Sun Umbrellas, 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.3 0.1 0.6 14.8
Walking-Sticks, Seat-Sticks, Whips, Riding-Crops and
Parts Thereof; Prepared Feathers and Articles Made
Therewith; Artificial Flowers; Articles of Human Hair
Articles of Stone, Plaster, Cement, Asbestos, Mica or 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.2 0.1 0.6 12.4
Similar Materials; Ceramic Products; Glass and Glassware
Natural or Cultured Pearls, Precious or Semiprecious 0.5 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.1 1.0 11.2
Stones, Precious Metals, Metals Clad with Precious
Metal, and Articles Thereof; Imitation Jewellery; Coin
Base Metals and Articles of Base Metal 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.1 0.5 12.4
Machinery and Mechanical Appliances; Electrical 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.0 0.5 10.9
Equipment; Parts Thereof; Sound Recorders and
Reproducers, Television Image and Sound Recorders and
Reproducers, and Parts and Accessories of Such Articles
Vehicles, Aircraft, Vessels and Associated Transport Equipment 0.1 0.0 1.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 1.4 12.7
Optical, Photographic, Cinematographic, Measuring, 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.4 13.5
Checking, Precision, Medical or Surgical Instruments and
Apparatus; Clocks and Watches; Musical Instruments;
Parts and Accessories Thereof
Arms and Ammunition; Parts and Accessories Thereof 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.2 11.4
Miscellaneous Manufactured Articles 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.4 13.4
Works of Art, Collectors’ Pieces and Antiques 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.2 11.3
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95.0
85.0
75.0
65.0
Tariff duties
55.0
45.0
35.0
25.0
15.0
5.0
5.0 15.0 25.0 35.0 45.0 55.0 65.0 75.0 85.0 95.0
Additional taxes
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Table 3: Statutory and additional protection (all country-sector pairs with additional taxes above 30 percent),
percent (2007)
Total
Customs additional Share of Share of
Country Description duty taxes VAT imports exports
Antigua and Barbuda Vehicles, Aircraft, Vessels and Associated Transport Equipment 17.1 234.6 0.0 51.1 87.5
Iceland Prepared Foodstuffs; Beverages, Spirits, and Vinegar; Tobacco and 20.7 203.7 13.2 3.6 7.7
Manufactured Tobacco Substitutes
Germany Prepared Foodstuffs; Beverages, Spirits, and Vinegar; Tobacco 17.5 111.5 12.2 2.8 2.2
and Manufactured Tobacco Substitutes
Iceland Mineral Products 0.1 90.9 24.5 9.8 2.5
Mozambique Works of Art, Collectors’ Pieces and Antiques 19.4 62.6 17.0 0.1 0.0
Bangladesh Prepared Foodstuffs; Beverages, Spirits, and Vinegar; Tobacco 21.6 61.5 15.5 3.9 0.3
and Manufactured Tobacco Substitutes
Antigua and Barbuda Arms and Ammunition; Parts and Accessories Thereof 19.6 60.0 0.0 0.1 n/a
Papua New Guinea Arms and Ammunition; Parts and Accessories Thereof 0.0 60.0 10.0 0.0 n/a
Guinea Raw Hides and Skins, Leather, Furskins and Articles Thereof; Saddlery and 18.7 48.6 12.9 0.3 0.0
Harness; Travel Goods, Handbags, and Similar Containers; Articles of
Animal Gut
Madagascar Mineral Products 0.4 44.1 1.1 20.7 10.3
Bangladesh Arms and Ammunition; Parts and Accessories Thereof 15.8 44.1 19.5 0.0 0.0
Antigua and Barbuda Machinery and Mechanical Appliances; Electrical Equipment; Parts 8.9 42.0 0.0 9.4 0.7
Thereof; Sound Recorders and Reproducers, Television Image and Sound
Recorders and Reproducers, and Parts and Accessories of Such Articles
Mayotte Works of Art, Collectors’ Pieces and Antiques 10.0 41.0 0.0 n/a n/a
Antigua and Barbuda Natural or Cultured Pearls, Precious or Semiprecious Stones, Precious 21.6 40.0 0.0 0.6 0.6
Metals, Metals Clad with Precious Metal, and Articles Thereof; Imitation
Jewellery; Coin
Antigua and Barbuda Works of Art, Collectors’ Pieces and Antiques 20.0 40.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
46 Papua New Guinea Vehicles, Aircraft, Vessels and Associated Transport Equipment 0.3 36.5 10.0 12.4 0.1
Mayotte Miscellaneous Manufactured Articles 9.9 35.9 0.0 2.6 3.5
Saint Kitts and Nevis Articles of Stone, Plaster, Cement, Asbestos, Mica or Similar Materials; 13.7 35.3 0.0 1.9 n/a
Ceramic Products; Glass and Glassware
Antigua and Barbuda Miscellaneous Manufactured Articles 16.9 35.2 0.0 1.1 0.1
Ethiopia Prepared Foodstuffs; Beverages, Spirits, and Vinegar; Tobacco and 18.4 35.2 14.9 2.9 1.8
Manufactured Tobacco Substitutes
Bhutan Prepared Foodstuffs; Beverages, Spirits, and Vinegar; Tobacco and 57.1 35.1 0.0 2.2 0.1
Manufactured Tobacco Substitutes
Sri Lanka Footwear, Headgear, Umbrellas, Sun Umbrellas, Walking-Sticks, 25.0 33.8 14.3 0.3 0.9
Seat-Sticks, Whips, Riding-Crops and Parts Thereof; Prepared Feathers
and Articles Made Therewith; Artificial Flowers; Articles of Human Hair
Antigua and Barbuda Articles of Stone, Plaster, Cement, Asbestos, Mica or Similar Materials; 11.3 33.6 0.0 0.7 0.0
Ceramic Products; Glass and Glassware
Mayotte Footwear, Headgear, Umbrellas, Sun Umbrellas, Walking-Sticks, 10.0 33.5 0.0 0.6 n/a
Seat-Sticks, Whips, Riding-Crops and Parts Thereof; Prepared Feathers
and Articles Made Therewith; Artificial Flowers; Articles of Human Hair
Ethiopia Natural or Cultured Pearls, Precious or Semiprecious Stones, Precious 35.0 32.7 15.0 0.1 0.0
Metals, Metals Clad with Precious Metal, and Articles Thereof; Imitation
Jewellery; Coin
Saint Kitts and Nevis Prepared Foodstuffs; Beverages, Spirits, and Vinegar; Tobacco and 21.7 32.5 0.0 10.0 5.9
Manufactured Tobacco Substitutes
Mozambique Natural or Cultured Pearls, Precious or Semiprecious Stones, Precious 12.5 32.4 17.0 0.0 0.1
Metals, Metals Clad with Precious Metal, and Articles Thereof; Imitation
Jewellery; Coin
Ethiopia Vehicles, Aircraft, Vessels and Associated Transport Equipment 20.5 32.2 12.5 18.6 0.1
Iceland Wood and Articles of Wood; Wood Charcoal; Cork and Articles of Cork; 1.4 30.4 24.5 1.8 0.0
Manufactures of Straw, of Esparto or of Other Plaiting Materials;
Basketware and Wickerwork
Antigua and Barbuda Textiles and Textile Articles 11.1 30.4 0.0 0.4 0.4
Antigua and Barbuda Plastics and Articles Thereof; Rubber and Articles Thereof 10.5 30.4 0.0 0.9 0.2
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Table 4: Illustrative selection of high additional taxes in our sample (individual importers and HS-6 products)
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Table 5: Statutory protection and additional taxes before and after liberalization (sectoral average for the country
sample), percent
Total
Customs Total additional
Customs duty after additional taxes after
Description duty simulation taxes simulation
Prepared Foodstuffs; Beverages, Spirits, and Vinegar; Tobacco and Manufactured Tobacco Substitutes 20.7 14.0 37.5 19.4
Mineral Products 2.0 1.8 7.0 3.9
Vehicles, Aircraft, Vessels and Associated Transport Equipment 11.7 6.5 1.4 0.9
Animal or Vegetable Fats and Oils and Their Cleavage Products; Prepared Edible Fats; Animal or Vegetable Waxes 11.7 7.8 1.3 0.9
Natural or Cultured Pearls, Precious or Semiprecious Stones, Precious Metals, Metals Clad with Precious Metal, 4.0 3.1 1.0 0.7
and Articles Thereof; Imitation Jewellery; Coin
Raw Hides and Skins, Leather, Furskins and Articles Thereof; Saddlery and Harness; Travel Goods, Handbags, 7.2 4.7 0.8 0.7
and Similar Containers; Articles of Animal Gut (Other Than Silk-worm Gut)
Products of the Chemical or Allied Industries 4.5 3.4 0.7 0.5
Textiles and Textile Articles 11.6 6.6 0.6 0.5
Vegetable Products 10.9 6.7 0.6 0.5
Plastics and Articles Thereof; Rubber and Articles Thereof 6.9 4.9 0.6 0.5
Footwear, Headgear, Umbrellas, Sun Umbrellas, Walking-Sticks, Seat-Sticks, Whips, Riding-Crops and Parts 12.2 7.0 0.6 0.5
Thereof; Prepared Feathers and Articles Made Therewith; Artificial Flowers; Articles of Human Hair
Articles of Stone, Plaster, Cement, Asbestos, Mica or Similar Materials; Ceramic Products; Glass and Glassware 8.3 5.9 0.6 0.5
Pulp of Wood or of other Fibrous Cellulosic Material; Recovered (Waste and Scrap) Paper or Paperboard; 3.7 3.1 0.5 0.4
Paper and Paperboard and Articles Thereof
Base Metals and Articles of Base Metal 4.8 3.8 0.5 0.4
Machinery and Mechanical Appliances; Electrical Equipment; Parts Thereof; Sound Recorders and Reproducers, 3.8 2.4 0.5 0.5
Television Image and Sound Recorders and Reproducers, and Parts and Accessories of Such Articles
Live Animals; Animal Products 18.3 9.1 0.4 0.4
Miscellaneous Manufactured Articles 4.5 3.1 0.4 0.3
Optical, Photographic, Cinematographic, Measuring, Checking, Precision, Medical or Surgical Instruments 4.0 3.0 0.4 0.3
48 and Apparatus; Clocks and Watches; Musical Instruments; Parts and Accessories Thereof
Wood and Articles of Wood; Wood Charcoal; Cork and Articles of Cork; Manufactures of Straw, of Esparto 3.2 2.3 0.3 0.2
or of Other Plaiting Materials; Basketware and Wickerwork
Works of Art, Collectors’ Pieces and Antiques 5.1 3.4 0.2 0.2
Arms and Ammunition; Parts and Accessories Thereof 8.4 6.4 0.2 0.1
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9 We start from the HS-6 level and use a reference group method.
49
References
Anderson, J. E. and E. van Wincoop. 2004. “Trade Costs.” Journal of
Economic Literature 42(3): 691–751.
Fontagné L., T. Mayer, and S. Zignago. 2005. “Trade in the Triad: How
Easy Is the Access to Large Markets?” Canadian Journal of
Economics 38(4): 1401–30.
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Appendix A: Data
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in Europe would use a seamless, paperless system to approach to supply chain performance (see Appendix A:
manage the inland shipment from its 8-hectare campus Structure and composition of the LPI). It provides the
in the gateway port of Le Havre.The transport inside first in-depth cross-country assessment of the logistics
Europe would take less than three days. And to add gap and constraints facing countries. Given their
value for its client and generate more business, the for- uniqueness and significance, the LPI data have also been
warder would provide additional services, such as used extensively in the Enabling Trade Index discussed
improving the client’s internal distribution practices. in Chapter 1.1. Specifically, LPI survey data have been
In Chad the process would be different. Although used to measure several aspects of the efficiency of
only five days should be needed to move the container import-export procedures as well as the availability and
from Douala to N’djamena, the actual time would likely quality of transport services.
be as long as five weeks. In a difficult governance and
security environment, the freight forwarding company
would be trying simply to avoid a breakdown in its Key messages
client’s supply chain. It would maintain company staff The LPI provides some insights on the cost of poor
along the trade corridor to physically track the goods logistics to country competitiveness—and the sources of
and trade documents. And it would have to be ready to those higher costs. A key insight from the survey of
mediate with the trucking syndicate, the security forces, logistics professionals is that, although costs and timeliness
and myriad government agencies. are of paramount importance, traders are primarily con-
cerned with the overall reliability of the supply chain.
Costs related to hedging against uncertainty have become
Measuring logistics performance a significant part of logistics costs in many developing
Improving logistics performance has become an impor- countries. Equally, the cost and quality of logistics are
tant development policy objective.The performance of determined not just by infrastructure and the perform-
customs, trade-related infrastructure, inland transit, logis- ance of public agencies, but also by the availability of
tics services, information systems, and port efficiency are quality and competitive private services. Moreover, in
all critical to whether countries can trade goods and many developing countries, problems of adverse geogra-
54 services on time and at low cost.This trade competitive- phy are compounded by a weak modern services sector
ness is central to whether countries can harness global- because of poor institutions or overregulation.
ization’s new opportunities for development. The LPI shows how different countries are doing
International logistics encompasses an array of in the area of trade logistics, and what they can do to
actions ranging from transportation, consolidation of improve their performance. Country performance is largely
cargo, warehousing, and border clearance to in-country influenced by the weakest link in the supply chain: poor
distribution and payment systems. performance in just one or two areas can have serious
This sequence cannot be easily summarized in a repercussions on overall competitiveness. It also points to
single indicator. Nor is it easy to collect, on a global significant differences in logistics performance across
basis, the information to build a performance measure. countries and regions, reflecting not only the expected
Information on time and costs associated with some disparities between developed and developing countries
important logistics processes—such as port time, time to —especially the least-developed, landlocked countries—
clear customs, and transport—provides a good starting but, more important, significant differences among devel-
point and in many cases is readily available. But this oping countries at similar levels of development. Countries
information, even when complete, cannot be easily that top the LPI ranking are typically key players in the
aggregated in a single consistent cross-country dataset logistics industry, while those at the bottom are often
because of essential differences in the supply chain trapped in a vicious circle of overregulation, poor-quality
structure among countries. Perhaps more important, services, and underinvestment. Among developing coun-
many critical elements for good logistics performance— tries, logistics overachievers are also those experiencing
such as the transparency of processes and the quality, economic growth led by manufactured exports.
predictability, and reliability of services—cannot be cap- Although performance outcomes such as domestic
tured from the information available on time and costs. costs or the time taken to reach a destination are impor-
To address this, the World Bank, with its professional tant, traders mostly value the performance of logistics
and academic partners, has produced the (first) Logistics services available to them: the reliability and predictability
Performance Index (LPI) to start closing the knowledge of the supply chain matter most. For example, traditional
gap and help countries develop logistics reform programs measures of performance such as direct freight costs and
to enable trade and enhance their competitiveness.2 average delays, while important, may not capture the over-
Complementing existing international sets of competi- all logistics performance and thus the ability of countries
tiveness indicators—such as the World Bank’s Doing to use trade for growth.The predictability and reliability
Business measures and the World Economic Forum’s of shipments, while more difficult to measure, are more
Global Competitiveness Index—the Logistics Perform- important for firms and may have a more dramatic
ance Index and its indicators propose a comprehensive impact on their ability to compete.
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100
Percent of top 10 exports in total exports
R 2 = 0.4293
80
60
40
20
0
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
56
The LPI gap, trade, and FDI: Good logistics performers 2 and Technical Note 2 in the appendix) than other
benefit more from globalization countries at the same income level.
The LPI gap (the difference between a country’s actual These significant correlations should be interpreted
LPI ranking and its expected ranking, based on its level in terms of their association rather than causality.
of income) also highlights the association between logistics Improvements in the supply chain contribute sig-
performance and trade and FDI outcomes. Good logistics nificantly to competitiveness by reducing transaction
performers benefit more from globalization. Logistically costs. At the same time, a growing, diversifying economy
friendly countries are more likely to have better global is likely to have the will and the means to improve its
value chain integration and attract export-oriented FDI. logistics performance.
