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Diffusion and
Moderation
Simon
Cster
The
Equation of
Continuity
Simon Cster
The
Diffusion
Equation
Solutions to
The
Diffusion
Equation April 11, 2013
The Group
Diffusion
Method
Neutron
Diffusion and
Moderation
Simon
1 Ficks Law
Cster
Outline
2 The Equation of Continuity
Ficks Law
The
Equation of
Continuity 3 The Diffusion Equation
The
Diffusion
Equation
Solutions to
4 Solutions to The Diffusion Equation
The
Diffusion
Equation
Neutron
Diffusion and
Moderation
Simon
Cster
Diffusion theory is based on Ficks Law
Outline
The J = D,
Diffusion
Equation
where D is the diffusion coefficient, is the neutron flux and J
Solutions to
The is the neutron current density vector.
Diffusion
Equation
The Group
Diffusion
Method
The Equation of Continuity
Neutron
Diffusion and
Moderation
Simon
Cster
Since neutrons do not disappear (-decay neglected) the
Outline
following must be true for an arbitrary volume V .
Ficks Law
The
Equation of [Rate of change in number of neutrons inV ] =
Continuity
[rate of production of neutrons inV ]
The
Diffusion
Equation
[rate of absorption of neutrons inV ]
Solutions to [rate of leakage of neutrons fromV ]
The
Diffusion
Equation
The Group
Diffusion
Method
The Equation of Continuity
Neutron
Diffusion and
Moderation
Neutron
Diffusion and
Moderation
Simon
Cster
This gives the general Equation of Continuity
Outline
The Equation of Continuity
Ficks Law
The n
Equation of = s a J,
Continuity t
The where n is the density of neutrons, s is the rate at which
Diffusion
Equation neutrons are emitted from sources per cm3 , a is the
Solutions to
The
macroscopic absorption cross-section, J is the neutron current
Diffusion density vector and is the neutron flux.
Equation
The Group
Diffusion
Method
The Diffusion Equation
Neutron
Diffusion and
Two unknowns; the neutron density n and the neutron
Moderation current density vector J.
Simon
Cster Substitute Ficks law into the equation
Outline The Diffusion Equation
Ficks Law
General:
The n
Equation of D2 a + s =
Continuity
t
The
Diffusion Time-independent:
Equation
Solutions to
The
D2 a + s = 0
Diffusion
Equation
or
The Group 1 s
Diffusion
Method
2 2
+ = 0,
L D
D
where L2 = a . L is called the diffusion length.
Solutions to The Diffusion Equation
Neutron
Diffusion and
Moderation Infinite Planar Source
Simon SL |x|/L
Cster = e
2D
Outline
Ficks Law
The
Point Source
Equation of
S
e r /L
Continuity
=
The 4Dr
Diffusion
Equation
Solutions to
The Bare Slab, width 2a (
a = a + d is called extrapolated
Diffusion
Equation boundary)
The Group
Diffusion a |x|)/L]
SL sinh[(
Method =
2D cosh(a/L)
The Group Diffusion Method
Neutron
Diffusion and
Moderation
Simon
Cster Neutrons emitted with a continuous energy spectrum.
Outline Divided into N energy intervals.
Ficks Law
Neutron
Diffusion and
Moderation
The absorption rate in a specific group is given by
Simon
Cster Z
Outline Absorption rate = a (E )(E )dE
g
Ficks Law
The
Equation of
We can define the macroscopic group absorption cross-section,
Continuity
ag , as
1
The
Z
Diffusion
Equation
ag = a (E )(E )dE
g g
Solutions to
The
Diffusion
Then the absorption rate can be written as
Equation
Neutron
Diffusion and The rate at which neutrons transfers from group g to h is given
Moderation
by
Simon
Cster Transfer rate = g h g ,
Outline where g h is called the group transfer cross-section.
Ficks Law
The N
X
Equation of
Continuity Total transfer rate out of g = g h g
The h=g +1
Diffusion
Equation
Solutions to
Analogy, the rate at which neutrons transfers from group h into
The
Diffusion
g is given by
Equation
g 1
The Group X
Diffusion
Method
Total transfer rate into g = hg h
h=1
The Group Diffusion Method
Neutron
Diffusion and
Moderation This gives the steady-state diffusion equation for group g
Simon
Cster
The Diffusion Equation for Groups
Outline
Ficks Law N
X g
X 1
The Dg 2 g ag g g h g + hg h + sg = 0
Equation of
Continuity h=g +1 h=1
The
Diffusion
Equation
where the group-diffusion coefficient Dg is defined by
Solutions to
1
Z
The
Diffusion Dg = D(E )(E )dE
Equation g g
The Group
Diffusion
Method
These calculations are done by computers.
