Transport Using Vesicles

1. Endocytosis - plasma membrane pulled inward -> droplet becomes enclosed in

vesicle
2. proteins synthsized through ribosomes in ER
3. golgi modifies proteins
4. Exocytosis - vesicle fuses with membrane and contents is expelled

Interphase
G1: cell grows
S: copies DNA
G2: preps for division

Mitosis
Prophase
chromosomes are supercoiling
microtubules are growing from centrosomes to form early mitotic spndle
Prometaphase
nuclear membrane breaks apart
identical chromatids attached with centromere
kinetichore microtubules attach to chromosomes
nonkinetichore microtubules attach to each other
Metaphase
nuclear envelope is gone
microtubules attached to centromeres of chromosomes
chromosmes line up at metaphase plate
centrosomes are at opposite poles
Anaphase
microtubules pull chromosomes towards opposite poles
cell elongates
chromatids have split apart and are now chromosomes
Telophase
chromosomes are at opposite poles, microtubules break down, nuclear
membranes begin to form
Cytokenesis
Animal: cleavage furrow forms and pinches cell into two
Plant: vesicles carry wall materials to form cell plate
cell plate grows until it fuses with the plasma membrane to form cell wall

Enzyme catalyzed reaction

substrate collides with active site og enzyme and binds to it (enzymes are substrate
specific) -> creation of enzyme substrate complex -> substrate turned into product
and released

Genetic Variation
1. random orientation in metaphase 1
2. crossing over during prophase 1
3. fertilization - fusion of gametes = random

Non-disjunction
in meiosis, chroosomes that sould move to opposite ends move to same end
gametes w/ 1 chromosome dies
gametes w/ 3 chromosomes = trisomy
ex: down syndrome

Meiosis
prophase 1
homologous chromosomes pair up (each chromosome has 2 chromatids)
spindle microtubules grow
metaphase 1
microtubules attach to different chromsoomes in each pair
chromosomes line up on equator
anaphase 1
homologous chromosomes pulled to opposite ends
each chromosome has 2 chromatids
prophase 2

cell has divided (plasma membrane pushed together) to make 2 haploid cells
microtubules growing again

anaphase 2

chromatids moe towards opposite poles - sister chromatids have been

separated
telophase 2
nuclear membrane reforms
four hapoid cells formed

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

53 -> 73 -> 95 -> 53 . . .
cycle done again and again to produce genes
53 degrees - allows primers to bind to DNA strands
73 - Taq DNA polymerase replicates strand
95 - separates strands

Gene Transfer through Plasmids

1. mRNA coding for insulin extracted from human pancreas
2. enzyme reverse transcriptase used to make copies of mRNA
3. extra G nucleotides added make sticky ends
4. plasmid cut open using restriction endonucleases
5. extra C nucleotides added to plasmid to make sticky ends
6. insulin gene + plasmid mixed -> make recombinant plasmid
7. DNA ligase makes bonds stick together
8. recombinant plasmid mized w/ host cell
9. host cells are cultured
10. host cells make insulin
use for diabetics!

Greenhouse Effect
sun emits shoe wave radiation
earth emits long wave radiation that is trapped by greenhouse gases -> warming

Digestion of Starch
starch is made up of amylose + amylopectins
- amylase turns amylose into maltose and amylopectins into dextrins
- membranes of microvilli secrete maltase + dextrinase -> glucose

Digestion of small intestine

peristalsis = muscle contractions
- circular muscle prevents food from going back up
- longitudinal muscle moves food along

Cardiac Cycle
1) blood enters atrium
2) walls of atria contract
3) blood goes through open atrioventricular valves
4) ventricle fills with blood
5) ventricle contracts -> increased pressure
6) Atrioventricular valves close + semilunar valves open
8) blood pumped into arteries
9) ventricle pressure decreases -> sc valves close and av valves open
Blood Clotting
1) reactiosn by clotting factors/damadged cells/platelets
2) prothrombin -> thrombin
3) fbrinogen -> fibrin
4) fibrin creates mesh of fibers

Antibody Production
1) antigen enters body
2) antigen bnds to cell surface of a type of lyphocyte
3) lymphocyte activates and makes plasma cells through mitosis
4) plasma cells produce antibodies
5) infection is cleared
6) memory cells are left
Inhaling