Since trade and FDI are the key channels for the inter- Countries seeking to benefit more from globaliza-
national diffusion of knowledge, poor logistics may tion need to identify the key aspects of logistics per-
impede access to new technology and know-how, there- formance, in particular in terms of their impact on
fore slowing the rate of productivity growth. Conversely, competitiveness.This is the subject of the next section.
increased trade creates demand for good logistics, put-
ting pressure on facilitating reforms and sustaining a Logistics and competitiveness: Why predictability and
market for modern services. reliability matter more than freight costs
This is demonstrated by cross-country analyses of Just as strong logistics performance is associated with
the relationship among growth, export diversification or increased trade in developing countries (described
trade expansion, and the LPI. Countries ranked highly above), firm-level competitiveness is extremely sensitive
on the LPI also tended to have more diversified exports. to the quality of the logistics environment in which it
For non–oil-exporting developing countries, the standard operates. A firm’s competitiveness is influenced by cost
deviation of this gap is 0.3, while overachievers have a and performance of its supply chain, and thus depends
LPI gap of at least 0.5 (Figure 1). on the overall logistics environment—but the main
Likewise, countries undergoing trade expansion impact on a firm’s competitiveness is less through cost
(increased trade-to-GDP ratio) tended to also be those than through the predictability of the deliveries.
outperforming on the LPI relative to their level of Firms have to bear the direct costs associated with
income (those with a positive LPI gap). A logistics over- moving goods, such as freight costs, port and handling
achiever with an LPI gap of 0.5 experiences 2 percent charges, procedural fees (such as bonds), agent fees, and
more trade expansion, 1 percent more annual growth, or side payments. But they also have to absorb the induced
exports 40 percent more variety of products (see Figure costs associated with hedging for the lack of predictability
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1.0
Induced costs
0.8 Direct freight costs
Normalized scale
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
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Excluding landlocked countries, the average inland formance is determined not just by infrastructure and
costs (port and hauling) of importing a 40-foot contain- the performance of public agencies, but also by the
er or semitrailer, for all countries in the survey, is about availability of quality and competitive private services—
US$700: typically 1.5 percent of the value of goods or services such as trucking, customs brokering, and ware-
the equivalent of two weeks of inventories, much less housing.
than the actual costs in many developing countries once The LPI and its indicators also suggest that policy-
large induced costs are factored in.6 This average masks makers should look beyond the traditional “facilitation
wide differences. Large coastal countries, such as Russia agenda” largely focused on trade-related infrastructure
and the United States, have higher costs because of long and information technology in customs, already widely
domestic distances. Other countries are primarily trad- recognized for their importance.To close the logistics
ing overland, as in Eastern Europe, which increases the gap, they should pursue improvements in the markets
costs. for logistics services, reduce coordination failures (espe-
Higher overall import costs are observed in low cially those of public agencies active in border control),
logistics performers. In Africa, even in the larger coastal and build strong domestic constituencies to support
economies of Nigeria and Kenya, the cost of importing reform.
or exporting a 40-foot container is in excess of Moreover, the LPI suggests that there are strong
US$2,000. Costs are also increased by the low economies synergies among reforms to customs, border management,
of scale for multimodal infrastructure or structural infrastructure, and transport regulations. Reforms in
imbalances of volumes of trade along corridors. In some these different areas have a mutually reinforcing effect
regions, especially in Africa and Central Asia, the freight along all links in the logistics supply chain, directly con-
costs are augmented by a proliferation of official and tributing to predictability and performance. Countries
unofficial payments. In western Africa, facilitating pay- performing well have a comprehensive approach,
ments and mandatory procedural fees double the direct improving all the key logistics in parallel; those with a
cost of transportation.7 piecemeal approach, targeting a single link in the logis-
The competitive position of countries at an inter- tics chain, may see initial results but no lasting improve-
mediate development level tends to be eroded if they ments. A comprehensive reform of logistics and trade
58 have low logistics performance and thus much higher facilitation is thus essential. But too few developing
induced costs. Firms in lowest performing countries are countries have created a virtuous circle of improve-
even worse off, since they have to support both high ments. Countries at the bottom of the LPI rankings are
freight costs and very high induced costs (see Figure 3). typically trapped in a vicious circle of overregulation,
The above trends show that the higher logistics poor-quality services, and underinvestment.
costs borne by traders in poor environments are only Reforms to improve logistics should follow an
partially associated with freight transport. And because integrated approach, focusing on the interaction among
of their endogenous nature, these costs can thus be low- infrastructure and public and private services, addressing
ered by better domestic systems and policies.The large coordination failures, and identifying constituencies
differences observed between countries can be explained for reform.To be effective, reforms should improve the
by the fact that the overall performance of a country is predictability and reliability of shipments and not just
largely influenced by the weakest link in its supply focus on reducing average costs and delays. For instance,
chain. Poor performance, even in only one or two areas, traditional measures of performance such as direct
can have very strong implications for overall country freight costs and average delays, while important, may
performance.This insight is important for the design of not capture the overall logistics performance and thus
effective reforms. the ability of countries to use trade for growth.The
predictability and reliability of shipments, while more
difficult to measure, are more important for firms and
Conclusions: Lessons for reform may have a much greater impact on their ability to
By providing a comprehensive assessment of the gaps compete.
and constraints in logistics performance, the LPI and This effort will demand a more integrated, compre-
other information derived from the Logistics hensive approach to supply chain–related reforms,
Performance Survey can help policymakers, private according to the performance of countries, with impli-
stakeholders, and international organizations quantify cations for policymakers and development agencies. For
the constraints countries face in connecting globally. the most severely constrained countries—typically land-
The LPI provides some insights on the costs of locked countries in Africa and Central Asia—innovative
poor logistics to country competitiveness—and the solutions may need to be found, and international
sources of those higher costs. Beyond cost and time donors will have an important role.
taken to deliver goods, the predictability and reliability Cross-cutting reforms need to be supported by
of supply chains is increasingly important in a world of broad constituencies. Creating an effective logistics
just-in-time production sharing. Equally, logistics per- environment requires consistent improvements and the
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performance, it is hoped that the LPI and its indicators Rodrigues, A.M, D. J. Bowersox, and R. J Calantone. 2005. “Estimation
of Global and National Logistics Expenditures: 2002 Data
may help countries break out of the vicious circle of Update.” Journal of Business Logistics 26 (2): 1–16.
“logistics unfriendliness.”
Wilson, J., T. Otsuki, and C. Mann. 2004. “Assessing the Potential
Benefit of Trade Facilitation: A Global Perspective.” Policy
Research Working Paper No. 3224. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Notes World Bank. 2005. World Development Indicators 2005. Washington
1 Makillie 2006. DC: World Bank.
59
2 The survey would not have been possible without the support
and participation of the International Federation of Freight
Forwarders Associations (www.fiata.com), the Global Express
Association (www.global-express.org), the Global Facilitation
Partnership for Transportation and Trade (www.gfptt.org), and 10
major international logistics companies. The survey was designed
and implemented with Finland’s Turku School of Economics
(www.tukkk.fi/english/), which worked with the Bank to develop
the concept in 2003.
8 Raven 2001.
References
Arvis, J. -F., M. Bellier, and G. Raballand. 2006. “Success Factors for
Improving Logistics in a Middle-Income Country.” Transport Notes
Series 35. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Arvis, J.-F., G. Raballand, and J.-F. Marteau. 2007b. “The Cost of Being
Landlocked: Logistics Costs and Supply Chain Reliability.” Policy
Research Working Paper No. 4258. Washington, DC: World Bank.
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Freight forwarders and express carriers are in a privileged carriers. It relies on the experience and knowledge of
position to assess how countries perform on logistics. professionals.Their views matter: they have a direct
They manage operations from factory and warehouse to impact on the choice of shipping routes and gateways
port, from port to overland transit, and through one or and can influence the firms’ decisions about the location
more borders to destination, with each link testing a of production, choice of suppliers, and selection of tar-
country’s logistics infrastructure performance.The World get markets.
Bank’s Logistics Performance Survey taps into the first- The indicators summarize the performance of
hand knowledge of logistics professionals worldwide, countries in seven areas that capture the current logistics
providing a comprehensive picture of supply chain per- environment (Box A1).They range from traditional areas
formance—from customs procedures, logistics costs, and such as customs procedures, logistics costs (such as
infrastructure quality to the ability to track and trace freight rates), and infrastructure quality to new areas
shipments, timeliness in reaching destination, and the such as the ability to track and trace shipments, timeli-
competence of the domestic logistics industry. ness in reaching a destination, and the competence of
the domestic logistics industry. None of these areas
alone can ensure good logistics performance.
The Logistics Performance Index and its indicators The selection of these areas is based on the latest
The Logistics Performance Index and its indicators have theoretical and empirical research,1 and on extensive
been constructed from information gathered in a world- interviews with logistics professionals involved in inter-
wide survey of the companies responsible for moving national freight logistics.2 The LPI synthesizes this infor-
goods and facilitating trade around the world—the mation in a composite index to allow for comparisons
multinational freight forwarders and the main express (see Table 1 in the text).
60
The Logistics Performance Index (LPI) is built on information structed using the principal component analysis method in
from a Web-based questionnaire completed by more than 800 order to improve the confidence intervals.
logistics professionals worldwide—the operators or agents of Each respondent was also asked to evaluate the logistics
the world’s largest logistics service providers. Each respondent performance and the environment and institutions in support of
was asked to rate performance in seven logistics areas for logistics operations in the country in which they are based.5
eight countries with which they conduct business. For each (This wealth of additional information on different aspects of
respondent, the eight countries were automatically generated logistics was used to interpret the LPI as well as to validate and
by the survey engine based on trade flows, income level, geo- cross-check the information underlying it. The questionnaire is
graphical position of respondent countries (coastal or land- available at www.worldbank.org/lpi.)
locked), and random selection.1 The country selection matrix is
presented in Figure A1 in Technical Note 1. Performance was
evaluated using a 5-point scale (1 for the lowest score, 5 for the Notes
highest). The seven areas of performance are:2 1 Although respondents know best the countries with which they
trade most, relying on trade statistics alone would leave small and
• efficiency of the clearance process by customs and other low-income economies uncovered.
border agencies, 2 In Arvis et al. 2007a, Appendix Table A1, the short names for these
• quality of transport and information technology infrastructure seven areas of performance are: customs, infrastructure, interna-
for logistics, tional shipments, logistics competence, tracking and tracing,
domestic logistics costs, and timeliness.
• lease and affordability of arranging international shipments,
• competence of the local logistics industry, 3 See Table A2 in Technical Note 1 and Arvis et al. 2007a, Appendix
Table A1; the Logistics Performance Index is also available at
• ability to track and trace international shipments, www.worldbank.org/lpi.
• domestic logistics costs, and
4 Domestic costs were found to be uncorrelated to the other areas
• timeliness of shipments in reaching destination. in the LPI. Therefore, being less significant, this component was
dropped from the composition of the index.
More than 5,000 individual country evaluations were used to 5 Arvis et al. 2007a, Appendix Tables A2 and A3; the Logistics
prepare the Logistics Performance Index, which covers 150 Performance Index is also available at available at
countries.3 The LPI was aggregated as a weighted average of www.worldbank.org/lpi.
the seven areas of logistics performance.4 The index is con-
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The LPI and its indicators are given on a numerical high- and low-performing countries much larger than
scale, from 1 (worst) to 5 (best).This scale can also be for any other question in the survey. Some of the rea-
used to interpret performance outcomes measures. For sons for this are discussed at the end of this appendix.
example, the analysis based on the additional country This section draws upon the qualitative information
information gathered in the survey indicates that, on provided by international operators based in the coun-
average, having an LPI lower by one point (say, 2.5 tries being evaluated to provide insights on the key
rather than 3.5) implies six additional days for getting institutions and processes determining logistics perform-
imports from the port to a firm’s warehouse and three ance; it then analyzes the importance of reliability in
additional days for exports. It also implies that a ship- logistics performance for competitiveness.
ment is five times more likely to be subject to a physical
inspection at entry. Quality of infrastructure
Telecommunications and information technology (IT)
infrastructure are an essential component of modern
Key factors determining logistics performance trade processes.The physical movement of goods now
To provide a more complete picture of the key factors entails the efficient and timely exchange of information.
determining logistics performance, the Logistics In countries in the LPI’s top two quintiles, logistics
Performance Survey asked logistics professionals about operators rarely have any issues with the quality of the
the institutions and processes supporting logistics opera- telecommunications and IT infrastructure, but close to
tions in the countries in which they are based (Table half of them express concerns in countries ranging from
A1). It asked them to assess critical attributes of the sup- average to lowest performers. In sub-Saharan Africa, 43
ply chain, including timeliness of deliveries, quality of percent of respondents see this as an issue.5
transport and IT infrastructure, efficiency of border The quality of transport infrastructure remains a
clearance processes, competence of the local logistics concern in close to or more than half of the logistics
industry, and domestic costs of services as well as pro- operators in average, low, and lowest performers.That
vide time and cost data.3 61
concerns also exist in even the highest and high per-
The questions in the Logistics Performance Survey forming countries reflects the challenge of maintaining
delved into the quality of infrastructure, the competence physical infrastructure at a level able to satisfy rapidly
of private and public logistics service providers, the roles growing demands.
of customs and other border agencies, such governance
issues as corruption and transparency, and the reliability Competence of private and public logistics service
of the trading system and supply chains.4 Reliability providers
(measured by the predictability of the clearance process The performance of the supply chain depends on the
and the timely delivery of shipments) emerged as a key quality of services delivered by the private sector
concern, with the difference in satisfaction between the through customs brokers and road transport operators—
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and on the competence and diligence of public agencies and the absence of competition lead to corruption or
in charge of border procedures. In these areas, the three poor services—such as those provided by “suitcase busi-
bottom quintiles generally fare much worse than the top nessmen” at border posts. Often the mere presence of
quintile, and the differences in quality are as significant these operators disturbs the clearance process and hin-
as those for infrastructure (see Table A1). For example, ders the emergence of competent local logistics opera-
the satisfaction with customs brokers is fairly high for tors who can work with international operators.
the upper-middle-income countries (around 50 per-
cent), but it is only 8 percent for private providers in Customs and other border agencies
sub-Saharan Africa.6 Clearance at the border is not only a matter of customs
For the lower performers, the dissatisfaction with diligence. Law enforcement agencies and ministries of
the quality of trade logistics services applies to both the agriculture and industry also intervene in the process.
private and public sectors. In those countries where Customs performance tends to be better than that of
logistics performance is high, there is more satisfaction other border agencies; on average, customs clearance
with private providers than with public providers.The accounts for a third of import time (Box A2).This
negative view of private providers in the lower perform- underscores the importance of addressing the coordina-
ers is an important insight.Too often in developing tion of border agencies, especially in countries that
countries, and notably in Africa, inadequate regulations already have attained good customs clearance.
62 Clearance processes by customs and other agencies are delays in Africa (56 percent) and Latin America (43 percent).3
among the most important links in the global supply chain. Key Physical inspections and the time needed for clearance are
facilitation principles have been addressed by several interna- also strongly associated with overall logistics performance. But
tional agreements (such as the Kyoto convention, the World only one-third of the time to import is explained by the customs
Trade Organization (WTO)’s General Agreement on Tariffs and process, the rest by transportation, handling, or delays caused
Trade (GATT), and the current negotiations on trade facilitation by private operators.
at the WTO). In the Logistics Performance Survey, logistics pro-
fessionals provide in-depth evaluation in this critical area,
across countries.1
The Logistics Performance Survey results show a high Notes
degree of information technology (IT) use in Africa, 55 percent, 1 Arvis et al. 2007a, Appendix Tables A2, A3.
a credit to the United Nations Conference on Trade and 2 Information on the Asycuda program can be found at
Development (UNCTAD)’s Asycuda program and some home- http://www.asycuda.org/.
grown projects.2 Preshipment inspection is a major source of 3 Arvis et al. 2007a, Appendix Table A2.
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Corruption and transparency (in days) for delivery of goods confirms the same phe-
Logistics performance also depends on broader policy nomenon (Box A3).
dimensions, including the overall business environment, Taken together, all these factors—quality of infra-
the quality of regulation for logistics services, and, most structure, the competence of private and public logistics
important, overall governance.The way the local market service providers, the roles of customs and other border
for logistics services is regulated directly affects a coun- agencies, governance issues such as corruption and
try’s ability to use the physical internet to connect to transparency, and the reliability of the trading system and
global markets.The transparency of government pro- supply chains—confirm once again that logistics per-
curement, the security of property from theft and loot- formance is about predictability (see Table A1). Predict-
ing, macroeconomic conditions, and the underlying ability is central to the overall costs that companies
strength of institutions are critical factors in determining incur in logistics and thus to their competitiveness in
logistics performance. Unsurprisingly, ratings of the global supply chains.
domestic environment in such areas as corruption and
the transparency of processes and regulation reflect these
findings.The rating for transparency of border processes Technical Note 1: Selection of countries
consistently declines along with LPI scores for the fol- Figure A1 presents the matrix of how the eight countries
lowing groups of countries: poor performers in the LPI with which they conduct business are selected, based on
were also poor performers on transparency of border the respondent’s country of work.
processes (see Table A1). Solicitation of informal pay- The LPI methodology uses the World Bank Classi-
ments is rare among the top 30 countries but common fication of Countries.8 Table A2 classifies all World Bank
among lower performers (close to or more than 50 per- Member countries (184) and all other economies with
cent of responses).7 populations of more than 30,000 (208 total).9 The
country coverage by the Logistics Performance Index
Reliability of the trading system and supply chains (150 total) is also shown.