The Group Diffusion Method
Neutron
Diffusion and
Moderation
At least two groups must be used to obtain reasonable
Simon result
Cster
Thermal neutrons and fast neutrons
Outline
Ficks Law For a point source emitting S fast neutrons per second, the
The Diffusion Equation can be written (1 = 12 )
Equation of
Continuity
1
The
Diffusion
2 1 1 = 0
Equation D1
Solutions to
The
Diffusion
Equation a1 0 above thermal energies.
The Group
Diffusion
Method
Only two groups only 12 is non-zero in the third term
No thermal neutrons are scattered into the fast group.
The Group Diffusion Method
Neutron
Diffusion and
Moderation For neutrons in the thermal group, the diffusion equation can
Simon
Cster
be written
1 1 1
2 T 2 T =
Outline LT D
Ficks Law
Necessary to solve for fast neutrons first
The
Equation of
Continuity
Se r / T
The 1 = .
Diffusion 4D1 r
Equation
Solutions to Then
The
SL2T
(e r /LT e r / T ),
Diffusion
Equation T = 2
4D(LT T )
The Group
Diffusion
D1 D
Method
where T = 1 and L2T = a
Reactor theory
Ola Hkansson
s = f (2)
f
k= (7)
DB 2 + a
s = aF (8)
s = k a (12)
k 1 D
B2 = 2
, L2 = (14)
L a
d 2
+ B 2 = 0 (15)
dx 2
Boundary conditions: vanishes at x = a/2 and at x = a/2
where a = a + 2d . Note symmetry and d
dx = 0|x=0 .
General solution to (15) is
which reduces to
(x) = A cos Bx (17)
when making use of the condition on the derivative.
where ER is the recoverable energy per fission and f (x) are the
number of fissions at the point x. Introducing
n
(x) = A cos (22)
a
and solve (21) for A, we get
P
A= (23)
2aER f sin a
2
a
1 d 2 d
r + B 2 = 0 (24)
r 2 dr dr
= 0 as well as the flux must be
with the boundary condition (R)
finite.
Solution to (24) is given by
sin Br cos Br
=A +C (25)
r r
and reduces to
sin Br
=A (26)
r
since the flux must be finite when r = 0.
P
sin r /R
= 2
(27)
4ER f R r
1 d d
r + B 2 = 0 (28)
r dr dr
or
d 2 1 d
+ + B 2 = 0 (29)
dr 2 r dr
This is a special case of Bessels equation
d 2 1 d m2
2
+ + B 2 =0 (30)
dr 2 r dr r
where m = 0.
so that
xn
B= (34)
R
where xn is the values where J0 (x) is zero.
Finite cylindrical reactor with height H and radius R. The flux here
depends on the distance r from the axis and the distance z from
the midpoint of the cylinder. The reactor equation takes the form
1 2
r + 2 + B 2 = 0 (37)
r r r z
The boundary conditions in this case are
z) = (r , H/2)
(R, =0 (38)
we now get
1 1 R 1 2Z
r + = B 2 (40)
R r r r Z z 2
This implies that the first and second term of (40) must be
constants. This gives that
d 2R 1 dR 2 d 2Z
+ + Br R = 0, + Bz2 = 0 (41)
dr 2 r dr dz 2
where Br2 + Bz2 = B 2 . Both of the equations in (41) have been
solved earlier.
Making use of Z
P = ER f dV (44)
P
average = (45)
ER f V
The equation
k
=1 (47)
1 + B12 L2
determines the conditions under which a bare reactor is critical.
a = aF + aM (48)
Letting
aF
f = (49)
a
it is clear that f a T neutrons are absorbed per cm3 /sec in the
fuel. If T is the average number of neutrons emitted per thermal
neutron absorbed in the fuel, T f a T neutrons are emitted per
cm3 /sec.
k
D1 2 1 1 1 + a T = 0 (51)
p
D2 T a T + p1 1 = 0 (52)
1 = A1 , T = A2 (53)
k
(D1 B 2 + 1 )A1 + a A2 = 0 (54)
p
k
2 2
=1 (56)
(1 + B LT )(1 + B 2 T )
where
D D1
L2T = , T = (57)
a 1
For a spherical reactor with a core and infinite reflector, there are
two reactor equations - One for the core and one for the reflector.