1) intercoastal muscles contract

2) diaphragm conracts
3) volume of thorax increases
4) pressure in thorax decreases
5) air comes rushing in

Alveoli Gas ExchNGE

- Large surface area -> diffusion
- Type 1 Pneumocyte = single layer of thin, permeable alveolus cells allow diffusion
- Type 2 pneumocytes: secrete liquid to keep alveoli moist and prevent them from
sticking together
- Blood capillaries cover alveoli -> CO2 and O2 diffusion

Between synapses
1) action potential depolarizes membrane
2) vehicles of neurotransmitters fuse w/ membrane
3) neurotransmitters released into synaptic cleft
4) neurotransmitters bind to post synaptic membrane receptors
5) depolarization of post synaptic membrane -> passing on action potential +
neurotransmitters

Action Potential

Action potential
depolarization + repolarization of a neuron

depolarization - sodium channels open and sodium diffuses out, making neuron positive

repolarization - potassium channels open and potassium diffuses out, making neuron
negative again

Insulin
secreted by beta cells in pancreas when blood glucose is high, stimulates liver cells
to absorb glucose and turn it into glycogen + use glucose in cellular respiration
instead of fat

Glucagon
Secreted by alpha cells in pancreas when blood glucose is low, stimulates liver cells
to break down glycogen and release glucose

Thyroxin
secreted by thyroid gland in the neck
decrease in body temperature leads to increase in thyroxin leads to increase in
metabolic rate leads to increase in body temperature

Leptin

hormone secreted by adipose tissue

increae in adipose tissue -> increase in leptin -> leptin binds to receptors in
hypothalamus -> inhibition of appetite

Melatonin
secreted by pineal gland
controls circadian rhytm
ganglion cells in retina detect if light or dark -> send these impulses to SCN in
hypothalamus which controls secretion of melatonin

melatonin secretion increases in evening and decreases at dawn

In Vitro Fertilization
1) woman takes drug to stop FSH + LH production
2) give woman large doses of FSH + LH -> superovulation where lots of follicles develop
3) stimulate folliles, make them develop
4) retrieve eggs + mix them w/ sperm and incubate
5) put thezygote back in the uterus _ progesterone injections for uterus lining
Hershey and Chase
radioactive sulfr (incorporated into protein) or radioactive phosphorous (incorporated into DNA)

mixed bacteriophages with bacteria and separated them - bacteria was only radioactive when
racioactive phsphorous was used -> only DNA enters the cell -> DNA is the genetic material

DNA REPLICATION

1) DNA GYRASE moves ahead of helicase and reliees srain on DNA + prevents supercoiling
2) HELICASE uncoils DNA and split it into two template strands
3) SINGLE STRAND BINDING PROTEINS keep strands from binding back together
4) DNA POLYMERASE III adds nuecleotides from 5 to 3 direction on leading strand
5) DNA PRIMASE adds short legnth of RNA (primer) to lagging strand
6) DNA POLYMERASE III adds nucleotides starting at primer - moving away from replication
fork but 5-3
7) Okazaki framents
8) DNA POLYMERASE I removes primer and replaces it w/ DNA
9) DNA LIGASE seals it up

TRANSCRIPTION

Promoter
Base sequence close to start of gene - controls whether gene is transcribed
noncoding DNA

RNA polymerase proteins bind to promoter then start transcribing

Transcription factors
proteins that bind to promoter, allowiing RNA polymerase to bind and begin ranscription

Post transcriptional modification

mRNA = introns + exons
introns removed before ttranslation
exons spliced together
TRANSLATION

Initiation of Translation
1) small subunit binds to mRNA start codon
2) tRNA with anticodon opposite to start codon binds
3) large subunit of ribosome binds to small subunit - initiator tRNA is in P site
4) tRNA binds to A site
5) peptide bond forms between amino acids in P and A sites

Elongation in Translation
1) ribsome moves 3 bases along mRNA towards 3' end -> A site becomes vacant
2) tRNA in E site detatches
3) tRNA binds to A site
4) formation of peptide bond
repeat

Termination of Translation
1) ribosome reaches stop codon
2) release factors bind tto A site -> release of polypeptide from P SITE
3) tRNA, mRNA, everything detaches