For operational and analytical purposes, economies 63
For traders at the origin or the destination of the supply
chain, what matters most is the quality and reliability of are divided among income groups according to 2005
logistics services, measured by the predictability of the gross national income (GNI) per capita, calculated
clearance process and timely delivery of shipments to using the World Bank Atlas method.The groups are:
destination (see Table A1, where these data appear in low income, US$875 or less; lower middle income,
bold).The difference in satisfaction between the high- US$876–3,465; upper middle income, US$3,466–
and low-performing countries on this question is much 10,725; and high income, US$10,726 or more. Other
larger than for any other question in the survey. analytical groups based on geographic regions are also
Performance data derived from the survey on the time used.
The Logistics Performance Survey captures the time to import much stronger in some countries in the bottom quintile—not
and export and, more important, the dispersion in time as a only in poor, landlocked countries, such as Chad, but also in
measure of predictability. Delays tend to increase with lower coastal Tanzania and Benin, which have import times of more
overall performance, but also with unpredictability. The effect is than a week.
Top quintile Second quintile Third quintile Fourth quintile Bottom quintile
Highest performance High performance Average performance Low performance Lowest performance
(no. of days) (no. of days) (no. of days) (no. of days) (no. of days)
Best time to import (best decile of shipments) 1.9 2.1 3.7 4.6 6.1
Median time to import 3.2 3.9 5.4 7.1 13.6
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Technical Note 2: The Logistics Performance Index and The sample of countries excludes high-income
multivariate regressions countries and oil exporters.The results are robust to
Straightforward econometric analyses point to signifi- other choices of period (Table A3). Regression 1 meas-
cant association between the LPI and outcomes, such as: ures the LPI against the level of development (Log
[GNI/cap] 2005).The residual measures how much
• Medium-term growth over the years 1992–2005. the countries are performing logistically against their
potential (the standard deviation in LPI gap is 0.3).
• Trade expansion, defined as the overall annual Regressions 2 through 6 measure one of the growth,
change in trade openness over the same period. It is trade expansion, or diversification variables against the
excess of trade growth over GDP growth. LPI and Log (GNI/cap), or against the sole LPI gap.
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European Monetary Union 12 12 100 5 See Arvis et al. 2007a, Appendix Table A2.
High income (OECD) 24 23 96 6 See Arvis et al. 2007a, Appendix Table A2.
High income (non-OECD) 32 10 31
7 Arvis et al. 2007a, Appendix Table A2.
Heavily indebted poor countries (HIPC) 40 37 93
8 See the World Bank’s classification of countries, found at
Least developed countries (UN classification) 49 41 84 www.worldbank.org/data.
Landlocked developing countries 31 26 84 9 Details can be found at www.worldbank.org/data, under
(UN classification)
Classification.
Commonwealth of Independent States 12 10 83 65
Transitional 24 22 92
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries 12 10 83
Dependent variable
Regression 1 Regression 2 Regression 3 Regression 4 Regression 5 Regression 6
Independent variable LPI Growth Growth Trade expansion Trade expansion Theil index
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The World Bank has, in 2004, conducted a study of port effi- Landlocked developing countries 262,535 688
ciency, customs, regulatory transparency, and service sector
Transit developing countries1 6,918,024 1,768
infrastructure. The study concluded that increasing global
capacity in trade facilitation by half, when compared with Source: UNCTAD GlobStat.
1 There is no official UN category of either “transit countries” or “transit
the global average, would increase world trade by US$377 developing countries.” The group of “transit developing countries” shown
billion, amounting to a 9.7 percent rise in global trade. The here is based on a list of countries in these categories, which was generat-
ed by the Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed
majority of gains resulting from such a capacity improvement Countries (LDCs), Landlocked Developing Countries (LLDCs), and Small
would stem from domestic reforms and capacity building. Island Developing States (SIDS) in 2004 under the heading “transit coun-
tries,” but excludes all developed transit countries as well as such devel-
The study estimates that about US$107 billion of the total oping countries as Mongolia, Afghanistan, and several Central Asian coun-
calculated gains would come from improvements in port tries that are both landlocked countries and important transit links. It is
accordingly presented here for purely informational purposes.
efficiency, about US$33 billion from improvements in the
customs environment, and US$83 billion from improvements
in the regulatory environment. The largest gain, of US$154
billion, would come from improvements in the service sector
Table 2: Impact of landlocked condition, by FDI (2006)
infrastructure as well as the increased use of information
technology. Direct investment in reporting Direct investment
economy (FDI inward) abroad (FDI outward)
US$ millions Percentage US$ millions Percentage
Source: Wilson et al., 2004. Economy (current price) of GDP (current prices) of GDP
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Africa and Ukraine. Excessive waiting periods have also been noted at
In a 2005 International Transport Workers Federation (ITF) sur- the Belarus–Russian Federation and Poland-Ukraine borders.
vey on working conditions among truck drivers performing road Waiting times in the South Caucasus are also relatively long.
haulage from seven central African countries to the port of Beyond continental Europe, extremely long waiting periods at
Douala in Cameroon, all drivers recounted prolonged waiting at border crossings with Asia have been reported (Iraq and Turkey,
the border crossings, ranging from at least 2 to up to 5 days. the Russian Federation, and the countries of Central Asia).
Furthermore, all of the drivers reported cases of police interven-
Central America
tions on their journeys to the port of Douala and mentioned that
Crossing borders along the Pan-American Highway, which is
they usually stayed between 7 and 15 days in the port of Douala
the major north–south highway in the region, continues to
before they commenced the return journey.
receive complaints from government and business representa-
Europe tives especially with regard to customs inspections which cre-
According to the Trade and Transport Facilitation in Southeast ate long delays at the borders, particularly at the border of
Europe Program (TTFSE), the maximum acceptable time accord- Costa Rica. One official noted that Mexico can transport goods
ing to European Union standards for clearance of a vehicle to Guatemala in 22 hours because of its fairly good road system
between two countries is 40 minutes. Since the introduction of and efficient customs procedures. It can then take an average
the single European market, border-crossing problems within of nine days to get to Panama because of road conditions and
the European Union are no longer a major issue, although there customs inspections.
are a few exceptions. Border-crossing-related difficulties are
concentrated in the east of the European continent and chiefly
concern border crossings with Belarus, the Russian Federation, Source: Compiled from the ITF Survey, 2005; TTFSE, 2002; ILO, 2006.
71
transiting country. Efforts attempt to reconcile the inter- With the particular aim of increasing the chances of
ests of these parties, and such efforts stress the positive landlocked countries and enlisting the support of the
effects a successful approach can have on the trade vol- neighboring transit country, the project focused on
ume and competitiveness of both. improving conditions of specific transport corridors
along which goods are being brought from the land-
locked country to the transit country’s seaport.The
The corridor- and cluster-based trade and transport decision to concentrate on just one major transport and
facilitation project trade link per region was taken with the deliberate
Development corridors, as in Southern Africa, and intention of achieving regional and local coordination
regional transit corridors, as in Southeast Asia, have been of trade and transport facilitation measures and of finding
continuously expanded and marketed.The UNCTAD- very practical, case-by-case, tailor-made solutions to the
led corridor- and cluster-based trade and transport facil- current problems in a particular regional setting.The
itation approach takes this one step further.This innova- project intended to build on consensus solutions and the
tive project—which is intended to be viable from both a realization that more traffic can improve the performance
development and a market-based perspective—is a joint of the landlocked country’s export industry on one side
effort by public and private operators and is the outcome and create more business in the transit country on the
of a concise analysis of all physical, organizational, and other. In order to do so, UNCTAD initiated “trade and
administrative operations of the transport supply chain. transport facilitation clusters.” Drawing on the role of
economic and business clusters that establish a link
Trade and transport facilitation clusters: Background and between geographical locations and economic perform-
concept ance, thus creating a network of firms embedded in
In 2005, UNCTAD initiated a major new approach to complex inter- and intrafirm relations, trade and trans-
tackle the barriers that continue to hamper the flow of port facilitation clusters bring together those most
goods across borders and to reduce significantly coun- involved in everyday trade and transit operations along
tries’ productivity, competitiveness, and attractiveness to the particular corridor.They include both government
foreign investment. One of the aims of the project was agencies, ranging from customs to fiscal or transport
to reduce the transit transaction cost, as illustrated in authorities, and private-sector operators such as importers,
Figure 1. exporters, freight forwarders, and customs brokers.
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Reductions
• Time
• Cost
Elements
Cost
• Transshipment
• Transit charge
• Border facilitation
Time
Source: UNCTAD.
72
Supply chains and transit chain analysis
The basic rationale behind this new approach was to Box 4: The cluster members and their interest
create a synergy of interests, a better understanding of
the stakes and costs and of the need to build trust and • Landlocked country commercially oriented users
ultimately a sense of “ownership” on the part of the gov- require easy access to efficient transit transport services
ernment and the private stakeholders sides in both coun- in terms of timeliness, reliability, and cost-effectiveness.
tries concerned. It was assumed that, given the practical
nature of the approach, it would be much easier to achieve • Transit and landlocked country governmental agencies
such a convergence of interests and much easier to require overall confidence in terms of fiscal reliability,
physical security, environmental safety, transparency,
negotiate viable and acceptable solutions for all parties
and compliance, as well as the best use of existing
concerned. Similar to supply-chain optimization, where
infrastructures.
boundaries that traditionally segregated the different
segments of the chain are broken down and partnerships • Transit and landlocked countries’ commercially
are facilitated through a strategic application of technol- oriented service providers require unrestricted and
ogy, the cluster approach was seen to break down those profitable access to transit transport support services
barriers that hinder the provision of reliable and efficient markets in terms of fair competition and regional
services and help set free focus for important issues— market growth.
that is, the much-needed collaboration of landlocked and
transit countries. And again similar to the supply chain
analysis, it was intended to structure the cluster approach
as a systems approach (see Figure 2). By optimizing each
single step and making each participant aware of his
actions’ impact on the next participant, the performance
of the entire process would ultimately be improved.
Each partner should then be able to see the whole inte-
grated picture and not just his own separate part.
The combination of the institutional element,
technology, and business in a clearly defined local or
Source: UNCTAD, Cluster Development Guide, March 2005.
regional context made it much easier to have everybody
participate in and be knowledgeable about the actual
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Factory Warehouse Transport Documentation Customs Customs Documentation Transport Warehouse Port Shipping
+ + + + + + +
Landlocked country Transit country
Source: UNCTAD.
73
situation along the chosen transit corridor. It also made other—as well as along the corridor itself (Figure 3).
it easier to adapt internationally recognized trade and The clusters therefore acted as a network that can inter-
transport facilitation measures to the very specific con- vene whenever and wherever necessary to avoid current
ditions of each corridor. Again, similar to supply chain and future bottlenecks and, through partnerships and
management, the cluster creation was accompanied by cooperation, to design viable, practical solutions.
enhanced information sharing and the active use of The mapping of logistics activities accompanying
information and communication technologies systems the transit process made it possible to identify current
to monitor backlogs in both landlocked and transit practices as well as to draw up the optimal solutions and
countries and to analyze major bottlenecks. ways to get to the destination. As mentioned earlier,
The supply chain analysis approach also served as trade and transport facilitation can be quite complex
the basis for mapping the sequences that link and influ- and can require an important institutional involvement.
ence the transit procedure to show internal processes However, when it comes to practical matters, changes
(one’s own contribution and setting) on one side and can be initiated on the local level along the chosen cor-
external processes (the “big picture”) on the other.The ridors without too much complication. An essential part
transit process was thus separated into suppliers—that is, of the project was therefore also the preparation of a
the trade and transport support services; the line of pro- toolkit—a repertoire of all the little steps and measures
duction—that is, the trade operations; and the final that can make all the difference—and a sustainable
product—that is, the actual import delivery or the structure driven by a cluster development agent.The
export shipment. Analyzing every single step of the structure was designed not to be too institutionalized to
physical transport chain and the accompanying docu- allow for better dialogue, and local overview was
mentary and procedural chain (the information chain, encouraged to improve the overall management struc-
which does not necessarily always coincide with the tures and increase sustainability.
actual movement of the goods) allowed for identification
of the weakest links.The groups or clusters of interested Setting up the project: Trade and transport facilitation
and involved partners in this trade and transport chain clusters
could then decide on where and how and when to The project was developed on three continents, in three
intervene to improve and prevent further obstacles along distinct subregions, and along three major transit trans-
the chosen corridor. Such clusters were established at port corridors.These corridors were chosen on the basis
the ends of the corridors—the seaport on one side and of the level of development and service already present
the inland point of departure or destination at the and potentially available in the future.
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Transit
Factory Warehouse Transport Documentation Customs Customs Documentation Transport Warehouse Port Shipping
Customs
Transport
Storage
Shipment
Customs
Transport
Customs
Source: UNCTAD.
74
Africa: The Trans-Caprivi Corridor
Box 5: Setting up clusters and their activities The Trans Caprivi Corridor links landlocked Zambia
with the seaport of Walvis Bay in Namibia (the transit
• Diagnostic phases country). Clusters were set up in Lusaka (Zambia) and
Preliminary data collection, appraisal of the structure the port of Walvis Bay.
of the cluster, assessment of governance structure,
and definition of action plans Asia
In Asia, the chosen corridor linked landlocked Laos
• Trust Building with Bangkok and clusters were set up in Vientiane
To eliminate conflict among members and foster
(Laos), the border region between Thailand and Laos,
cooperation and information sharing
and Laem Chabang ports (the Bangkok cluster).
• Pilot Activities
To test cooperativeness of the cluster through activities South America
such as training The South American corridor linked Asunción in land-
locked Paraguay with the port of Montevideo in
• Capacity Building Uruguay. Clusters were established in the port of
Implemented by cluster members without external support Montevideo and in the Asunción area.
• Regular Activities
In order to enlist sufficient support for the project and
Started off as pilot activities to become a regular part
of the process its objectives, one of the major components was making
the project known, raising awareness of its immediate
• Strategic Activities and longer-term benefits, and preparing possible partici-
Medium- and long-term activities that require more pants for their role within the clusters. Subsequently,
investment and commitment by cluster members clusters and networks were set up and partnership
agreements were drafted and implemented.The various
clusters along the corridors were supposed to focus on
specific operational aspects to ensure the relevance of
Source: UNCTAD.
cross-border-activities for governments and industry
alike in a “feedback circle.”The participants in these
clusters, once identified, were formally convened and
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Landlocked country
Untraded exports Current trade New trade
Investment
Lower costs
Volumes
Transit country Transit services Shared services
Investment
Volumes
Source: UNCTAD.
75
actively participated in information exchange workshops and solve daily obstacles and also to plan for medium-
to drive the process toward the action plan. Key for and long-term actions.
this process was the strong support from high-level To support cluster activities, the project included
government officials and private-sector representatives, the development of information systems to monitor
whenever possible, in a balanced representation. improvements that resulted from the actions decided by
the clusters.The project was fully successful in that recip-
ient trading and transport communities not only adhered
Key findings from corridor and cluster projects to the project approach but also agreed to carry on their
Clusters, whether they group enterprises in the tradi- cluster activities beyond the project completion. Some
tional sense or are trade and transport clusters, will clusters have already secured financing, both internal and
potentially create economies of scale derived from the external, to support this next autonomous stage.The
proximity of the persons and groups involved (Figure 4). project execution has been externally audited and
Geographical concentration, however, is not sufficient to the resulting report will soon be made available by
make a cluster a successful venture.The driver of UNNCTAD.5
reforms is closer and better cooperation. Only when the Some interesting outcomes of the project include
group motivated by common challenges and opportuni- the fact that, at “corridor level,” operators in transit
ties actively participates in the work can a cluster claim countries appear to drive the process, actually taking
success and advance trade and transport facilitation mat- the lead for improving the transit corridor operation.
ters.This will ultimately distinguish successful clusters This was observed in the three pilot cases, an observa-
from underachieving ones.Trust building was therefore tion that challenges the common belief that transit
one of the most important ingredients when the clusters countries appear to be not really interested in making
were set up.This helped guarantee that tangible, practi- the trade life of landlocked countries easier. At the
cal, and immediate results could be achieved within a “higher central or macro level” in transit countries, such
short period of time. a “reality” usually stems from the low volumes generated
It was not necessarily common for the persons by landlocked developing countries, which make their
involved in the clusters to openly cooperate and partici- trade of relatively lesser relevance. Another remarkable
pate in negotiations, but in the three pilot cases, the par- hypothesis confirmed during the course of the project
ticipants, directly involved in the operation of their execution is that informal structures, such as the created
respective corridors, showed a sound capacity to analyze clusters, may find operational solutions and achieve
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Notes
1 According to the UN the Office of the UN-OHRLLS, there are 31
landlocked developing countries in the world. There is no official
UN category of either “transit countries” or “transit developing
countries”; for the purposes of this study, 34 countries were
included.
3 Grainger 2007.
4 ADB 2006.
References
ADB (Asian Development Bank). 2006. Central Asia: Increasing Gains
from Trade through Regional Cooperation in Trade Policy,
Transport and Customs Transit. Asian Development Bank.