In this case,
2 c + B 2 c = 0 (58)
and
1
2 r c = 0 (59)
L2r
These must be solved and satisfy continuity of the neutron flux at
the boundary between the core and reflector (quite lengthy
calculations).
Markus Preston
Examples
I Highly enriched fuel thin fuel rods quasi-homogeneous
I Slightly enriched fuel thicker fuel rods heterogeneous
Reactor Physics tutorial
Heterogeneous reactors
Heterogeneous reactor parameters
T
I Average number of fission neutrons produced per neutron
absorbed by fuel (thermal neutrons)
I Example fuel rod contents: 235 U, 238 U, 16 O
I Average number of fission neutrons produced: f
I f ,238 = 0 at thermal energies
I Absorption cross section for 16 O 0
f ,235 f ,235
T =
a,235 + a,238
Reactor Physics tutorial
Heterogeneous reactors
Heterogeneous reactor parameters
aF VF
f =
aF VF + aM VM
I Reactor period T :
lp
T =
k 1
I Precursor concentration C
dC k a T
= C
dt p
T = A1 exp(1 t) + A2 exp(2 t)
k1
I Define reactivity = k
I k >1>0
I k <1<0
I k =1=0
I depends on evolution of flux for specific
In general, T exp(1 t) T exp Tt
I
5/17/2013
1. Thermodynamic Considerations
2. Heat Generation in Reactors
Sebastian Thor
3. Fission Product Decay Heating
4. Heat Flow by Conduction
5. Fuel Elements
6. Heat Transfer to Coolants
7. Boiling Heat Transfer
2
THERMODYNAMIC CONSIDERATIONS
5/17/2013
No change in phase of the Change in phase of the coolant
coolant Up to the saturation temperature
it acts the same:
Temperature increases, pressure
invariant
Sebastian Thor
= +
The rate of heat absorbed in the
coolant is given by: Once saturation temperature is
achieved, the coolant has to absorb
an amount of heat equal to the heat
= of vaporization per unit mass to
change phase.
The enthalpy:
= + = + +
= + 3
HEAT GENERATION IN REACTORS
5/17/2013
Fission fragment, -ray and about 1/3 of the -ray energy is absorbed in the
fuel. This is about 90% of the recoverable fission energy.
The rate of heat production per unit volume at the point is given by:
Sebastian Thor
= ,
0
For the thermal reactor this reduces to:
= ()
Where is the energy deposited locally in the fuel per fission, is the
thermal cross-section of the fuel and () is the thermal flux.
4
FISSION PRODUCT DECAY HEATING
5/17/2013
After a few days of reactor operation, the fission products
accumulates and together stand for about 7% of the total thermal
power output through and decays. This is something that has to
Sebastian Thor
be dealed with in the event of a shut down.
If not, the temperature may rise to a point where the integrity of the
fuel might be compromised. (Fukushima).
5
HEAT FLOW BY CONDUCTION
5/17/2013
Fouriers law
=
Sebastian Thor
Steady-state equation of conductivity
= 0
6
FUEL ELEMENTS
5/17/2013
Plate-type fuel
In the fuel:
=
2
Sebastian Thor
cf.
=
With the cladding:
=
Using Fouriers law:
= =
+
+
2
This shows that the thermal resistances behaves like two electrical
resistors in series.
The last part also applies for cylindrical fuel, however and are 7
calculated differently.
HEAT TRANSFER TO COOLANTS
5/17/2013
Continues along the lines of the previous slide.
=
1
1
Sebastian Thor
=
is the bulk temperature of the coolant, is the thermal resistance for
convective heat transfer, h is the heat transfer coefficient, which depends on
many factors such as the coolant temperature and the manner in which it
flows by the heated surface. A is the area of contact.
Coolant channels
= + 1 + sin
2
, = +
8
BOILING HEAT TRANSFER
5/17/2013
Up to this point it has been assumed that the coolant does not change phase.
However there are some advantages to permitting the coolant to boil.
The fact that one does not need a heat transfer system between the reactor
coolant and the turbines for one, and also lower pressure in the reactor.
Sebastian Thor
Boiling regimes
No boiling: Temperature rises. Nothing significant happens
Local boiling: Bubbles form but quickly transfer their heat to the
surrounding liquid coolant
Bulk boiling: Bubbles persists. Bubbly flow leads to anular flow.