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Access is the means of interaction and exchange among tributes to The New York Times and other publications,
people, businesses, and nations.The more it grows, the sums up why Hong Kong tops the list:
more our universe of possibilities expands. Access is
essential to openness—it facilitates open borders, open Hong Kong is a dynamic magnet for striving immi-
trade, and wide-open opportunities for individuals, busi- grants from the [Chinese] Mainland and the world.
nesses, and nations. The city is a bustling meritocracy, and its deep invest-
When governments reduce barriers to trade, they ments in digital infrastructure and business links to
the larger world have combined to create the most
provide businesses with access to global markets.With
access-friendly major city on the globe. The city is so
this access, businesses are given opportunities to expand
successful—and so important to China’s economic
and contribute to economic growth, which, in turn, can
vitality—that the Chinese government agreed to
contribute to eradicating poverty and improving living maintain Hong Kong’s open traditions for 50 years
standards. Additional access to global markets through after the British handover, preserving an experiment
networks such as the Internet allows entrepreneurs to in entrepreneurialism, freedom and self-reliance that’s
start businesses out of their homes and market their unlike any of China’s other autonomous regions.3
products throughout the world.The reduced importance
of location can empower women, who often find it Because it relies heavily on trade for its economic suc-
harder than men to relocate, and can help to promote cess, it is no surprise that Hong Kong appears at the top
gender equality. of the indexes.While it has made deep investments in
transport, digital, and other infrastructures that facilitate
access, it has, perhaps even more importantly, also creat-
Access can be measured ed and maintained a regulatory environment that
Although it drives economic growth and improves ensures openness to trade, investment, and information
human welfare around the world, the concept of access flows.
has always been somewhat elusive—it is easy to identify, The case of Hong Kong demonstrates that enabling
but difficult to quantify and measure.The Access Index access to information and investment flows and ensuring
measures a country’s potential to obtain physical goods a physical and economic structure that enables trade can
78 and information: help level the playing field for economies that have
small internal markets and limited domestic resources.
• Physical access dramatically reduces the economic The top four economies in both the Access Index and
constraint of geographic distance. It allows entirely the ETI rankings—Hong Kong, Singapore, the
new patterns of production, consumption, and eco- Netherlands, and Switzerland—all have small domestic
nomic development.The indicators representing markets.These economies rely heavily on trade for eco-
physical access explore measures of trade, such as nomic survival, as evidenced by the data on trade as a
export permits and hidden import barriers, as well percentage of GDP, shown in Table 1 for the top four
as transport, such as percent of total roads paved, economies in the Access Index.4
port infrastructure, air transport infrastructure, and
railroad infrastructure.
• Information access reduces uncertainty, enables Table 1: Access and the Economy
more timely decision-making, and spurs innovation
Access Trade GDP
for continuous improvement.The indicators repre- Index as % (US$ Population
Country/Economy Rank score of GDP millions) (millions)
senting information access explore telecommunica-
Hong Kong SAR 1 91.1 293.3 159,943 6.79
tions measures, such as telephone lines, mobile
Singapore 2 89.1 341.4 88,275 4.16
telephone subscribers, personal computers and Denmark 3 85.3 83.0 172,357 5.37
Internet users per 100 inhabitants, telephone costs, Switzerland 4 84.2 81.0 274,469 7.29
telephone infrastructure quality, and speed and cost
of Internet access.
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domestic society by reforming the business environment, Respecting individuals, environment, and society
ensuring freedom of the press, privatizing many of its Economic growth, if poorly managed, can damage the
government-owned industries, and transforming gov- environment and social fabrics. However, economic
ernment-sponsored trade unions into free trade unions. growth can also serve as a catalyst for effective environ-
Former Estonian Prime Minister Mart Laar, who mental stewardship and social development. Improved
led the country during its critical years of reform, can infrastructure and efficient operations bring reductions
personally attest to the value of openness in trade: in pollution and enhance safety. Innovative technologies,
paired with efficient operations, help to ensure sustain-
Openness provides many advantages for a smooth able growth. Openness gives people choice and opportu-
and rapid transition to a market economy. It provides nity.
a rational set of market-determined processes for
resource allocation, introduces more competition,
Protecting the environment
allows countries to specialize according to their
As an example of a private-sector solution for environ-
comparative advantages, and lets the market rather
mentally friendly growth, FedEx worked with
than the government pick the winners. A policy
of openness also establishes an environment of
Environmental Defense to pioneer commercial hybrid
transparency, with clear market-based signals for vehicles.The first FedEx hybrid-electric trucks entered
producers.14 the roadways in 2004.The new vehicles provide 42 per-
cent better fuel economy than conventional diesel vehi-
Opening Estonia to foreign investment “created new cles and emit 30 percent fewer greenhouse gases. FedEx
working places, reconstructed old factories, brought new is expanding its hybrid program across the globe.To cre-
knowledge and technology, and made Estonia more ate demand for alternative energy vehicles, FedEx also
modern and competitive.”15 Foreign investment spurred provided the leadership to call for US government regu-
domestic entrepreneurialism and gave citizens the confi- lations that set efficiency standards for commercial
dence to pursue “nearsourcing” opportunities in software trucks.
engineering, for example, with companies in neighboring
Finland. Fueling entrepreneurship and empowering individuals
80 Largely as a result of its reforms in favor of openness The key to changing the lives of the world’s poor is
and access, Estonia has experienced the fastest economic to develop new distribution channels that provide a
growth in Europe during the past few years. Since the sustainable structure . . . engaging the poor as active
start of its reforms, Estonia’s economic growth has aver- consumers rather than passive recipients of charity.19
aged 6 percent per year, and in 2005 it was nearly 11
percent.16 Today, Estonia’s economy is among the freest Access is the key to developing successful entrepreneurs
in the world, ranking 12th in the 2008 Index of Economic from “passive recipients of charity.”With access to tech-
Freedom.17 Its economic success has afforded its citizens a nology, information, and markets, as well as access to
much improved quality of life, and demonstrates to microfinance, the poor have the capacity to improve
developing nations what may be achieved through their own situations. Access can fuel entrepreneurship
openness and access in terms of achieving progress provided that entrepreneurs have the capacities to take
toward the MDGs: advantage of access. Needless to say, access will be valu-
able only for healthy and empowered individuals.The
Poverty and inequality are decreasing in Estonia. Junior Achievement Company Program, sponsored by
According to the United Nations Human Development Junior Achievement Worldwide, serves as a model for
Index, Estonia has moved from the group of not-so- ways that developing nations may successfully promote
developed countries to the group of developed coun- entrepreneurship; FedEx Corporation supports and
tries. Estonia has low unemployment and low infla-
works with this organization.20
tion, and living standards are improving rapidly. The
The Junior Achievement Company Program devel-
budget is not only balanced, but also running a strong
ops entrepreneurial talent among high school students
surplus. Estonia has passed several social reforms,
such as health care and pension reform, and has
by having them organize and operate a business enter-
become a full member of both NATO and the prise from start to finish: the students learn to conceptu-
European Union. By nearly any standard, Estonia is alize, design, and produce a new product or service.
the most competitive economy among new EU mem- They learn the process of capitalizing a business by sell-
ber states. Only 10 years ago, Estonia clearly lagged ing stock in their companies.The students elect officers;
behind most Central and Eastern European countries, negotiate wholesale and retail prices; calculate break-
but it has since passed them and is fast approaching even points; prepare budgets; and pay wages, salaries, and
the living standards of Old Europe.18 commissions.They also conduct market research, create
advertising, and sell products. At the end of the program,
students liquidate their company, prepare a profit and
loss statement and balance sheet, and report their
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What can developing nations do to increase openness I can’t export my clothes outside Paraguay because
and access? the infrastructure is poor, and I rarely even sell out-
Economic growth is the best solution for achieving the side my neighborhood because it is difficult for a
MDGs. It enables nations to reduce poverty by provid- woman to travel alone. 1
ing individuals with opportunities to build better lives
for themselves. Economic growth also provides essential Imagine the degree of success an entrepreneur like Vazquez
funding to address goals for improved maternal health, could achieve if she had access to external markets through
the Internet, lower import and export costs, and reliable
reduced child mortality, decreased incidence of infec-
methods of distribution, including an improved transportation
tious diseases, and improved environmental sustainability.
infrastructure of paved roads, ports, and airports.
In addition, economic growth enables individuals and
governments greater autonomy in determining the pri-
orities among these goals. Note 81
1 Access Review 2007.
Embrace the essentials of openness
By embracing openness and access, nations pave the way
to achieving higher economic growth. First among the
essentials is creating a regulatory environment that is
conducive to trade, foreign investment, and entrepre-
neurial activity. Mart Laar, prime minister of Estonia entirely on the shoulders of governments.The private
during its years of economic reform, understood the sector can provide solutions as well. As a global service
primary need to eliminate obstacles to economic growth. provider in transport and logistics, with physical and
Among its reforms, his administration reduced trade tar- digital networks that span the world, FedEx is commit-
iffs and non-tariff barriers, abolished export restrictions, ted to enhancing access; it enables economic growth,
ensured the property rights of foreign investors, decreased which improves quality of life.
business taxes, and privatized state-owned businesses. Private-sector efforts to ensure sustainability are
Through these and other reforms, Laar’s administration crucial to its success, a position that FedEx has
made it easier and more attractive for foreign investors embraced, as shown by the environmental and youth
to set up shop in Estonia and for Estonian entrepreneurs programs described above. Some of the other issues that
to develop new business enterprises. can be tackled by the private sector are described below,
He understood that foreign investment can help a with examples of FedEx programs that address these
developing nation create the infrastructures and services issues.
that enable greater access and openness, including
telecommunications, Internet services, transportation Improving access for small businesses
systems and financial services.These infrastructures and To make it easier for entrepreneurs and small businesses
services form the backbone of an economy and provide to access the global market, FedEx has developed a port-
the means for continued growth by freeing individuals folio of personalized services, tools, and discounts. For
to pursue economic activities. example, the FedEx PyMex Membership Program sup-
ports small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in
It is not just up to governments—the private sector can Latin America and the Caribbean with strategic advice
help too and tools to make international shipping easy.The pro-
Although an effective regulatory framework is essential, gram provides educational seminars on all aspects of
responsibility for economic development does not rest exporting, including marketing support, packaging
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design, and information about customs regulations. By 20 A second program supported by FedEx is the Healthy Women,
Healthy Economies program, sponsored by the Global Business
helping SMEs compete globally, FedEx can help them Coalition on HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria. This program
contribute to their country’s economic growth. combats HIV/AIDS through a three-pronged approach of health
services, education, and microfinance to support the economic
Since its introduction in Mexico in 2004, the empowerment of women and girls. The program operates under
FedEx PyMex Membership program has worked with the premise that women and girls who are economically empow-
ered, better educated, and have access to health care have oppor-
more than 11,000 SMEs throughout Argentina, Brazil,
tunities to negotiate their relationships and advocate for them-
Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, selves, making them less vulnerable to HIV/AIDS.
Mexico, and Puerto Rico. It has conducted more than
400 export seminars in collaboration with public- and
private-sector organizations. References
Access Review. 2007. “A Personal Revolution: Maria Estela Gimenez
Assisting governments Vazquez.” Access Review: Your Pass to a Changing World.
Atlanta, GA: Unboundary Inc., produced for FedEx Corporation.
The private sector can also work with governments to Available at http://commitment.fedex.designcdt.com/node/386.
increase access. For example, FedEx works with govern- CIA (United States Central Intelligence Agency). 2007. “Chile,”
ments in Latin American and the Caribbean to reduce The World Fact Book. Available at https://www.cia.gov/library/
publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ci.html (accessed February
and simplify customs and trade regulations, thereby
20, 2008).
helping SMEs tap new markets, grow their businesses,
European Commission. 2007. Chile: Country Strategy Paper:
and play a larger role in interregional and intercontinen- 2007–2013. April 11. Available at http://ec.europa.eu/external_
tal trade. relations/chile/csp/07_13_en.pdf (accessed February 20, 2008).
As a global citizen, FedEx is committed to connect- Gobierno de Chile. 2005. Millennium Development Goals, Executive
ing the world in responsible and resourceful ways. Summary. Available at http://www.pnud.cl/odm/resumen(ingles).pdf
(accessed February 26, 2008).
7 See International Trade Centre, www. Intracen.org. ———. 2007b. “Chile: Taking Giant Steps in Drive to Implement
MDGs.” Available at http://www.mdgmonitor.org/factsheets_
8 World Economic Forum 2007. 00.cfm?c=CHL&cd=# (accessed February 25, 2008).
9 See MDG Monitor 2007b. Novogratz, J. 2007. “How Will Access Benefit the World’s Poor?”
Access Review: Your Pass to a Changing World. Atlanta, GA:
10 See MDG Monitor 2007b.
Unboundary Inc., produced for FedEx Corporation.
11 See MDG Monitor 2007b.
SRI International. 2006. How Greater Access Is Changing the World:
12 See Levine 2007, p. 55. A Landmark Study on the Relevance of Access to People,
Businesses and Nations. Available at http://commitment.fedex.
13 See Levine 2007, p. 56. designcdt.com/files/pdf/access_report_full_06.pdf (accessed
February 11, 2008).
14 See Laar 2007, p. 5–6.
United Nations. 2007. Human Development Index 2007–2008. Available
15 See Laar 2007, p. 6.
at http://hdr.undp.org/en/statistics/ (accessed February 27, 2008).
16 See Laar 2007, p. 11.
Velasco, A. 2008. Chile’s Economy: Recent Performance and Prospects.
17 See The Heritage Foundation 2008. Presentation of Chilean Finance Minister, Andrés Velasco, to the
OECD Development Center on January 29. Available at
18 See Laar 2007, p. 11. http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/17/55/40040445.pdf (accessed
February 20, 2008).
19 See Novogratz 2007, p. 19.
World Economic Forum. 2007. The Global Competitiveness Report
2007–2008. Basingstoke, UK and New York: Palgrave MacMillan.
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Part 2
Country/Economy Profiles
and Data Presentation
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2.1
Country/Economy Profiles
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Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Key indicators
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook 40
Database (October 2007); World Trade Organization, Statistics 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006
Database, Trade profiles 2007
Source: IMF, World Economic Outlook Database (Oct. 2007); WTO, Statistics
Database, Time series on merchandise & commercial services (Apr. 2008)
The first section presents a selection of key indicators Main trading partners, 2006
Share of total volume of merchandise trade (percent)
Exports and imports by sector, 2006
Share of total volume of merchandise trade (percent)
that provide a sense of the size of the country and its 100
80
Serbia: 5.1
Others: 6.8 Others: 21.3
Russian Fed.: 4.1
China: 6.0
100
80
68.4
■ Manufactures
■ Fuels and mining
60 Turkey: 7.6
60 73.8 products
20
EU25: 88.1
EU25: 61.0
40
20 15.8
12.8
■ Agricultural
products
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Population 2007 and surface area data are from the World
Enabling Trade Index
Bank’s World Development Indicators 2007. GDP figures Rank
(out of 118)
2008 Index......................................................................................................73
Score
(1–7 scale)
3.7
Market access ...................................................................................................57 4.3
are from the International Monetary Fund (IMF)’s World Tariff and non-tariff barriers..............................................................................13
Proclivity to trade ..............................................................................................104
Border administration.......................................................................................64
5.7
2.9
3.9
Efficiency of customs administration...............................................................58 3.8
Economic Outlook Online Database (October 2007). Efficiency of import-export procedures ..........................................................67
Transparency of border administration...........................................................70
Transport and communications infrastructure ..........................................106
4.4
3.5
2.5
Availability and quality of transport infrastructure .....................................102 2.8
Availability and quality of transport services...............................................118 2.3
Availability and use of ICTs................................................................................81 2.3
89
Business environment ......................................................................................82 4.2
Regulatory environment .....................................................................................73 4.3
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Page 2
Albania
The Enabling Trade Index in detail ■ Competitive Advantage ■ Competitive Disadvantage
1.01 Tariff barriers .........................................................................56 .....■ ........5.2 Hong Kong SAR .............................0.0
Non-tariff barriers ..................................................................11 .....■ ........5.4
2.01
2nd pillar: Proclivity to trade
Breadth of international markets.........................................117 .....■ ........1.9
Uganda...........................................0.1
Germany ........................................6.8
2.02 Extent of regional sales.......................................................114 .....■ ........2.7 Germany ........................................6.7
higher are considered to be advantages. Any variables 1 Two economies: Denmark, Sweden
2 Three economies: Denmark, Finland, New Zealand
3 Nineteen economies: Armenia, Austria, Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Germany, Hong Kong SAR, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Jordan, Latvia, Luxembourg, Mauritius,
Singapore, Slovenia, Switzerland, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom
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List of Countries/Economies
List of Countries/Economies
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Albania
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................3.2 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............3,256.1
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)........................28.8 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................70
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ..............................................10.3 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................6.0
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Albania
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Algeria
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................33.9 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............3,702.3
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)...................2,381.7 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................62
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ............................................125.9 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................4.8
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Algeria
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Argentina
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................39.5 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............6,309.8
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)...................2,780.4 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................53
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ............................................248.3 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................7.5
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Argentina
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Armenia
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................3.0 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............2,248.0
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)........................29.8 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................79
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ................................................7.8 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ................................11.1
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Armenia
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Australia
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................20.6 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ..........42,552.6
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)...................7,741.2 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................14
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ............................................889.7 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................4.4
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Australia
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Austria
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................8.2 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ..........44,308.3
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)........................83.9 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................12
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ............................................366.7 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................3.3
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
20 20 17.7
8.4
8.4 8.3
0 0
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Austria
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Azerbaijan
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................8.5 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............3,633.0
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)........................86.6 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................63
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ..............................................31.1 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ................................29.3
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
5.7 11.4
0 0
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Azerbaijan
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Bahrain
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................0.7 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ..........22,108.9
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)..........................0.7 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................28
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ..............................................16.9 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................6.8
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
32.9 ■ Manufactures
80 80
■ Fuels and mining
60 Others: 78.4 60
products
Others: 95.3 92.6 ■ Agricultural
40 40 60.9 products
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Bahrain
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Bangladesh
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .........................................147.1 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ...............444.0
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................144.0 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007.........................111
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ..............................................70.6 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................5.8
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Bangladesh
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Belgium
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................10.5 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ..........41,605.5
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)........................30.5 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................16
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ............................................442.8 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................2.6
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
20 20 18.9
11.6
9.3 8.7
0 0
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Belgium
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Benin
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................9.0 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ...............690.5
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................112.6 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007.........................103
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ................................................5.4 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................4.0
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Benin
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Bolivia
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................9.5 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............1,293.3
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)...................1,098.6 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................89
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ..............................................12.7 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................3.9
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Bolivia
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Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Brazil
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .........................................191.3 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............6,841.6
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)...................8,514.9 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................49
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 .........................................1,295.4 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................4.4
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
■ Manufactures
80 Others: 39.9 80
Others: 45.3 49.8 ■ Fuels and mining
69.1
60 60
products
Nigeria: 4.3
China: 6.1 China: 8.7 ■ Agricultural
Argentina: 8.5 Argentina: 8.8 products
40 40 19.2
United States: 18.0
United States: 16.3
20 20 24.3
EU25: 22.0 28.8
EU25: 22.1
0 0 6.2
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Brazil
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Bulgaria
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................7.6 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............5,116.0
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................111.0 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................58
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ..............................................39.1 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................6.0
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Others: 33.0
Others: 28.6 ■ Manufactures
80 80
Turkey: 6.1 53.3 ■ Fuels and mining
60 Turkey: 10.5 60
products
Russian Fed.: 15.6
62.4 ■ Agricultural
40 40 products
EU25: 56.5 EU25: 49.7 33.3
20 20
13.8
10.3 5.0
0 0
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Bulgaria
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Burkina Faso
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................14.0 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ...............499.6
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................274.0 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007.........................110
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ................................................6.9 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................6.0
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Others: 23.8
Others: 27.4 ■ Manufactures
80 80 6.5
2.7 ■ Fuels and mining
EU25: 15.4 South Africa: 4.9
62.0
60
United States: 7.1
60
products
Japan: 13.1
■ Agricultural
40 40 72.4 products
Côte d’Ivoire: 17.9
Ghana: 60.9
25.0
20 20
EU25: 29.7
12.5
0 0
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Burkina Faso
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Burundi
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................8.1 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ...............126.9
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)........................27.8 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007.........................118
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ................................................1.0 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................3.5
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Burundi
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Cambodia
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................14.6 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ...............592.0
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................181.0 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007.........................107
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ................................................8.5 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................9.5
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Cambodia
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Cameroon
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................16.9 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............1,109.8
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................475.4 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................92
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ..............................................20.9 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................3.8
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
20 20
EU25: 33.8 28.3
19.3
0 0
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Cameroon
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Canada
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................32.9 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ..........42,738.2
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)...................9,984.7 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................13
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 .........................................1,406.4 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................2.5
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Canada
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Chad
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................10.3 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ...............676.9
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)...................1,284.0 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007.........................104
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ................................................6.4 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................1.5
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
0
Exports destination Imports orgin
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Chad
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Chile
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................16.6 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............9,697.7
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................756.6 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................44
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ............................................160.8 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................5.9
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Chile
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China
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ......................................1,331.4 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............2,459.8
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)...................9,598.1 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................77
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 .........................................3,248.5 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ................................11.5
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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China
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Colombia
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................47.0 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............3,614.2
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)...................1,141.8 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................65
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ............................................171.7 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................6.6
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Colombia
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Costa Rica
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................4.5 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............5,102.5
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)........................51.1 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................59
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ..............................................22.8 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................6.0
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Others: 33.3
■ Manufactures
80 Others: 40.0 80
65.5 ■ Fuels and mining
Japan: 4.7 products
60 China: 4.6 Venezuela: 5.2 60 73.9
Mexico: 5.2
Hong Kong SAR: 4.7 ■ Agricultural
EU25: 14.9 EU25: 13.2 products
40 40
2.0
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Costa Rica
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Croatia
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................4.6 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ..........11,271.4
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)........................56.5 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................41
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ..............................................50.1 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................5.6
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Croatia
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Cyprus
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................0.8 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ..........26,385.9
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)..........................9.3 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................27
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ..............................................20.5 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................3.8
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
17.8 12.9
0 0
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Cyprus
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Czech Republic
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................10.2 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ..........16,371.9
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)........................78.9 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................33
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ............................................168.1 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................5.6
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
20 20
13.8
4.9
4.9 6.5
0 0
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Czech Republic
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Denmark
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................5.5 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ..........57,034.9
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)........................43.1 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007.............................5
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ............................................310.7 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................1.9
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Denmark
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Dominican Republic
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................9.1 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............4,044.5
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)........................48.7 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................60
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ..............................................35.5 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................8.0
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Others: 32.1
Others: 24.3 ■ Manufactures
80 80
Mexico: 6.7 ■ Fuels and mining
62.7
Haiti: 8.8 EU25: 10.8 products
60 60 84.9
EU25: 18.8 Venezuela: 13.4 ■ Agricultural
40 40 products
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Dominican Republic
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Ecuador
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................13.6 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............3,243.2
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................283.6 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................72
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ..............................................44.5 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................2.7
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Ecuador
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Egypt
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................76.9 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............1,738.8
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)...................1,001.5 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................82
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ............................................127.9 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................7.1
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
30.4 ■ Manufactures
80 80
Others: 47.6 Others: 52.0 ■ Fuels and mining
49.9 products
60 60
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Egypt
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El Salvador
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................7.1 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............2,841.4
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)........................21.0 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................73
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ..............................................20.2 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................4.2
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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El Salvador
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Estonia
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................1.3 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ..........15,309.8
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)........................45.2 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................37
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ..............................................20.6 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................8.0
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
20 20 18.4 17.5
13.3 10.1
0 0
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Estonia
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Ethiopia
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................81.2 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ...............205.8
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)...................1,104.3 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007.........................117
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ..............................................15.9 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ................................10.5
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
0 0
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Ethiopia
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Finland
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................5.3 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ..........44,911.9
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................338.2 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................11
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ............................................236.1 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................4.3
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Finland
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France
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................60.9 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ..........40,781.5
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................551.5 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................17
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 .........................................2,515.2 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................1.9
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
20 20 17.5
6.9
11.3 8.7
0 0
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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France
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Germany
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................82.7 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ..........39,649.8
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................357.0 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................18
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 .........................................3,259.2 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................2.4
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Germany
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Greece
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................11.2 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ..........32,009.9
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................132.0 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................23
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ............................................356.3 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................3.9
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Greece
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Guatemala
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................13.2 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............2,503.8
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................108.9 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................76
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ..............................................33.3 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................4.8
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Guatemala
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Guyana
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................0.7 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............1,285.0
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................215.0 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................90
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ................................................1.0 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................5.6
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
13.0
0 0
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Guyana
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Honduras
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................7.5 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............1,326.6
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................112.1 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................88
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ..............................................10.1 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................5.4
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Honduras
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Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Hungary
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................10.0 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ..........13,560.4
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)........................93.0 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................38
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ............................................136.4 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................2.1
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
20 20
3.5 13.4
6.2 4.9
0 0
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Hungary
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India
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ......................................1,135.6 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ...............964.6
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)...................3,287.3 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................93
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 .........................................1,089.9 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................8.9
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
■ Manufactures
80 Others: 40.5
80
48.5 ■ Fuels and mining
Others: 64.7 68.0 products
60 Singapore: 5.3 60
China: 6.6 ■ Agricultural
40 UAE: 8.3 40 products
Switzerland: 4.4
United States: 16.9
United States: 6.3
19.5 38.7
20 China: 7.3 20
EU25: 22.5 EU25: 17.2 11.7
0 0 4.2
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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India
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Indonesia
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .........................................228.1 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............1,824.1
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)...................1,904.6 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................81
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ............................................410.3 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................6.2
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
■ Manufactures
80 Others: 38.2 80 42.9
Others: 47.1 ■ Fuels and mining
65.7
60 60
products
China: 8.3
Singapore: 8.9 United States: 6.7 ■ Agricultural
40 United States: 11.2 Japan: 9.0 40 38.3
products
EU25: 9.9
EU25: 11.9
20 China: 10.9 20 24.9
Japan: 21.6 Singapore: 16.4 17.7
9.3
0 0
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Indonesia
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Ireland
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................4.3 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ..........58,883.3
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)........................70.3 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007.............................4
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ............................................253.3 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................4.6
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Ireland
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Israel
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................7.0 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ..........22,072.8
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)........................22.1 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................30
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ............................................154.3 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................5.1
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Israel
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Italy
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................58.2 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ..........35,385.9
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................301.3 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................19
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 .........................................2,067.7 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................1.7
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Others: 40.5
■ Manufactures
80 Others: 34.7 80
■ Fuels and mining
64.6 products
60 United States: 7.5 60
China: 5.2 85.9
■ Agricultural
40 40 products
EU25: 57.7 EU25: 54.3 23.3
20 20
5.6
7.1 10.9
0 0
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Italy
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Jamaica
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................2.7 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............3,997.6
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)........................11.0 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................61
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ..............................................10.7 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................1.4
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Jamaica
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Japan
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .........................................128.3 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ..........34,022.9
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................377.9 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................21
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 .........................................4,346.0 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................2.0
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
■ Manufactures
80 Others: 33.8 80
Others: 45.3
51.3 ■ Fuels and mining
60 Taiwan, China: 6.8 60
products
Korea, Rep.: 7.8 UAE: 5.5
90.2 ■ Agricultural
China: 14.3 Saudi Arabia: 6.4
40 40 products
EU25: 10.3
EU25: 14.5 35.6
United States: 12.0
20 20
United States: 22.8 China: 20.5
3.1 1.0 11.3
0 0
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Japan
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Jordan
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................6.0 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............2,740.7
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)........................88.8 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................75
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ..............................................15.7 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................6.0
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
■ Manufactures
80 Others: 31.8 80
Others: 42.2
57.1 ■ Fuels and mining
Egypt: 4.2
60 60 69.5 products
United States: 4.7
UAE: 5.6
Saudi Arabia: 7.1
China: 10.4 ■ Agricultural
40 India: 7.7 40 products
EU25: 23.2
Iraq: 12.3
26.2
20 20 11.2
United States: 25.1 Saudi Arabia: 25.6
13.6 14.6
0 0
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Jordan
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Kazakhstan
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................14.8 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............6,313.9
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)...................2,724.9 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................52
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ..............................................95.5 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................8.7
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Kazakhstan
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Kenya
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................36.0 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ...............851.4
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................580.4 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................99
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ..............................................29.5 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................6.4
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Kenya
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Korea, Rep.
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................48.1 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ..........19,624.4
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)........................99.3 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................32
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ............................................949.7 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................4.8
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
■ Manufactures
80 Others: 36.4 Others: 40.2 80
57.4 ■ Fuels and mining
60 Hong Kong SAR: 5.8 60
products
Saudi Arabia: 6.6 89.1
Japan: 8.2 ■ Agricultural
EU25: 9.7
United States: 13.3 products
40 United States: 10.9 40
EU25: 14.9 36.1
China: 15.7
20 20
China: 21.3
Japan: 16.8 8.9 1.6 6.0
0 0
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Korea, Rep.
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Kuwait
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................2.8 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ..........32,259.4
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)........................17.8 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................22
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ............................................103.4 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................3.5
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Kuwait
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Kyrgyz Republic
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................5.4 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ...............662.9
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................199.9 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007.........................105
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ................................................3.5 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................7.5
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Kyrgyz Republic
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Latvia
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................2.3 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ..........11,826.2
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)........................64.6 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................40
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ..............................................27.0 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ................................10.5
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
20 20 14.5
28.8
13.0
0 0
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Latvia
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Lesotho
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................1.8 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ...............647.8
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)........................30.4 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007.........................106
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ................................................1.6 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................4.9
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
6.4
0 0
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Lesotho
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Lithuania
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................3.4 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ..........10,472.3
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)........................65.3 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................43
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ..............................................36.3 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................8.0
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
16.8 10.8
0 0
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Lithuania
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Luxembourg
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................0.5 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ........102,284.2
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)..........................2.6 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007.............................1
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ..............................................47.7 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................5.4
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
20 20
16.0
4.7
4.6 8.0
0 0
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Luxembourg
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Macedonia, FYR
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................2.0 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............3,574.0
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)........................25.7 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................66
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ................................................7.3 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................5.0
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Macedonia, FYR
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Madagascar
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................19.6 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ...............371.2
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................587.0 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007.........................114
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ................................................7.3 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................6.5
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Madagascar
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Malaysia
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................26.2 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............6,146.4
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................329.7 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................54
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ............................................165.0 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................5.8
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
■ Manufactures
80 Others: 39.1 80
Others: 37.0
■ Fuels and mining
60 60 73.4 77.0 products
China: 7.2
EU25: 11.4
Japan: 8.9 ■ Agricultural
Singapore: 11.7
40 EU25: 12.7 40 products
China: 12.1
Singapore: 15.4
20 United States: 12.5 20 15.1
United States: 18.8 13.4
Japan: 13.2 9.7 6.5
0 0
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Malaysia
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Mali
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................14.3 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ...............531.1
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)...................1,240.2 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007.........................108
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ................................................6.9 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................5.2
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
0
Exports destination Imports orgin
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Mali
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Mauritania
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................3.2 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ...............927.7
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)...................1,025.5 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................95
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ................................................2.7 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................0.9
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
40 EU25: 74.6
EU25: 52.6
20
0
Exports destination Imports orgin
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Mauritania
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Mauritius
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................1.3 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............5,572.3
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)..........................2.0 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................57
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ................................................7.0 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................4.7
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Mauritius
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Mexico
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .........................................109.6 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............8,426.3
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)...................1,958.2 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................46
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ............................................886.4 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................2.9
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Mexico
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Moldova
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................4.2 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............1,187.5
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)........................33.8 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................91
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ................................................4.0 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................5.0
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
44.8 25.0
20 EU25: 35.0 EU25: 31.1
20
13.0
0 0
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Moldova
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Mongolia
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................2.7 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............1,469.7
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)...................1,566.5 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................86
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ................................................3.9 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................8.5
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Mongolia
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Morocco
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................32.4 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............2,367.7
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................446.6 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................78
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ..............................................72.8 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................2.5
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Morocco
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Mozambique
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................20.5 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ...............396.7
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................801.6 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007.........................113
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ................................................8.1 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................7.0
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Mozambique
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Namibia
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................2.1 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............3,247.9
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................824.3 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................71
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ................................................6.7 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................4.8
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
EU25: 45.5
20 20 38.9 2.9
17.4
0 0
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Namibia
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Nepal
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................28.2 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ...............400.2
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................147.2 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007.........................112
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ................................................9.6 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................2.5
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Nepal
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Netherlands
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................16.4 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ..........45,429.0
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)........................41.5 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007.............................9
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ............................................754.9 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................2.6
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Netherlands
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New Zealand
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................4.1 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ..........29,697.9
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................270.5 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................25
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ............................................124.4 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................2.8
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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New Zealand
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Nicaragua
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................5.7 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ...............937.4
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................130.0 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................94
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ................................................5.7 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................4.2
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Nicaragua
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Nigeria
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .........................................137.2 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ...............825.0
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................923.8 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007.........................100
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ............................................126.7 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................4.3
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Nigeria
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Norway
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................4.7 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ..........79,153.8
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................323.8 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007.............................2
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ............................................369.3 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................3.5
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
20 20
13.0
5.4 8.2
0 0
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Norway
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Oman
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................2.7 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ..........15,411.9
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................309.5 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................36
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ..............................................40.5 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................6.0
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
20 20 6.7
UAE: 25.9
Korea, Rep.: 4.2 14.1
3.6
0 0
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Oman
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Pakistan
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .........................................164.6 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ...............908.9
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................796.1 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................96
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ............................................143.8 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................6.4
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Pakistan
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Panama
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................3.3 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............5,766.9
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)........................75.5 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................55
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ..............................................19.3 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................8.5
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Panama
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Paraguay
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................6.4 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............1,715.1
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................406.8 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................83
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ..............................................10.3 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................5.0
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Paraguay
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Peru
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................28.8 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............3,616.3
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)...................1,285.2 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................64
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ............................................101.5 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................7.0
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Peru
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Philippines
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................85.9 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............1,590.0
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................300.0 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................84
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ............................................141.1 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................6.3
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Philippines
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Poland
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................38.5 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ..........10,858.1
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................312.7 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................42
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ............................................413.3 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................6.6
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
20 20
9.7 14.2
10.4 7.6
0 0
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Poland
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Portugal
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................10.6 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ..........20,664.8
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)........................92.1 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................31
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ............................................219.5 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................1.8
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
18.7
20 20
9.1
10.5 13.2
0 0
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Portugal
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Qatar
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................0.9 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ..........70,754.3
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)........................11.0 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007.............................3
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ..............................................65.8 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ................................14.2
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Qatar
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Romania
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................21.5 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............7,351.7
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................238.4 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................48
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ............................................158.5 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................6.3
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
20 20
15.4 16.3
5.4 6.8
0 0
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Romania
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Russian Federation
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .........................................141.9 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............8,611.7
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers).................17,098.2 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................45
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 .........................................1,223.7 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................7.0
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Russian Federation
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Saudi Arabia
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................25.8 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ..........15,416.5
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)...................2,000.0 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................35
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ............................................374.5 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................4.1
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
EU25: 14.7
20 EU25: 33.8 20
4.5
United States: 18.7
12.9
0.7
0 0
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Saudi Arabia
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Senegal
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................12.2 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ...............875.3
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................196.7 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................98
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ..............................................10.7 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................5.1
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
■ Manufactures
80 Others: 39.9 80 30.5 44.5
Others: 45.6
■ Fuels and mining
60 60
products
Thailand: 4.0
India: 5.3
Gambia, The: 5.6
China: 4.3 30.6 ■ Agricultural
40 40 28.7 products
Mali: 20.2 EU25: 51.7
20 20 34.3
EU25: 23.3 26.7
0 0
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Senegal
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Singapore
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................4.4 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ..........34,152.5
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)..........................0.7 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................20
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ............................................153.5 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................7.5
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
■ Manufactures
80 80
Others: 45.7 Others: 43.2
■ Fuels and mining
60 60 73.3 products
Japan: 8.3 78.8
China: 9.7 ■ Agricultural
40 Hong Kong SAR: 10.0
EU25: 11.3 40 products
United States: 10.2 China: 11.4
20 EU25: 11.3 United States: 12.7 20
21.1
Malaysia: 13.1 Malaysia: 13.1 14.5
1.9 2.9
0 0
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Singapore
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Slovak Republic
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................5.4 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ..........13,226.6
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)........................49.0 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................39
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ..............................................71.6 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................8.8
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
20 20
17.5
9.5
5.2 6.2
0 0
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Slovak Republic
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Slovenia
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................2.0 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ..........22,079.3
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)........................20.3 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................29
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ..............................................44.4 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................5.4
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
20 20 17.7
8.3
5.7 9.1
0 0
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Slovenia
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South Africa
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................47.7 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............5,723.9
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)...................1,219.1 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................56
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ............................................274.5 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................4.7
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
■ Manufactures
80 Others: 37.2 Others: 35.9 80
55.1 ■ Fuels and mining
60 China: 4.0 Saudi Arabia: 5.3 60 70.9 products
United States: 11.5 Japan: 6.5
United States: 7.6 ■ Agricultural
40 Japan: 11.9 40 products
China: 10.0
34.7
20 EU25: 35.4 EU25: 34.7 20
21.5
8.6 5.3
0 0
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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South Africa
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Spain
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................43.6 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ..........31,471.4
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................505.4 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................24
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 .........................................1,414.7 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................3.7
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Others: 25.3
Others: 34.1
■ Manufactures
80 80
United States: 4.1 ■ Fuels and mining
China: 5.0 75.4 69.7 products
60 60
■ Agricultural
40 40 products
EU25: 70.6
EU25: 60.9
20 20 8.3 20.0
14.9 9.7
0 0
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Spain
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Sri Lanka
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................21.1 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............1,558.1
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)........................65.6 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................85
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ..............................................31.1 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................6.5
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Sri Lanka
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Sweden
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................9.1 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ..........47,068.7
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................450.3 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007.............................7
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ............................................431.6 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................3.6
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
20 20 16.7
9.8
7.7 9.2
0 0
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Sweden
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Switzerland
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................7.3 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ..........56,711.2
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)........................41.3 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007.............................6
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ............................................413.9 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................2.4
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
20 20
13.4
6.1 3.2
0 0 6.3
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Switzerland
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Syria
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................20.0 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............1,928.1
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................185.2 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................80
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ..............................................37.4 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................3.9
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
■ Manufactures
80 80
Others: 44.7
Others: 54.2 10.1 ■ Fuels and mining
60 60
products
Iraq: 6.4 59.1
■ Agricultural
Saudi Arabia: 8.7 Egypt: 5.2 products
40 Ukraine: 5.3 40 51.2
China: 6.5
EU25: 40.2 Russian Fed.: 10.2 3.8
20 20
EU25: 18.6 18.1
12.4
0 0
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Syria
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Taiwan, China
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................22.7 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ..........16,274.1
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)........................36.2 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................34
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ............................................375.6 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................4.1
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Taiwan, China
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Tajikistan
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................6.7 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ...............522.3
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................142.6 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007.........................109
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ................................................3.4 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................7.5
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Tajikistan
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Tanzania
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................39.7 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ...............362.1
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................945.1 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007.........................115
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ..............................................14.1 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................7.1
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Tanzania
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Thailand
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................65.3 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............3,399.9
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................513.1 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................67
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ............................................225.8 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................4.0
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
■ Manufactures
80 Others: 43.0 80
Others: 47.3
■ Fuels and mining
60 60 75.3 66.8 products
Singapore: 6.5 Malaysia: 6.6 ■ Agricultural
China: 9.0 United States: 6.7
40 40 products
Japan: 12.7 EU25: 8.7
China: 10.6
20 EU25: 13.9 20 6.4 24.9
Japan: 20.1
United States: 15.0 16.5
0 0 5.7
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Thailand
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Tunisia
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................10.3 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............3,313.4
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................163.6 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................69
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ..............................................34.1 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................6.0
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
20 20 15.9 17.8
12.7 11.4
0 0
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Tunisia
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Turkey
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................75.2 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............6,547.7
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................783.6 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................51
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ............................................482.0 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................5.0
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
20 EU25: 39.5 20
8.0 20.1
10.1 5.4
0 0
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Turkey
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Uganda
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................30.9 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ...............360.2
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................241.0 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007.........................116
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ..............................................11.1 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................6.2
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Uganda
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Ukraine
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................45.5 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............2,829.7
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................603.6 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................74
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ............................................131.2 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................6.7
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
31.5
20 EU25: 34.7 20 13.6
EU25: 28.3
13.4
7.9
0 0
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Ukraine
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Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
■ Manufactures
80 Others: 41.2 80
Others: 56.6
35.4 ■ Fuels and mining
60 60
products
United States: 6.2 81.0
Japan: 7.2 ■ Agricultural
Iran, Islamic Rep.: 4.4 China: 8.6 products
40 40
India: 4.7 India: 11.5 53.0
Japan: 16.8
20 20
EU25: 25.3
Taiwan, China: 17.5 5.9
2.6 9.0
0 0
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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United Kingdom
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................60.0 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ..........45,301.1
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................243.6 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................10
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 .........................................2,755.9 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................3.1
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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United Kingdom
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United States
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .........................................303.9 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ..........45,593.9
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)...................9,632.0 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007.............................8
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 .......................................13,794.2 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................1.9
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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United States
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Uruguay
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 .............................................3.5 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............6,616.1
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................176.2 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................50
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ..............................................21.2 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................5.2
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Uruguay
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Uzbekistan
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................27.4 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ...............753.1
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................447.4 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007.........................102
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ..............................................20.2 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................8.8
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
20
Russian Fed.: 26.1 Russian Fed.: 26.5
0
Exports destination Imports orgin
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Uzbekistan
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Venezuela
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................27.7 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............8,251.7
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................912.1 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................47
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ............................................226.9 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................8.0
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Venezuela
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Vietnam
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................86.4 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ...............808.8
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................329.3 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007.........................101
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ..............................................69.2 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................8.3
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Vietnam
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Zambia
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................12.1 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ...............895.5
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................752.6 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................97
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ..............................................10.9 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ..................................6.0
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Zambia
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Zimbabwe
Key indicators
Population (millions), 2007 ...........................................13.2 GDP (current prices, US$) per capita, 2007 ............1,378.4
Surface area (1,000 square kilometers)......................390.8 GDP per capita (rank out of 118), 2007...........................87
GDP (US$ billions), 2007 ..............................................16.2 Real GDP growth (percent), 2007 ................................–6.2
Source: International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database (October 2007); United Nations Population Fund,
State of World Population 2007; The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007 (CD version)
0 0
Exports destination Imports orgin Exports Imports
Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database, Source: World Trade Organization, Statistics Database,
Trade profiles 2007 Trade profiles 2007
Note: For descriptions of variables and detailed sources, please refer to “How to Read the Country/Economy Profiles.”
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Zimbabwe
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2.2
Data Tables
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The following pages provide detailed data for each Survey data
variable of the Enabling Trade Index (ETI) for all the Data yielded from the World Economic Forum’s
118 economies included in the Report. Executive Opinion Survey are presented in blue-colored
The data tables are organized into 10 sections, bar graphs. Questions from the Survey asked for
which correspond to the 10 pillars of the ETI.The responses on a scale of 1 to 7, where an answer of 1
number preceding the title of each variable serves to corresponds to the lowest possible score and an answer
identify the pillar to which the variable belongs. of 7 corresponds to the highest possible score. For each
Two types of data are presented in the tables: Survey variable, the original question and the two
• Survey data:These data are the results drawn from extreme answers are shown.
the World Economic Forum’s Executive Opinion For each Survey question, individual responses are
Survey. aggregated at country level in order to produce country
scores. For more information on the Executive Opinion
• Hard data: These data are indicators obtained
Survey and a detailed explanation of how country scores
from a variety of sources.
are computed, please refer to Chapter 2.1 of The Global
Competitiveness Report 2007–2008.Variable 3.01, for
example, measures the extent to which customs proce-
dures are burdensome in the respondent’s economy. On 331
this particular variable, Singapore, with a score of 6.4,
ranks first, and therefore appears at the top; it is followed
by Hong Kong, second with a score of 6.1.We report
responses rounded to one decimal point, but use the
exact figures to determine rankings. For example, for the
same variable 3.01, New Zealand’s average score is
5.500, Austria’s average score is 5.495, and Chile’s aver-
age score is 5.456.These economies are therefore ranked
2.01 Breadth of international markets
Exporting companies from your country sell (1 = primarily in a small number of foreign markets, 7 = virtually in all international country markets) 8th, 9th, and 10th, respectively, although they are all list-
RANK
1
COUNTRY/ECONOMY SCORE
Germany ............................6.8
1 MEAN: 3.9 7 RANK
60
COUNTRY/ECONOMY SCORE
Kenya .................................3.6
1 MEAN: 3.9 7 ed with the same rounded score of 5.5.
2 Sweden..............................6.5 61 Latvia..................................3.6
3 Switzerland ........................6.3 62 Mauritius ............................3.6
4 Japan..................................6.2 63 Philippines..........................3.6
5 Netherlands........................6.2 64 Mexico ...............................3.5
6 Hong Kong SAR .................6.1 65 Uruguay..............................3.5
7
8
Austria................................6.0
United Kingdom .................6.0
66
67
Morocco.............................3.5
Russian Federation ............3.4
A dotted line on the graph indicates the mean
9 United States .....................5.9 68 Bahrain ...............................3.4
10
11
Denmark ............................5.9
Singapore ...........................5.8
69
70
Ukraine...............................3.3
Pakistan..............................3.3 score across the 118 economies.
12 Finland................................5.8 71 Cyprus................................3.3
13 Taiwan, China.....................5.7 72 Nigeria................................3.3
14 Ireland ................................5.7 73 Kazakhstan .........................3.2
15 Chile ...................................5.6 74 El Salvador .........................3.1
16 Korea, Rep. ........................5.6 75 Colombia ............................3.1
17 France ................................5.5 76 Panama ..............................3.1
18 Malaysia .............................5.3 77 Syria ...................................3.1
19 Israel ..................................5.3 78 Kuwait ................................3.1
20 Turkey.................................5.3 79 Honduras............................3.1
21 Luxembourg.......................5.3 80 Bangladesh ........................3.1
22 Belgium..............................5.2 81 Bulgaria ..............................3.0
23 Indonesia............................5.2 82 Cameroon ..........................3.0
24 Italy ....................................5.1 83 Jamaica ..............................3.0
25 Australia .............................5.1 84 Mauritania ..........................3.0
26 Canada ...............................5.1 85 Tanzania..............................3.0
27 Czech Republic ..................5.0 86 Croatia................................3.0
28 Thailand..............................5.0 87 Senegal ..............................2.9
29 Norway...............................5.0 88 Cambodia ...........................2.9
30 New Zealand ......................4.9 89 Ecuador ..............................2.9
31 Slovenia..............................4.9 90 Mali ....................................2.8
32 Slovak Republic..................4.8 91 Madagascar........................2.7
33 South Africa .......................4.8 92 Macedonia, FYR.................2.7
34 Costa Rica ..........................4.8 93 Guyana ...............................2.7
35 India ...................................4.7 94 Ethiopia ..............................2.7
36 United Arab Emirates.........4.6 95 Zimbabwe ..........................2.7
37 Lithuania.............................4.6 96 Dominican Republic ...........2.6
38 China ..................................4.5 97 Nicaragua ...........................2.6
39 Qatar ..................................4.4 98 Armenia..............................2.6
40 Spain ..................................4.4 99 Moldova .............................2.6
41 Brazil ..................................4.4 100 Paraguay ............................2.6
42 Oman .................................4.2 101 Namibia ..............................2.6
43 Poland ................................4.2 102 Venezuela...........................2.5
44 Hungary..............................4.2 103 Benin..................................2.5
45 Sri Lanka ............................4.1 104 Uganda...............................2.5
46 Uzbekistan .........................4.1 105 Zambia ...............................2.5
47 Vietnam..............................4.1 106 Mozambique ......................2.4
48 Tunisia ................................3.9 107 Algeria ................................2.4
49 Portugal..............................3.9 108 Burkina Faso ......................2.4
50 Peru....................................3.9 109 Bolivia.................................2.3
51 Estonia ...............................3.9 110 Lesotho ..............................2.3
52 Saudi Arabia .......................3.8 111 Bosnia and Herzegovina ....2.3
53 Guatemala..........................3.8 112 Tajikistan.............................2.3
54 Egypt..................................3.7 113 Mongolia ............................2.2
55 Argentina............................3.7 114 Nepal..................................2.2
56 Romania .............................3.7 115 Kyrgyz Republic .................2.1
57 Greece ...............................3.7 116 Chad...................................2.1
58 Jordan ................................3.7 117 Albania ...............................1.9
59 Azerbaijan...........................3.6 118 Burundi...............................1.8
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Hard data
1.01 Tariff barriers (hard data) While Survey data provide qualitative information,
Trade-weighted average tariff rate | 2007
1
2
Hong Kong SAR ....................0.0
Singapore ..............................0.0
60
61
Tajikistan................................5.8
Saudi Arabia ..........................5.9
(for example, tariff barriers, time for import, airport
3 Austria ...................................1.1 62 Malaysia ................................5.9
3
3
Belgium .................................1.1
Bulgaria .................................1.1
63
64
Azerbaijan..............................6.0
Nicaragua ..............................6.1
density, road congestion, and so on).We use the latest
3 Cyprus ...................................1.1 65 South Africa ..........................6.2
3
3
Czech Republic .....................1.1
Denmark ...............................1.1
66
67
Uruguay.................................6.2
Honduras...............................6.4 data available from international organizations (such as
3 Estonia ..................................1.1 68 Dominican Republic ..............6.6
3
3
3
Finland...................................1.1
France ...................................1.1
Germany ...............................1.1
69
70
71
Peru.......................................6.8
Kenya ....................................7.6
Thailand .................................7.6
the World Bank, various United Nations agencies, and
3 Greece ..................................1.1 72 Tanzania.................................7.7
3
3
Hungary.................................1.1
Ireland ...................................1.1
73
74
Mozambique .........................7.7
Benin .....................................7.8
the International Trade Centre). In the following pages,
3 Italy .......................................1.1 75 Mauritania .............................8.0
3
3
Latvia.....................................1.1
Lithuania................................1.1
76
77
Bolivia....................................8.0
Sri Lanka ...............................8.2
hard data variables are presented in black-shaded bar
3 Luxembourg ..........................1.1 78 Madagascar...........................8.4
3
3
Netherlands...........................1.1
Poland ...................................1.1
79
80
Argentina...............................8.5
Namibia .................................8.5
graphs. For each indicator, a short description appears at
3 Portugal .................................1.1 81 Brazil .....................................8.5
3
3
3
Romania ................................1.1
Slovak Republic.....................1.1
Slovenia.................................1.1
82
83
84
Ecuador .................................8.6
Bosnia and Herzegovina .......8.9
Jamaica .................................8.9
the top of the page.The base year (i.e., the year when
3
3
3
Spain .....................................1.1
Sweden .................................1.1
United Kingdom ....................1.1
85
86
87
Macedonia, FYR....................9.2
Australia ................................9.4
Senegal .................................9.8
the majority of the data were collected) follows the
29 New Zealand .........................1.5 88 Korea, Rep. ...........................9.9
30
31
United States ........................1.7
Croatia ...................................2.5
89
89
Burkina Faso .........................9.9
Mali .......................................9.9
description.When the year differs from the base year for
32 Canada ..................................2.6 91 Colombia .............................10.3
33
34
Costa Rica .............................3.0
Switzerland ...........................3.1
92
93
Mexico ................................11.1
Uganda ................................11.1
a particular country, this is indicated as a footnote. A
35 Japan.....................................3.3 94 Cambodia ............................11.2
36
37
38
Armenia.................................3.3
Guatemala .............................3.5
Mauritius ...............................3.6
95
96
97
Zambia ................................11.6
Burundi................................11.6
Kyrgyz Republic...................11.7
more detailed description and the full source for each
39
40
41
Kuwait ...................................3.7
Moldova ................................3.9
El Salvador ............................3.9
98
99
100
Guyana ................................12.0
Jordan .................................12.1
Ethiopia ...............................12.4
variable can be found in the Technical Notes and
42 Kazakhstan ............................3.9 101 Morocco ..............................12.7
43
44
Turkey....................................4.0
Ukraine ..................................4.0
102
103
Nepal ...................................12.8
Zimbabwe ...........................13.0
Sources section at the end of this Report. When data are
45 Qatar .....................................4.1 104 Nigeria .................................13.0
46
47
Lesotho .................................4.2
Philippines .............................4.2
105
106
Bangladesh .........................13.0
Pakistan...............................13.2
not available or are too outdated, “n/a” is used in lieu of
48 Israel .....................................4.4 107 Cameroon ...........................14.1
49
50
Norway..................................4.5
Chile ......................................4.7
108
109
China ...................................14.2
Chad ....................................14.7 the rank and the value.
51 United Arab Emirates............4.8 110 Russian Federation .............14.8
52
53
54
Oman ....................................4.9
Bahrain ..................................5.0
Mongolia ...............................5.0
111
112
113
Vietnam ...............................14.9
Venezuela ............................15.0
Algeria .................................15.6
In the case of hard data, true ties between two or
55
56
57
Panama .................................5.2
Albania ..................................5.2
Indonesia...............................5.4
114
115
116
Tunisia .................................16.8
India ....................................18.7
Egypt ...................................21.8
more countries are possible. In such cases, shared rank-
58 Taiwan, China ........................5.4 117 Syria ....................................22.9
59 Paraguay ...............................5.7 118 Uzbekistan ..........................25.0
ings are indicated accordingly. For example, the share of
SOURCE: International Trade Centre
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1st pillar: Tariff and non-tariff barriers..........................................335 6th pillar: Availability and quality of transport infrastructure....359
1.01 Tariff barriers .................................................................336 6.01 Airport density...............................................................360
1.02 Non-tariff barriers ..........................................................337 6.02 Transshipment connectivity index.................................361
6.03 Paved roads ..................................................................362
6.04 Road congestion ...........................................................363
2nd pillar: Proclivity to trade ...........................................................339
6.05 Quality of air transport infrastructure............................364
2.01 Breadth of international markets...................................340
6.06 Quality of railroad infrastructure....................................365
2.02 Extent of regional sales ................................................341
6.07 Quality of roads.............................................................366
2.03 Openness to multilateral trade rules.............................342
6.08 Quality of port infrastructure.........................................367
2.04 Share of duty-free imports ............................................343
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1st pillar
Tariff and non-tariff barriers
335
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2nd pillar
Proclivity to trade
339
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RANK COUNTRY/ECONOMY SCORE 1 MEAN: 3.9 7 RANK COUNTRY/ECONOMY SCORE 1 MEAN: 3.9 7
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RANK COUNTRY/ECONOMY SCORE 1 MEAN: 4.5 7 RANK COUNTRY/ECONOMY SCORE 1 MEAN: 4.5 7
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SOURCE: International Trade Centre, based on data from the LegaCarta database 2008
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3rd pillar
Efficiency of customs
administration
345
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RANK COUNTRY/ECONOMY SCORE 1 MEAN: 3.9 7 RANK COUNTRY/ECONOMY SCORE 1 MEAN: 3.9 7
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4th pillar
Efficiency of import-export
procedures
349
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5th pillar
Transparency of
border administration
355
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RANK COUNTRY/ECONOMY SCORE 1 MEAN: 4.5 7 RANK COUNTRY/ECONOMY SCORE 1 MEAN: 4.5 7
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6th pillar
Availability and quality
of transport infrastructure
359
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2.2: Data Tables | 6th pillar: Availability and quality of transport infrastructure
6.01 Airport density (hard data)
Number of airports per million population | 2006
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2.2: Data Tables | 6th pillar: Availability and quality of transport infrastructure
6.02 Transshipment connectivity index (hard data)
Type of transshipment connections available to shippers from each country/economy on bilateral routes | 2006
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2.2: Data Tables | 6th pillar: Availability and quality of transport infrastructure
6.03 Paved roads (hard data)
Paved roads as a percentage of total roads | 2004
SOURCE: The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007; International Road Federation, World Road Statistics 2006
1 1998 2 1999 3 2000 4 2001 5 2002 6 2003
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2.2: Data Tables | 6th pillar: Availability and quality of transport infrastructure
6.04 Road congestion (hard data)
Motor vehicles per kilometer of road | 2004
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2.2: Data Tables | 6th pillar: Availability and quality of transport infrastructure
6.05 Quality of air transport infrastructure
Passenger air transport in your country is (1 = infrequent, limited, and inefficient, 7 = as frequent, extensive, and efficient as the world’s best)
RANK COUNTRY/ECONOMY SCORE 1 MEAN: 4.6 7 RANK COUNTRY/ECONOMY SCORE 1 MEAN: 4.6 7
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2.2: Data Tables | 6th pillar: Availability and quality of transport infrastructure
6.06 Quality of railroad infrastructure
Railroads in your country are (1 = underdeveloped, 7 = as extensive and efficient as the world’s best)
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2.2: Data Tables | 6th pillar: Availability and quality of transport infrastructure
6.07 Quality of roads
Roads in your country are (1 = underdeveloped, 7 = extensive and efficient by international standards)
RANK COUNTRY/ECONOMY SCORE 1 MEAN: 3.8 7 RANK COUNTRY/ECONOMY SCORE 1 MEAN: 3.8 7
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2.2: Data Tables | 6th pillar: Availability and quality of transport infrastructure
6.08 Quality of port infrastructure
Port facilities and inland waterways in your country are (1 = underdeveloped, 7 = as developed as the world’s best)*
RANK COUNTRY/ECONOMY SCORE: 1 MEAN: 4.0 7 RANK COUNTRY/ECONOMY SCORE: 1 MEAN: 4.0 7
*For landlocked countries, this measures the ease of access to port facilities and inland waterways.
1 landlocked
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7th pillar
Availability and quality
of transport services
369
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2.2: Data Tables | 7th pillar: Availability and quality of transport services
7.01 Liner Shipping Connectivity Index (hard data)
Quantity of services provided by liner companies | 2007
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2.2: Data Tables | 7th pillar: Availability and quality of transport services
7.02 Ease and affordability of shipment
Ease and affordability of arranging international shipments (1 = very low, 5 = very high) | 2007
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2.2: Data Tables | 7th pillar: Availability and quality of transport services
7.03 Competence of the logistics industry
Competence of the local logistics industry (e.g., transport operators, customs brokers) (1 = very low, 5 = very high) | 2007
1 Netherlands...........................4.3 60 Pakistan.................................2.7
2 Germany ...............................4.2 61 Lithuania................................2.7
2 Singapore ..............................4.2 61 Mauritania .............................2.7
4 Austria ...................................4.1 63 Oman ....................................2.7
5 Japan.....................................4.1 64 Philippines .............................2.7
6 Sweden .................................4.1 65 Ecuador .................................2.6
7 United Kingdom ....................4.0 66 Paraguay ...............................2.6
8 Switzerland ...........................4.0 67 Venezuela ..............................2.6
9 Hong Kong SAR ....................4.0 68 Benin .....................................2.6
10 Belgium .................................4.0 69 Uganda ..................................2.6
11 Ireland ...................................3.9 70 El Salvador ............................2.5
12 Canada ..................................3.9 71 Burundi..................................2.5
12 Finland...................................3.9 71 Guatemala .............................2.5
12 United States ........................3.9 73 Cambodia ..............................2.5
15 Denmark ...............................3.8 74 Russian Federation ...............2.5
16 New Zealand .........................3.8 75 Sri Lanka ...............................2.5
17 Norway..................................3.8 75 Uruguay.................................2.5
18 Australia ................................3.8 77 Colombia ...............................2.4
18 France ...................................3.8 77 Zambia ..................................2.4
20 United Arab Emirates............3.7 79 Costa Rica .............................2.4
21 Italy .......................................3.6 79 Tunisia ...................................2.4
21 Korea, Rep. ...........................3.6 81 Honduras...............................2.4
23 Taiwan, China ........................3.6 81 Nicaragua ..............................2.4
24 Spain .....................................3.6 81 Ukraine ..................................2.4
25 South Africa ..........................3.5 84 Egypt .....................................2.4
372 26 China .....................................3.4 84 Nigeria ...................................2.4
26 Malaysia ................................3.4 86 Bosnia and Herzegovina .......2.4
28 Greece ..................................3.3 87 Mozambique .........................2.4
29 Thailand .................................3.3 88 Kyrgyz Republic.....................2.4
30 Turkey....................................3.3 89 Bangladesh ...........................2.3
31 India ......................................3.3 89 Burkina Faso .........................2.3
32 Israel .....................................3.2 89 Macedonia, FYR....................2.3
33 Luxembourg ..........................3.2 92 Kenya ....................................2.3
34 Chile ......................................3.2 93 Cameroon .............................2.3
34 Portugal .................................3.2 93 Dominican Republic ..............2.3
36 Slovenia.................................3.1 95 Mali .......................................2.2
37 Hungary.................................3.1 95 Moldova ................................2.2
38 Poland ...................................3.0 95 Zimbabwe .............................2.2
39 Argentina...............................3.0 98 Lesotho .................................2.2
39 Czech Republic .....................3.0 99 Bolivia....................................2.2
39 Estonia ..................................3.0 100 Uzbekistan ............................2.2
39 Jordan ...................................3.0 101 Morocco ................................2.1
39 Kuwait ...................................3.0 102 Armenia.................................2.1
39 Qatar .....................................3.0 103 Nepal .....................................2.1
39 Slovak Republic.....................3.0 104 Jamaica .................................2.1
46 Brazil .....................................2.9 105 Kazakhstan ............................2.1
46 Latvia.....................................2.9 106 Albania ..................................2.0
48 Indonesia...............................2.9 106 Azerbaijan..............................2.0
49 Saudi Arabia ..........................2.9 106 Ethiopia .................................2.0
50 Bulgaria .................................2.9 106 Madagascar...........................2.0
50 Romania ................................2.9 110 Guyana ..................................2.0
52 Croatia ...................................2.8 111 Algeria ...................................1.9
53 Mexico ..................................2.8 111 Tanzania.................................1.9
53 Vietnam .................................2.8 113 Tajikistan................................1.9
55 Cyprus ...................................2.8 114 Namibia .................................1.8
56 Bahrain ..................................2.8 115 Chad ......................................1.8
57 Panama .................................2.7 116 Mongolia ...............................1.8
57 Peru.......................................2.7 116 Syria ......................................1.8
57 Senegal .................................2.7 118 Mauritius ...............................1.8
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7.04 Ability and ease of tracking
Ability to track and trace international shipments (1 = very low, 5 = very high) | 2007
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2.2: Data Tables | 7th pillar: Availability and quality of transport services
7.05 Timeliness of shipments in reaching destination
Frequency of shipments reaching the consignee within the scheduled delivery time (1 = very low, 5 = very high) | 2007
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2.2: Data Tables | 7th pillar: Availability and quality of transport services
7.06 Postal service efficiency
Do you trust your country’s postal system sufficiently to have a friend mail a package worth US$100 to you? (1 = not at all, 7 = yes, trust the system
entirely)
RANK COUNTRY/ECONOMY SCORE 1 MEAN: 4.4 7 RANK COUNTRY/ECONOMY SCORE 1 MEAN: 4.4 7
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8th pillar
Availability and use of ICTs
377
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RANK COUNTRY/ECONOMY SCORE 1 MEAN: 4.8 7 RANK COUNTRY/ECONOMY SCORE 1 MEAN: 4.8 7
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1 Netherlands.........................88.9 60 Mexico1...............................16.9
2 New Zealand .......................78.8 61 Turkey..................................16.6
3 Sweden ...............................77.0 62 Venezuela ............................15.2
4 Australia ..............................75.1 63 Albania ................................15.0
5 Luxembourg ........................72.0 64 Mauritius .............................14.5
6 Korea, Rep. .........................71.1 65 Colombia .............................14.5
7 United States ......................69.1 66 Jordan .................................13.7
8 Japan...................................68.3 67 Macedonia, FYR..................13.2
9 Canada1...............................67.9 68 Thailand ...............................13.1
10 Taiwan, China ......................63.7 69 Tunisia .................................12.7
11 Slovenia...............................63.6 70 Oman ..................................12.2
12 Switzerland .........................60.0 71 Ukraine ................................12.1
13 Norway1 ..............................58.5 72 Ecuador ...............................11.5
14 Denmark .............................58.2 73 South Africa1 .......................10.8
15 Estonia ................................57.4 74 China ...................................10.4
16 United Kingdom ..................56.0 75 Guatemala ...........................10.2
17 Finland1 ...............................53.3 76 Mongolia1............................10.1
18 Hong Kong SAR ..................53.0 77 Azerbaijan..............................9.8
19 Austria .................................51.2 78 Zimbabwe .............................9.3
20 Italy .....................................49.6 79 El Salvador1 ...........................9.3
21 France .................................49.6 80 Kazakhstan ............................8.4
22 Germany .............................46.7 81 Egypt .....................................8.1
23 Latvia...................................46.6 82 Benin .....................................8.0
24 Jamaica1 .............................46.5 83 Kenya ....................................7.9
25 Belgium1 .............................45.7 84 Syria ......................................7.7
26 Malaysia ..............................43.8 85 Pakistan.................................7.6 381
27 Spain ...................................42.8 86 Algeria ...................................7.4
28 Cyprus .................................42.2 87 Indonesia1 .............................7.2
29 Slovak Republic...................41.8 88 Panama .................................6.7
30 Singapore ............................39.2 89 Uzbekistan ............................6.3
31 United Arab Emirates..........36.7 90 Bolivia....................................6.2
32 Hungary...............................34.8 91 Armenia.................................5.7
33 Czech Republic ...................34.7 92 Kyrgyz Republic.....................5.6
34 Croatia .................................34.6 93 Philippines1 ...........................5.5
35 Qatar ...................................34.5 94 Senegal .................................5.4
36 Ireland .................................34.1 95 India1 .....................................5.4
37 Romania ..............................32.4 96 Honduras...............................4.6
38 Lithuania..............................31.7 97 Zambia ..................................4.2
39 Portugal ...............................30.5 98 Paraguay ...............................4.1
40 Kuwait .................................29.5 99 Namibia1 ...............................4.0
41 Poland .................................28.6 100 Nigeria1 .................................3.8
42 Costa Rica ...........................27.6 101 Mauritania .............................3.2
43 Chile ....................................25.2 102 Lesotho1 ...............................2.9
44 Israel1 ..................................24.4 103 Nicaragua ..............................2.8
45 Bulgaria ...............................24.4 104 Uganda ..................................2.5
46 Bosnia and Herzegovina .....24.3 105 Cameroon .............................2.2
47 Dominican Republic ............22.2 106 Sri Lanka ...............................2.0
48 Peru.....................................21.5 107 Tanzania1 ...............................1.0
49 Bahrain1 ..............................21.3 108 Nepal .....................................0.9
50 Guyana1 ..............................21.3 109 Mozambique1........................0.9
51 Argentina.............................20.9 110 Burundi..................................0.8
52 Uruguay1 .............................20.6 111 Chad ......................................0.6
53 Morocco ..............................19.8 112 Burkina Faso .........................0.6
54 Saudi Arabia ........................18.7 113 Madagascar1 .........................0.5
55 Russian Federation .............18.0 114 Mali .......................................0.5
56 Greece1 ...............................18.0 115 Cambodia1 ............................0.3
57 Moldova ..............................17.3 116 Bangladesh ...........................0.3
58 Brazil ...................................17.2 117 Tajikistan1 ..............................0.3
59 Vietnam ...............................17.2 118 Ethiopia1................................0.2
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9th pillar
Regulatory environment
383
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RANK COUNTRY/ECONOMY SCORE 1 MEAN: 4.8 7 RANK COUNTRY/ECONOMY SCORE 1 MEAN: 4.8 7
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RANK COUNTRY/ECONOMY SCORE 1 MEAN: 5.1 7 RANK COUNTRY/ECONOMY SCORE 1 MEAN: 5.1 7
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RANK COUNTRY/ECONOMY SCORE 1 MEAN: 5.0 7 RANK COUNTRY/ECONOMY SCORE 1 MEAN: 5.0 7
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10th pillar
Physical security
389
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RANK COUNTRY/ECONOMY SCORE 1 MEAN: 4.3 7 RANK COUNTRY/ECONOMY SCORE 1 MEAN: 4.3 7
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RANK COUNTRY/ECONOMY SCORE 1 MEAN: 4.5 7 RANK COUNTRY/ECONOMY SCORE 1 MEAN: 4.5 7
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RANK COUNTRY/ECONOMY SCORE 1 MEAN: 5.3 7 RANK COUNTRY/ECONOMY SCORE 1 MEAN: 5.3 7
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The data in this Report represent the best available esti- Pillar 2: Proclivity to trade
mates from various national authorities, international
agencies, and private sources at the time the Report was 2.03 Openness to multilateral trade rules
prepared. It is possible that some data will have been Openness to multilateral trade rules index | 2008
This index evaluates the overall participation of countries in mul-
revised or updated by national sources after publication. tilateral trade rules or instruments (MTRs). These rules are all
Throughout the statistical tables in this publication, internationally elaborated legal standards currently regulating
trade in specific areas. MTRs are primarily comprised of con-
“n/a” denotes that the value is not available, or that the ventions and treaties that countries ratify or accede to, and
available data are unreasonably outdated or do not come international model laws that are incorporated into national law.
from a reliable source. The index is based on ITC’s LegaCarta system, which analyzes
the position of each country (accession/nonaccession and incor-
The following notes provide sources for all the poration/nonincorporation) regarding some 238 MTRs as well as
indicators listed in the Data Tables that do not come 450 protocols or amendments overseen by 25 different interna-
tional organizations. For the purposes of this index, 40 core
from the Executive Opinion Survey. MTRs were selected, and each was rated with a score depend-
ing on its importance and relevance to trade. The 40 core
instruments belong to seven categories (contracts, customs,
dispute resolution, governance, intellectual property, invest-
Pillar 1: Tariffs and non-tariff barriers ment, and air transport). Each category is given an equal weight
in the calculation of the index. Selection of the core instru-
ments is based on their importance and relevance to trade and
1.01 Tariff barriers their universality. The importance and relevance to trade of an
Trade-weighted average tariff rate | 2007
393
instrument is determined by taking into account several criteria
This variable measures the average rate of duty per imported including: the impact of its provisions on international trade
value unit weighted by 2006 imports value. (reduction of transactional costs, trade facilitation, harmoniza-
tion, transparency, predictability, creation of a business-friendly
Source: International Trade Centre
business climate, support of private-sector activities, and
encouragement of foreign direct investment), and the opinion
1.02 Non-tariff barriers of international legal experts and the views of the international
bodies administering these instruments. Universality means
Index of non-tariff barriers (NTBs) | 2007 or most recent that the selected MTRs can potentially be applied by all coun-
year available tries, notwithstanding their geographical position or economic
This index is constructed as the average of two NTB-related level. For example, maritime transport conventions, however
variables. The variables included are the percentage of trade important, were not taken into account because of their weak
affected by non-tariff measures (NTMs) and the average num- relevance for landlocked countries; treaties dealing with securi-
ber of notifications for products affected by NTMs, for products ties and insider trading were not included because they do not
with imports larger than 0. represent a priority in countries that have not developed sophis-
Source: International Trade Centre; authors’ calculations ticated financial markets. Accession to the WTO Agreements is
not taken into account in this index as WTO accession does not
depend exclusively on the will of a nonmember state to join the
WTO.
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4.01 Effectiveness and efficiency of clearance 6.01 Airport density (hard data)
Effectiveness and efficiency of clearance process by customs Number of airports per million population | 2006
and border control agencies | 2007 Source: International Air Transport Association, SRS Analyser
This variable assesses the effectiveness and efficiency of the
clearance process by customs and other border control agencies
394 in the eight major trading partners of each country. Respondents 6.02 Transshipment connectivity index
to the Logistics Perception Index survey were asked to evalu- Type of transshipment connections available to shippers
ate the effectiveness and efficiency of clearance in the country from each country/economy on bilateral routes | 2006
in which they work on a 1–5 scale, based on their experience in This index aims at reflecting the geographical aspects of the
international logistics, compared with generally accepted indus- liner service supply and is based on the type of connections
try standards or practices. between countries ranging from a first- to a fourth-order con-
Source: The World Bank, Logistics Perception Index 2007 nection. In the absence of direct liner shipping between two
countries, the cargo will have to be transshipped in a port of a
third or even fourth country in order to reach the destination
4.02 Time for import country. A first-order connection is a connection without trans-
Number of days required to import | 2007 shipment, a second-order connection is a connection with one
transshipment, and so on. First-order connections have the
The time calculation for a procedure starts from the moment it
most positive impact on cargo movement. Therefore, the type
is initiated and runs until it is completed. If a procedure can be
of connections per country has been weighted as follows: first-
accelerated for an additional cost, the fastest legal procedure is
order connections are multiplied by 1.0, second-order connec-
chosen. It is assumed that neither the exporter nor the importer
tions by 0.5, third-order connections by 0.33, and fourth-order
wastes time and that each commits to completing each remain-
connections by 0.25. The score is the sum of the four connec-
ing procedure without delay. Procedures that can be completed
tion types.
in parallel are measured as simultaneous. The waiting time
between procedures—for example, during unloading of the Source: UNCTAD, Transport Section, Trade Logistics Branch
cargo—is included in the measure.
Source: The World Bank, Doing Business 2008 6.03 Paved roads
Paved roads as a percentage of total roads | 2004
4.03 Documents for import Paved roads are those surfaced with crushed stone (macadam)
Number of documents required to import | 2007 and hydrocarbon binder or bituminized agents, with concrete, or
with cobblestones. This indicator shows paved roads as a per-
This variable takes into account all documents required import
centage of all the country/economy’s roads, measured in
goods. It is assumed that the contract has already been agreed
length.
upon and signed by both parties. Documents include back doc-
uments, customs declaration and clearance documents, port fil- Source: The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007,
ing documents, import licenses, and other official documents International Road Federation, World Road Statistics 2006
exchanged between the concerned parties. Documents filed
simultaneously are considered different but with the same time
frame for completion. 6.04 Road congestion
Motor vehicles per kilometer of road | 2004
Source: The World Bank, Doing Business 2008
Source: The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2007
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Source: UNCTAD, Transport Section, Trade Logistics Branch Source: International Telecommunication Union, World
Telecommunication Indicators 2007
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Jean-François Arvis Logistics. His early career included short stints as a busi-
Jean-François Arvis is a Senior Transport Economist with ness modeler for PwC’s Business Dynamics, London, and
the International Trade Department at the World Bank, as a trainee aeronautical maintenance engineer for BAE
where he is in charge of the knowledge activities in the Systems, Toulouse, and at the United Nations Office for
area of trade logistics. Prior to joining the Bank, he Outer Space Affairs, Vienna. Mr Doherty holds an MBA
worked in various positions with the French Ministry of from the Collège des Ingénieurs, a Master’s in
Economy and Industry (regulation, trade, finance, and Aeronautical Engineering from Imperial College, and a
development aid). He is a graduate from the Ecole Master’s in Structural Molecular Biology from the
Normale Supérieure in Paris and Ecole Nationale University of London. He is a Global Leadership Fellow at
Supérieure des Mines, and holds doctoral degrees in the World Economic Forum.
physics.
Richard Eglin
Liliana Annovazzi-Jakab Richard Eglin is Director of the Trade and Finance and
Liliana Annovazzi-Jakab has been working in various Trade Facilitation Division of the WTO Secretariat, respon-
capacities for the United Nations and specialized organiza- sible for the Negotiating Group on Trade Facilitation, the
tions, including UNCTAD, the ILO, the ITC, and UNECE Committee on Trade-Related Investment Measures, the
for over 10 years. Her activities focused mainly on trade Committee on Balance-of-Payments Restrictions, the
and transport-related activities and analyses. Prior to join- Working Group on Trade, Debt and Finance, Aid-for-Trade,
ing the UN she worked as a lawyer and legal adviser for and WTO cooperation with the IMF and World Bank.
law firms, government agencies, and the media industry. Previously, he directed the Development Division and the
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She holds a Law degree from the University of Mainz, Trade and Environment Division in the WTO Secretariat,
Germany, and Georgetown University in the United and was responsible for various elements of the Uruguay
States, and a Master’s degree in International Law from Round negotiations. He joined the GATT Secretariat in
the University of Geneva’s Graduate Institute of 1985, after spending nine years on the staff of the
International and Development Studies. International Monetary Fund. He has a doctorate in
Economics from Cambridge University.
Jennifer Blanke
Jennifer Blanke is Director and Senior Economist with the Margareta Drzeniek Hanouz
Global Competitiveness Network at the World Economic Margareta Drzeniek Hanouz is Associate Director and
Forum. Since joining the team in 2002, she has written Senior Economist with the Global Competitiveness
and lectured extensively on issues related to national Network at the World Economic Forum, where she
competitiveness and has served as lead editor on a num- researches and writes on issues of national competitive-
ber of regional and topical competitiveness reports. From ness, in particular related to the Arab world. She is lead
1998 to 2002, she was Senior Programme Manager author or editor of a number of regional and topical
responsible for developing the business, management, reports and papers. Earlier on, she oversaw the economic
and technology section of the World Economic Forum’s modeling for some of the Forum’s scenario projects and
Annual Meeting in Davos. Before joining the Forum, Dr was charged with developing the economics section of
Blanke worked for a number of years as a management the program for the World Economic Forum’s Annual
consultant for Eurogroup, Mazars Group in Paris, France, Meeting in Davos. Before joining the Global Competitive-
where she specialized in banking and financial market ness Network, Dr Drzeniek Hanouz worked for several
organization. Dr Blanke obtained a Master of International years with the International Trade Centre in Geneva,
Affairs from Columbia University and an MA and a PhD in where she was in charge of relations with Central and
International Economics from the Graduate Institute of Eastern European countries. In this capacity, she advised
International Studies (Geneva). governments and developed and implemented programs
to strengthen the international competitiveness of busi-
Sean Doherty nesses in the region. Dr Drzeniek Hanouz received a
Sean Doherty is Associate Director and Head of the Diploma in Economics from the University of Münster
Transport & Logistics industry community in the World and holds a PhD in International Economics from the
Economic Forum. He previously managed both the University of Bochum, both in Germany.
Mining & Metals Industry Programme and the Chemicals
Industry Programme in the Forum. Immediately prior to
joining the Forum he was an independent consultant on
strategic marketing for TNT Express, Amsterdam. His
main professional background is as a strategy consultant
for Booz Allen Hamilton, London, focusing on Energy and
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Acknowledgments
The World Economic Forum would like to thank the following organizations
for their invaluable support of this Report.
ABX LOGISTICS Worldwide is one of the world’s top 15 air and sea freight forwarders and in the
European top 10 for international road freight transport. Operating across 100 countries world-
wide (37 with its own subsidiaries), the group has a turnover of approximately €2 billion and a
workforce of nearly 8,000 people. The Group’s Headquarters are in Brussels (Belgium), the capi-
tal of Europe. For more information, go to www.abxlogistics.com.
Agility is a leading global logistics provider with more than 32,000 employees, and over 550
offices in 100 countries around the world. A publicly traded company, with over US$6 billion in
annual revenue, we have three key operating units—Global Integrated Logistics (GIL), Defense &
Government Services (DGS), and Investments.
Deutsche Post World Net is the world’s leading logistics group. Our workforce of approximately
500,000 employees does business in more than 220 countries and territories on five continents,
a fact that makes us one of the largest private-sector employers worldwide. With the bundled
logistics expertise of our brands Deutsche Post, DHL and Postbank, we offer a broad portfolio of
integrated services and tailor-made, customer-focused solutions to manage and transport goods,
information, and payments worldwide. With our GoGreen climate protection program we are
striving to be an innovative service provider for our customers and fulfil our social responsibility.
DP World is one of the largest port operators in the world, with 43 terminals and 13 new devel-
opments across 28 countries. Its professional team of nearly 30,000 serves customers in some
of the most dynamic economies in the world. In 2007, DP World handled more than 43.3 million
TEU (twenty-foot equivalent container units). It has global capacity today of 48 million TEU, with
committed projects that will expand capacity to around 90 million TEU by 2017.
FedEx Corp. (NYSE: FDX) provides customers and businesses worldwide with a broad portfolio
of transportation, e-commerce and business services. With annual revenues of $37 billion, the
company offers integrated business applications through operating companies competing collec-
tively and managed collaboratively, under the respected FedEx brand. Consistently ranked
among the world’s most admired and trusted employers, FedEx inspires its more than 290,000
employees and contractors to remain absolutely, positively focused on safety, the highest ethical
and professional standards and the needs of their customers and communities. For more infor-
mation, visit news.fedex.com.
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Acknowledgments
The Global Express Association represents international express delivery companies that serve
over 220 countries, carrying over 30 million packages each day, all of them guaranteed to be
delivered within specified time frames. Express delivery operators provide integrated, door-to-door
services, including not only transportation systems in which the location and progress of packages
is constantly tracked but also cross-border clearance and collection of payments from customers.
Express delivery operators make it possible for businesses of any size to compete effectively in
the modern global marketplace, serving their customers across a continent or around the world.
Although the efficient transportation links provided by express delivery companies can bene-
fit a national economy of any nature, they are critical to knowledge-based economies, those
engaged in production of high-value goods, and those comprising primarily small and medium
size enterprises.
More information about GEA and its members is available at www.global-express.org or
from info@global-express.org.
The International Air Transport Association (IATA), founded in April 1945, is the prime vehicle for
inter-airline cooperation in promoting safe, reliable, secure, and economical air services. Today
IATA represents 250 airlines comprising 94 percent of international scheduled air traffic.
The International Trade Centre (ITC) is the joint technical cooperation agency of the United
Nations and the WTO. ITC enables small business export success in developing countries by
providing, with partners, sustainable and inclusive trade development solutions to the private
sector, trade support institutions and policy makers.
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The Stena Sphere consists of the three parent companies, Stena AB (publ), Stena Sessan AB
and Stena Metall AB and their subsidiaries. The Stena Sphere generated total revenues of SEK
46,046 million in 2007. Income before tax amounted to SEK 4,580 million. The business idea is
to use our knowledge about trade, ships, service, industry, and finance to make money in the
business areas of shipping, ferry lines, offshore drilling, real estate, recycling and finance and to
look after our clients in such a way that we contribute to their development as well as the devel-
opment of society.
TNT provides businesses and consumers worldwide with an extensive range of services for their
mail and express delivery needs. Headquartered in the Netherlands, TNT offers efficient network
infrastructures in Europe and Asia and is expanding operations worldwide to maximize its net-
work performance. TNT serves more than 200 countries and employs around 161,500 people.
Over 2007, TNT reported €11 billion in revenues and an operating income of €1,192 million. TNT
is publicly listed on the stock exchange of Amsterdam. TNT recognizes its social responsibility,
and has formed partnerships with the United Nations World Food Programme and the United
Nations Environment Programme to fight hunger and pollution in the world. More information
about TNT can be found on its website http://group.tnt.com.
United Nations Conference on Trade And Development (UNCTAD) promotes the development-
friendly integration of developing countries into the world trade and economy, particularly focus-
ing on sustainable development.
The UNCTAD secretariat works together with member Governments and donors and interacts
with organizations of the United Nations system, other intergovernmental and governmental
institutions, non-governmental organizations, the private sector, research institutes and universi-
ties worldwide.
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Acknowledgments
UPS is the world’s largest package delivery company and a global leader in supply chain and
freight services, offering an extensive range of options for synchronising the movement of
goods, information and funds. Headquartered in Atlanta, USA, UPS serves more than 200 coun-
tries and territories worldwide. UPS’s stock trades on the New York Stock Exchange (UPS) and
the company can be found on the Web at www.UPS.com.
The World Bank is a vital source of financial and technical assistance to developing countries
around the world. We are not a bank in the common sense. We are made up of two unique
development institutions owned by 185 member countries—the International Bank for
Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and the International Development Association (IDA).
Each institution plays a different but supportive role in our mission of global poverty reduction
and the improvement of living standards. The IBRD focuses on middle income and creditworthy
poor countries, while IDA focuses on the poorest countries in the world. Together we provide
low-interest loans, interest-free credit and grants to developing countries for education, health,
infrastructure, communications and many other purposes.
The World Trade Organization (WTO) is the international organization dealing with the global
rules of trade between nations. Its main function is to ensure that trade flows as smoothly,
predictably and freely as possible.
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