Boiling Crisis
Partial film boiling: The sides of the coolant channels gets covered with a
thin layer of gas. The gas has higher thermal resistance, heat conduction is
reduced. 9
Full film boiling: Even though the heat conduction is reduced, the fuel is
still going now becoming hotter and hotter due to decreased cooling
Nuclear reactor licensing and
regulation
BENJAMINAS MARCINKEVICIUS
Table of contents
History
Reactor licensing
Nuclear reactor safety principles
Radiation release
Data from NPP
History
First legislation related to nuclear power 1946 McMahon
Act
In 1974 Nuclear regulatory Comission (NCR) was
created to manage licensing and regulation of nuclear
power plants.
DOE Department of energy, takes responsibility to
sposor recearch and development of Nuclear Energy.
Licensing
NRC regulates everything from reactor project approval to
fuel transport licensing and disposal of radioactive waste.
Although all nuclear power plants have to receive from
other institutions as well. (Like coal or gas plants).
It is more than 40 licensing actions and may take more
than two years.
Licensing
Licensing
NRC groups:
Regulatory staff
Building, regulation of normal working, fuel regulation
etc.
ACRS (Advisor committee on reactor safeguards)
Reviews reactor licensing and predicts potential
hazards
ASLB (Atomic safety and licensing boards)
Grants, revokes or suspends license of object. At least
two technical members.
Licensing
Stages
Construction permit
Informal Site review
Application of license
Includes financial information, technical information,
preliminary safety analysis, Environmental report.
Submission of AER
Review of regulatory staff
Licensing
Review by ACRS
Public hearings
Against Atomic safety and Licensing board which
decides if application should be approved.
Appeals
Licensing
Operation license
Submittal for Operating License
Review by Regulatory staff
Determine new information after the CP and its impact
Review by ACRS
Hearings
Appeals
Nuclear power plant safety principles
Three main contamination paths
Operation
Refueling
Shipping of fuel
Nuclear power plant safety principles
Multiple barriers
Fuel
Cladding
Closed coolant system
Pressure vessel
Containment
Nuclear power plant safety principles
Dose rate:
Radiation release
dose:
Treatment is similar as gamma ray case.
Surface dose estimation
Internal dose estimation
Radiation release
Internal dose
Function of breathing activity
Steady state equilibrium equation for dose rate
Radiation release
Dose from Ground-deposited nuclides
80 % of dose form meltdown would be from Cs137
Release from nuclear power plant
Population dose:
Defined by person-rems
Data from NPP
Product Activity Average Vicinity of NPP
Lithuania 50 km diameter
Bq/kg Bq/kg
Milk 90Sr 0,020,01 0,030,01
137Cs 0,030,01 0,040,02
alfa 0,250,05 0,140,06
beta 501 494
Meat 90Sr 0,030,02 0,030,02
137Cs 0,140,18 0,090,03
alfa 0,390,29 0,570,29
beta 1176 1173
Cabbage 90Sr 0,060,02 0,050,03
137Cs 0,040,01 0,070,08
alfa 0,460,32 0,330,23
beta 716 623
Data from NPP
Milk
Meat
Fish
Veggies
Data from NPP
Average dose to NPP workers in Sweden in year 2010
1.7 mSv per year.
Maximal dose in 2010 - 16.9 mSv.
Doses are ~50 % higher in BWR reactors in Sweden.
SANDRA ANDERSSON
Atmospheric
structure
Themperature profile of the lowermost
troposphere
Atmospheric stabillity
Atmospheric stabillity
Atmospheric stabillity
Atmospheric stabillity
Atmospheric stabillity
Dispersion of a plume
Dispersion of a plume
Modelling the dispersion of pollutants
Diffusion of Effluents
Mainly turbulent diffusion
Spreads out in gaussian
distribution
Standard deviation:
1/2
2
=
1/2
2
=
Concentration of effluents
2 + 2 2 2
= + + +
2 2 2 2 2
2
=
2 2
2
= + =
2 2
Depositionrate: = Ci/m2/s
Radioactive decay: = 0 exp()=0 exp( )
Releases from Buildings
Releases from Buildings
construction permit from the NRC (regulations regarding reactor site criteria)
-without undue risk to the health and safety of the public
-minimal effect on the environment
Reactor itself, its design characteristics, and its proposed mode of operation.
Population Considerations
the physical characteristics of the site :seismology, meteorology, geology, and hydrology of the area
the use of appropriate engineering safeguards
Population Considerations
the NRC has defined two areas in the vicinity of the reactor
An exclusion area, or exclusion zone: is that area surrounding the reactor in which the reactor licensee has
the authority to determine all activities including exclusion or removal of personnel and property from the
area
A low-population zone (LPZ) is "the area immediately surrounding the exclusion area which contains
residents, the total number and density of which are such that there is a reasonable probability that
appropriate protective measures could be taken in their behalf in the event of a serious accident
The assumptions that the NRC makes in calculating the radii of the exclusion area and the LPZ , are used
to compute the external and internal dose from the effluent cloud and the direct dose from nuclides
Population Considerations
Reactor power(MW)
The amount of a fission product available for release to the atmosphere can be estimated by
where Fp is the fraction of the radionuclide released from the fuel into the reactor containment and Fb is
the fraction of this that remains airborne and capable of escaping from the building.
Physical Characteristics of Site
Nuclear power plants must be designed and constructed in such a manner that all structures and systems
important to safety can withstand the effects of earthquakes, tornadoes, hurricanes, floods, and other
natural phenomena, without a loss of safety function
Seismology: Geologists now believe that the surface of the earth is composed of large structures called
tectonic plates.
Figure 1 1 .19 The earth's tectonic plates and earthquake belts (From C. Kissinger, "Earthquake Prediction," Physics Today, March, 1 974.)
Physical Characteristics of Site
Geology :Studies must be made of the geological structure of a proposed site in order to
determine whether the area can family support the reactor building with all its internal
components.
Hydrology It is necessary to prevent large quantities of water from entering the site of a nuclear
power plant, since water could compromise some of the safety-related systems of the
plant.
the hydrological phenomena : depends upon the nature and location of the site
the NRC has divided the spectrum of possible accidents into nine classes,
Loss-of-Coolant Accident
coolant flow through a reactor core ---- caused by leak in a small coolant pipe
-to serious consequences for the plant as a whole
-the pressure in the reactor vessel quickly drops to the saturation
pressure
-change in the average water temperature
control: emergency core cooling system (ECCS):
when the pressure has dropped below about 650 psi
Three Mile Island Accident: The accident at the Three Mile Island nuclear power station (TMI) near
Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, in March 1979 is one of the worst that has occurred in a commercial nuclear
power plant.
During maintenance operations, the feedwater flow to the steam generator was lost, an event that can be
expected to happen two or three times a year in a plant. Because of the sudden loss of heat removal,
pressure began to increase in the primary system
The accident at Three Mile Island did seriously damage the core, but did not result in a large release of
radioactivity to the atmosphere
The Chernobyl Accident
Ukranian City of Kiev April 26, 1 986
The Chernobyl reactor was a graphite
moderated boiling water pressure tube
reactor of the RBMK
During the shutdown process, the reactor was in an extremely unstable condition. A peculiarity of the
design of the control rods caused a dramatic power surge as they were inserted into the reactor
The interaction of very hot fuel with the cooling water led to fuel fragmentation along with rapid steam
production and an increase in pressure.
Where a low power level with an unfavorable power distribution, a high coolant flow rate in the core,
a reduced feedwater flow rate to the reactor with increasing coolant temperature at the core inlet,
and an unstable xenon spatial distribution
BWR: Steam Pipe Break: The steam in a BWR plant is somewhat radioactive, since it is produced
directly in the reactor
BWR: Rod Drop : The control rods in a BWR enter from the bottom of the core and are inserted
upwards.
A number of failures in the control rod drive system: to the release of some activity
into the containment.
The risk of an event can be computed in an obvious way from the frequency
of the event and the magnitude of the consequences of the event:
However, the public acceptability of a given risk depends not only on the size
of the risk, but also on the magnitude of the consequences of the event.
Risk Determination
The calculation of the risk associated with accidents in a nuclear power plant is a three-step process:
1- determine the probabilities of the various releases of radioactivity resulting from accidents
2- the consequences to the public of these releases must be evaluated
3- the release probabilities and their consequences are combined to obtain the overall risk.
event trees :the identification of the accident sequences leading to various releases
The effluent released to the environments: gaseous or liquid form
the origin, amount, and composition of this effluent varies from plant to plant,
Regulation of Effluents
The NRC has translated its "as low as reasonably achievable
Doses from Effluents
The gaseous effluents emitted to the atmosphere and liquid wastes discharged to bodies of water, and
these two cases will be considered separately.
Gaseous Effluents :noble gases and the isotopes of iodine 131I
1)-the concentration of the radionuclides discharged from the plant is estimated from the discharge rate
and dispersion characteristics of the receiving body of water.
the proportionality constant CF is usually called the concentration factor and sometimes the
bioaccumulation factor.
3)-the consumption rate of seafood from waters near the power plant must be estimated
4)-the dose rate can be found by comparing the activity of the seafood Cs in Ci/cm3 and its consumption
rate Rs in cm3/day with the dose rate
the dose rate received from the seafood: