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Neutron

Diffusion and
Moderation

Simon
Cster

Outline Neutron Diffusion and Moderation


Ficks Law

The
Equation of
Continuity
Simon Cster
The
Diffusion
Equation

Solutions to
The
Diffusion
Equation April 11, 2013
The Group
Diffusion
Method
Neutron
Diffusion and
Moderation

Simon
1 Ficks Law
Cster

Outline
2 The Equation of Continuity
Ficks Law

The
Equation of
Continuity 3 The Diffusion Equation
The
Diffusion
Equation

Solutions to
4 Solutions to The Diffusion Equation
The
Diffusion
Equation

The Group 5 The Group Diffusion Method


Diffusion
Method
Ficks Law

Neutron
Diffusion and
Moderation

Simon
Cster
Diffusion theory is based on Ficks Law
Outline

Ficks Law Solute will diffuse from high concentration to low


The
Equation of Ficks Law
Continuity

The J = D,
Diffusion
Equation
where D is the diffusion coefficient, is the neutron flux and J
Solutions to
The is the neutron current density vector.
Diffusion
Equation

The Group
Diffusion
Method
The Equation of Continuity

Neutron
Diffusion and
Moderation

Simon
Cster
Since neutrons do not disappear (-decay neglected) the
Outline
following must be true for an arbitrary volume V .
Ficks Law

The
Equation of [Rate of change in number of neutrons inV ] =
Continuity
[rate of production of neutrons inV ]
The
Diffusion
Equation
[rate of absorption of neutrons inV ]
Solutions to [rate of leakage of neutrons fromV ]
The
Diffusion
Equation

The Group
Diffusion
Method
The Equation of Continuity

Neutron
Diffusion and
Moderation

Simon In mathematical terms the Equation of Continuity can be


Cster
expressed as
Outline Z
n
Ficks Law Neutron change rate = dV
The V t
Equation of
Z
Continuity
Production rate = sdV
The V
Diffusion Z
Equation
Absorption rate = a dV
Solutions to
The ZV
Diffusion
Equation Leakage rate = JdV
The Group V
Diffusion
Method
The Equation of Continuity

Neutron
Diffusion and
Moderation

Simon
Cster
This gives the general Equation of Continuity
Outline
The Equation of Continuity
Ficks Law

The n
Equation of = s a J,
Continuity t
The where n is the density of neutrons, s is the rate at which
Diffusion
Equation neutrons are emitted from sources per cm3 , a is the
Solutions to
The
macroscopic absorption cross-section, J is the neutron current
Diffusion density vector and is the neutron flux.
Equation

The Group
Diffusion
Method
The Diffusion Equation

Neutron
Diffusion and
Two unknowns; the neutron density n and the neutron
Moderation current density vector J.
Simon
Cster Substitute Ficks law into the equation
Outline The Diffusion Equation
Ficks Law
General:
The n
Equation of D2 a + s =
Continuity
t
The
Diffusion Time-independent:
Equation

Solutions to
The
D2 a + s = 0
Diffusion
Equation
or
The Group 1 s
Diffusion
Method
2 2
+ = 0,
L D
D
where L2 = a . L is called the diffusion length.
Solutions to The Diffusion Equation

Neutron
Diffusion and
Moderation Infinite Planar Source
Simon SL |x|/L
Cster = e
2D
Outline

Ficks Law

The
Point Source
Equation of
S
e r /L
Continuity
=
The 4Dr
Diffusion
Equation

Solutions to
The Bare Slab, width 2a (
a = a + d is called extrapolated
Diffusion
Equation boundary)
The Group
Diffusion a |x|)/L]
SL sinh[(
Method =
2D cosh(a/L)
The Group Diffusion Method

Neutron
Diffusion and
Moderation

Simon
Cster Neutrons emitted with a continuous energy spectrum.
Outline Divided into N energy intervals.
Ficks Law

The Averaged diffusion coefficients and cross-section.


Equation of
Continuity
The flux of neutrons in a group g is described by
The
Diffusion Z
Equation
g = (E )dE ,
Solutions to
The
g
Diffusion
Equation
where (E ) is the energy-dependent neutron flux.
The Group
Diffusion
Method
The Group Diffusion Method

Neutron
Diffusion and
Moderation
The absorption rate in a specific group is given by
Simon
Cster Z
Outline Absorption rate = a (E )(E )dE
g
Ficks Law

The
Equation of
We can define the macroscopic group absorption cross-section,
Continuity
ag , as
1
The
Z
Diffusion
Equation
ag = a (E )(E )dE
g g
Solutions to
The
Diffusion
Then the absorption rate can be written as
Equation

The Group Absorption rate = ag g


Diffusion
Method
The Group Diffusion Method

Neutron
Diffusion and The rate at which neutrons transfers from group g to h is given
Moderation
by
Simon
Cster Transfer rate = g h g ,
Outline where g h is called the group transfer cross-section.
Ficks Law

The N
X
Equation of
Continuity Total transfer rate out of g = g h g
The h=g +1
Diffusion
Equation

Solutions to
Analogy, the rate at which neutrons transfers from group h into
The
Diffusion
g is given by
Equation
g 1
The Group X
Diffusion
Method
Total transfer rate into g = hg h
h=1
The Group Diffusion Method

Neutron
Diffusion and
Moderation This gives the steady-state diffusion equation for group g
Simon
Cster
The Diffusion Equation for Groups
Outline

Ficks Law N
X g
X 1
The Dg 2 g ag g g h g + hg h + sg = 0
Equation of
Continuity h=g +1 h=1
The
Diffusion
Equation
where the group-diffusion coefficient Dg is defined by
Solutions to
1
Z
The
Diffusion Dg = D(E )(E )dE
Equation g g
The Group
Diffusion
Method
These calculations are done by computers.
The Group Diffusion Method

Neutron
Diffusion and
Moderation
At least two groups must be used to obtain reasonable
Simon result
Cster
Thermal neutrons and fast neutrons
Outline

Ficks Law For a point source emitting S fast neutrons per second, the
The Diffusion Equation can be written (1 = 12 )
Equation of
Continuity
1
The
Diffusion
2 1 1 = 0
Equation D1
Solutions to
The
Diffusion
Equation a1 0 above thermal energies.
The Group
Diffusion
Method
Only two groups only 12 is non-zero in the third term
No thermal neutrons are scattered into the fast group.
The Group Diffusion Method

Neutron
Diffusion and
Moderation For neutrons in the thermal group, the diffusion equation can
Simon
Cster
be written
1 1 1
2 T 2 T =
Outline LT D
Ficks Law
Necessary to solve for fast neutrons first
The
Equation of
Continuity
Se r / T
The 1 = .
Diffusion 4D1 r
Equation

Solutions to Then
The
SL2T
(e r /LT e r / T ),
Diffusion
Equation T = 2
4D(LT T )
The Group
Diffusion
D1 D
Method
where T = 1 and L2T = a
Reactor theory

Ola Hkansson

April 15, 2013

Ola Hkansson Reactor theory


One-group reactor equation

Time-dependent diffusion equation


1
D2 a + s = (1)
v t
where D and a are the one-group diffusion coefficient and
macroscopic absorption cross-section for fuel-coolant mixture.

s = f (2)

If the source term is to balance the leak and absorption in (1), we


get
1
D2 a + f = 0 (3)
k

Ola Hkansson Reactor theory


One-group reactor equation

By letting the Buckling B be defined by


1  
B2 = f a (4)
D k
we get the one-group reactor equation
1
DB 2 a + f = 0 (5)
k
or
2 + B 2 = 0 (6)
From (5), we have the multiplication factor k

f
k= (7)
DB 2 + a

Ola Hkansson Reactor theory


One-group reactor equation

Source term for the one-group equation

s = aF (8)

where is the average number of fission neutrons emitted per


absorbed neutron in the fuel and aF is the cross-section for the
fuel.
This can be written as
s = f a (9)
where
aF
f = (10)
a

Ola Hkansson Reactor theory


One-group reactor equation
For an infinite reactor all neutrons are absorbed, the multiplication
factor k is
f a
k = = f (11)
a
and the source term can now be written as

s = k a (12)

and we now have


k 1
DB 2 a + a = (?) (13)
k v t
For a critical reactor (k = 1), we get

k 1 D
B2 = 2
, L2 = (14)
L a

Ola Hkansson Reactor theory


The slab reactor

For a critical, infinite bare slab of thickness a the reactor equation is

d 2
+ B 2 = 0 (15)
dx 2
Boundary conditions: vanishes at x = a/2 and at x = a/2
where a = a + 2d . Note symmetry and d
dx = 0|x=0 .
General solution to (15) is

(x) = A cos Bx + C sin Bx (16)

which reduces to
(x) = A cos Bx (17)
when making use of the condition on the derivative.

Ola Hkansson Reactor theory


The slab reactor

The boundary conditions now gives


   
a a Ba
= = A cos =0 (18)
2 2 2

For the non-trivial solution, B can take any of the values


n
Bn = (19)
a
The flux in the critical reactor then is
x
(x) = A cos (20)
a

Ola Hkansson Reactor theory


The slab reactor

A can be found by calculating the power of the reactor P.


Z a/2
P = ER f (x)dx (21)
a/2

where ER is the recoverable energy per fission and f (x) are the
number of fissions at the point x. Introducing
n
(x) = A cos (22)
a
and solve (21) for A, we get

P
A= (23)
2aER f sin a
2
a

Ola Hkansson Reactor theory


The spherical reactor

Critical, spherical reactor with radius R - The flux only depends on


r . The reactor equation is

1 d 2 d
r + B 2 = 0 (24)
r 2 dr dr
= 0 as well as the flux must be
with the boundary condition (R)
finite.
Solution to (24) is given by

sin Br cos Br
=A +C (25)
r r
and reduces to
sin Br
=A (26)
r
since the flux must be finite when r = 0.

Ola Hkansson Reactor theory


The spherical reactor

As earlier, introducing the boundary conditions and calculating the


reactor power yields the flux

P
sin r /R
= 2
(27)
4ER f R r

Ola Hkansson Reactor theory


The infinite cylinder reactor

Critical, cylindrical reactor with radius R

1 d d
r + B 2 = 0 (28)
r dr dr
or
d 2 1 d
+ + B 2 = 0 (29)
dr 2 r dr
This is a special case of Bessels equation

d 2 1 d m2
 
2
+ + B 2 =0 (30)
dr 2 r dr r

where m = 0.

Ola Hkansson Reactor theory


The infinite cylinder reactor

The solution can thus be written as

= AJ0 (Br ) + CY0 (Br ) (31)

Since Y0 is not finite at the origin, C = 0 and

= AJ0 (Br ) (32)

The boundary conditions specify that


= AJ0 (B R)
(R) =0 (33)

so that
xn
B= (34)
R
where xn is the values where J0 (x) is zero.

Ola Hkansson Reactor theory


The infinite cylinder reactor

For the critical reactor, the flux can now be written as


 
2.405r
= AJ0 (35)
R

A is calculated from the reactor power, resulting in


 
0.738P 2.405r
= J0 (36)
ER f R 2 R

Ola Hkansson Reactor theory


The finite cylinder reactor

Finite cylindrical reactor with height H and radius R. The flux here
depends on the distance r from the axis and the distance z from
the midpoint of the cylinder. The reactor equation takes the form

1 2
r + 2 + B 2 = 0 (37)
r r r z
The boundary conditions in this case are
z) = (r , H/2)
(R, =0 (38)

Ola Hkansson Reactor theory


The finite cylinder reactor

Assuming the solution can be obtained by separation of variables

(r , z) = R(r )Z (z) (39)

we now get
1 1 R 1 2Z
r + = B 2 (40)
R r r r Z z 2
This implies that the first and second term of (40) must be
constants. This gives that

d 2R 1 dR 2 d 2Z
+ + Br R = 0, + Bz2 = 0 (41)
dr 2 r dr dz 2
where Br2 + Bz2 = B 2 . Both of the equations in (41) have been
solved earlier.

Ola Hkansson Reactor theory


Maximum-to-average flux and power

The ratio between max and average , , is in some cases of


interest. max , in a uniform bare reactor is always found at the
center pf the reactor. In the case of a bare spherical reactor, the
maximum flux is obtained from the limit
P sin (r /R) P
max = 2
lim = (42)
4ER f R r 0 r 4ER f R 3

The average flux is given by


1
Z
average = dV (43)
V

Ola Hkansson Reactor theory


Maximum-to-average flux and power

Making use of Z
P = ER f dV (44)

we can write average as

P
average = (45)
ER f V

and now becomes


max 2
= = 3.29 (46)
average 3

Ola Hkansson Reactor theory


The one-group critical equation

The equation
k
=1 (47)
1 + B12 L2
determines the conditions under which a bare reactor is critical.

Ola Hkansson Reactor theory


Thermal reactors

an infinite reactor composed of a homogeneous fuel-moderator


mixture. a is the macroscopic cross-section of the mixture so that

a = aF + aM (48)

Letting
aF
f = (49)
a
it is clear that f a T neutrons are absorbed per cm3 /sec in the
fuel. If T is the average number of neutrons emitted per thermal
neutron absorbed in the fuel, T f a T neutrons are emitted per
cm3 /sec.

Ola Hkansson Reactor theory


Thermal reactors

The multiplication factor of the reactor is given by the four-factor


formula
k = T fp (50)
where  is defined as the ratio of the total number of fission
neutron produces by both fast and thermal fission to the number
produced by only thermal fission and p is the probability that a
fission neutron is not absorbed at any other energies than thermal.

Ola Hkansson Reactor theory


Thermal reactors, criticality calculation

Two-group calculation with fast and thermal neutrons.


T f a T = (k /p)a T neutrons are emitted to the fast group
and 1 1 are scattered out of the group. The diffusion equation for
the fast group is

k
D1 2 1 1 1 + a T = 0 (51)
p

With p1 1 neutrons entering the thermal group (i.e the source)


the diffusion equation for the thermal group is

D2 T a T + p1 1 = 0 (52)

Ola Hkansson Reactor theory


Thermal reactors

Moreover, the two fluxes may be written as

1 = A1 , T = A2 (53)

Now we get the two equations

k
(D1 B 2 + 1 )A1 + a A2 = 0 (54)
p

p1 A1 (DB 2 + a )A2 = 0 (55)


If these equations are to have non-trivial solutions, the determinant
is 0.

Ola Hkansson Reactor theory


Thermal reactors

Calculating the determinant, and setting it to 0, one gets the


multiplication factor (in this case k = 1)

k
2 2
=1 (56)
(1 + B LT )(1 + B 2 T )

where
D D1
L2T = , T = (57)
a 1

Ola Hkansson Reactor theory


Reflected reactors

For a spherical reactor with a core and infinite reflector, there are
two reactor equations - One for the core and one for the reflector.
In this case,
2 c + B 2 c = 0 (58)
and
1
2 r c = 0 (59)
L2r
These must be solved and satisfy continuity of the neutron flux at
the boundary between the core and reflector (quite lengthy
calculations).

Ola Hkansson Reactor theory


Multigroup calculation

One-group method is a rough estimate. More accurate results are


obtained by multigroup calculations.
fg is the group-averaged macroscopic fission cross-section
g is the average number of fission neutron from fission
induced by group g
Xg is the fraction of fission neutrons emitted with energies in
the group g
The multigroup equation for group g is then
N
X g
X 1 N
X
Dg 2 g ag g g h g + hg h +Xg h fh h = 0
h=g +1 h=1 h=1
(60)
.

Ola Hkansson Reactor theory


Reactor Physics tutorial

Reactor Physics tutorial

Markus Preston

April 22, 2013


Reactor Physics tutorial
Heterogeneous reactors
Quasi-homogeneous vs. heterogeneous reactors

Quasi-homogeneous vs. heterogeneous reactors

I Most reactors are non-homogeneous: fuel (rods), coolant,


moderator (if thermal reactor) are separated
I Even such a reactor may be considered to be
quasi-homogeneous
I Mean free path larger than fuel rod dimensions at all En
I > 1 collision in fuel rod unlikely
I If . fuel rod dimensions at some energy: multiple collisions
probable Heterogeneous reactor

Examples
I Highly enriched fuel thin fuel rods quasi-homogeneous
I Slightly enriched fuel thicker fuel rods heterogeneous
Reactor Physics tutorial
Heterogeneous reactors
Heterogeneous reactor parameters

Heterogeneous reactor parameters

T
I Average number of fission neutrons produced per neutron
absorbed by fuel (thermal neutrons)
I Example fuel rod contents: 235 U, 238 U, 16 O
I Average number of fission neutrons produced: f
I f ,238 = 0 at thermal energies
I Absorption cross section for 16 O 0
f ,235 f ,235
T =
a,235 + a,238
Reactor Physics tutorial
Heterogeneous reactors
Heterogeneous reactor parameters

Heterogeneous reactor parameters


f - Thermal utilization
I Probability that neutron absorbed in core is absorbed in the
fuel
I Number of neutrons absorbed in volume (fuel/moderator) per
second: Z
a T dV = a T V
V

aF VF
f =
aF VF + aM VM

I = TM : thermal disadvantage factor. Generally, > 1 in


TF
heterogeneous reactor
I f is calculated numerically. Analytical solutions (Wigner-Seitz
method) only rough approximation in most cases
Reactor Physics tutorial
Heterogeneous reactors
Heterogeneous reactor parameters

Heterogeneous reactor parameters

k - Multiplication factor in infinite reactor


I Four-factor formula: k = T fp
I Thermal utilization: fhetero < fhomo
I Resonance escape probability: phetero > phomo . Increases more
than f decreases (fp)hetero > (fp)homo
I Fast fission factor: hetero > homo

k |hetero > k |homo


Homogeneous reactor containing natural uranium and graphite:
k 0.85 non-critical. Rods of same fuel (heterogeneous
reactor) critical reactor possible.
Reactor Physics tutorial
Classification of time problems

Classification of time problems


Time-dependent neutron population
I Short Time Problems (seconds - tens of minutes)
I Reactor conditions altered change in k
I Intermediate Time Problems (hours - 1 or 2 days)
I Radioactive decay of fission products change in
concentration
I Fission product concentration affects absorption term
I Long Time Problems (days - months)
I Variation of neutron flux over long periods.
I Assume system in series of stationary states. Solve diffusion
equation for each configuration:
D2 a = f

I Change design parameters (buckling, absorption/fission


cross-sections) so that = 1
Reactor Physics tutorial
Reactor kinetics
Prompt Neutron Lifetime

Prompt Neutron Lifetime

I Produced directly at fission


I Average time between emission and absorption of prompt
neutron: lp (prompt neutron lifetime)
I Average time spent as thermal neutron before absorption: td
(mean diffusion time)
I For infinite thermal reactor: lp ' td


td =
2vT (aF + aM )

I For thermal reactor: lp ' 1 104 s


I For fast reactor: lp ' 1 107 s
Reactor Physics tutorial
Reactor kinetics
Reactor with No Delayed Neutrons

Reactor with No Delayed Neutrons

I 100% of neutrons are prompt neutrons


I Infinite thermal reactor
I Number of fissions at time t, NF (t):
t
NF (t) = NF (0) exp
T

I Reactor period T :
lp
T =
k 1

I lp = 1 104 s T = 0.1 s Power increase by factor


22000 after 1 second. Delayed neutrons needed!
Reactor Physics tutorial
Reactor kinetics
Reactor with Delayed Neutrons

Reactor with Delayed Neutrons

I Simplification: single delayed-neutron precursor (in reality: 6)


I Diffusion equation for homogeneous reactor:
sT dT
T = lp
a dt

I Pure prompt-neutron source term: sT = k a T


I If fraction are delayed, this becomes
sT |prompt = (1 )k a T
I Delayed-neutron source term depends on resonance escape
probability p, precursor decay constant and precursor
concentration C : sT |delayed = pC
Reactor Physics tutorial
Reactor kinetics
Reactor with Delayed Neutrons

Reactor with Delayed Neutrons

Two coupled differential equations:


I Thermal neutron flux T
pC dT
(1 )k T + T = lp
a dt

I Precursor concentration C
dC k a T
= C
dt p

I Assume solutions of forms


= A exp(t) C = C0 exp(t)
Reactor Physics tutorial
Reactor kinetics
Reactor with Delayed Neutrons

Reactor with Delayed Neutrons


Solution for the flux:

T = A1 exp(1 t) + A2 exp(2 t)

k1
I Define reactivity = k
I k >1>0
I k <1<0
I k =1=0
I depends on evolution of flux for specific
In general, T exp(1 t) T exp Tt

I

I Example reactor period with delayed neutrons: 57 s (0.1 s


without)
Reactor Physics tutorial
Reactor kinetics
The Prompt Critical State

The Prompt Critical State

I If (1 )k = 1, the prompt neutrons are enough to make the


reactor critical
I Corresponding reactivity:
1
k 1 1 1
= = 1
=
k 1

I Short periods when prompt critical restrict additions to


reactivity to <
HEAT REMOVAL FROM NUCLEAR
REACTORS
Sebastian Thor
TABLE OF CONTENTS

5/17/2013
1. Thermodynamic Considerations
2. Heat Generation in Reactors

Sebastian Thor
3. Fission Product Decay Heating
4. Heat Flow by Conduction
5. Fuel Elements
6. Heat Transfer to Coolants
7. Boiling Heat Transfer

2
THERMODYNAMIC CONSIDERATIONS

5/17/2013
No change in phase of the Change in phase of the coolant
coolant Up to the saturation temperature
it acts the same:
Temperature increases, pressure
invariant

Sebastian Thor

= +

The rate of heat absorbed in the
coolant is given by: Once saturation temperature is
achieved, the coolant has to absorb

an amount of heat equal to the heat
= of vaporization per unit mass to

change phase.

The enthalpy:

= + = + +


= + 3

HEAT GENERATION IN REACTORS

5/17/2013
Fission fragment, -ray and about 1/3 of the -ray energy is absorbed in the
fuel. This is about 90% of the recoverable fission energy.
The rate of heat production per unit volume at the point is given by:

Sebastian Thor


= ,
0
For the thermal reactor this reduces to:
= ()
Where is the energy deposited locally in the fuel per fission, is the
thermal cross-section of the fuel and () is the thermal flux.

Derivations and assumptions then leads to


(8.12)
No significant errors when used in heat transfer calculations.

4
FISSION PRODUCT DECAY HEATING

5/17/2013
After a few days of reactor operation, the fission products
accumulates and together stand for about 7% of the total thermal
power output through and decays. This is something that has to

Sebastian Thor
be dealed with in the event of a shut down.

If not, the temperature may rise to a point where the integrity of the
fuel might be compromised. (Fukushima).

5
HEAT FLOW BY CONDUCTION

5/17/2013
Fouriers law
=

Sebastian Thor
Steady-state equation of conductivity
= 0

Steady-state heat conduction equation:


2

+ =0

Where no heat sources exist (i.e. = 0); Laplaces equation:
2 = 0
These equations are then for example used to calculate how the heat
transferes from a fuel rod to a coolant.

6
FUEL ELEMENTS

5/17/2013
Plate-type fuel
In the fuel:

=
2

Sebastian Thor
cf.

=

With the cladding:

=

Using Fouriers law:

= =
+
+
2
This shows that the thermal resistances behaves like two electrical
resistors in series.
The last part also applies for cylindrical fuel, however and are 7
calculated differently.
HEAT TRANSFER TO COOLANTS

5/17/2013
Continues along the lines of the previous slide.

=
1
1

Sebastian Thor
=

is the bulk temperature of the coolant, is the thermal resistance for
convective heat transfer, h is the heat transfer coefficient, which depends on
many factors such as the coolant temperature and the manner in which it
flows by the heated surface. A is the area of contact.

Coolant channels


= + 1 + sin


2
, = +

8
BOILING HEAT TRANSFER

5/17/2013
Up to this point it has been assumed that the coolant does not change phase.
However there are some advantages to permitting the coolant to boil.
The fact that one does not need a heat transfer system between the reactor
coolant and the turbines for one, and also lower pressure in the reactor.

Sebastian Thor
Boiling regimes
No boiling: Temperature rises. Nothing significant happens
Local boiling: Bubbles form but quickly transfer their heat to the
surrounding liquid coolant
Bulk boiling: Bubbles persists. Bubbly flow leads to anular flow.

Boiling Crisis
Partial film boiling: The sides of the coolant channels gets covered with a
thin layer of gas. The gas has higher thermal resistance, heat conduction is
reduced. 9
Full film boiling: Even though the heat conduction is reduced, the fuel is
still going now becoming hotter and hotter due to decreased cooling
Nuclear reactor licensing and
regulation
BENJAMINAS MARCINKEVICIUS
Table of contents
History
Reactor licensing
Nuclear reactor safety principles
Radiation release
Data from NPP
History
First legislation related to nuclear power 1946 McMahon
Act
In 1974 Nuclear regulatory Comission (NCR) was
created to manage licensing and regulation of nuclear
power plants.
DOE Department of energy, takes responsibility to
sposor recearch and development of Nuclear Energy.
Licensing
NRC regulates everything from reactor project approval to
fuel transport licensing and disposal of radioactive waste.
Although all nuclear power plants have to receive from
other institutions as well. (Like coal or gas plants).
It is more than 40 licensing actions and may take more
than two years.
Licensing
Licensing
NRC groups:
Regulatory staff
Building, regulation of normal working, fuel regulation
etc.
ACRS (Advisor committee on reactor safeguards)
Reviews reactor licensing and predicts potential
hazards
ASLB (Atomic safety and licensing boards)
Grants, revokes or suspends license of object. At least
two technical members.
Licensing
Stages
Construction permit
Informal Site review
Application of license
Includes financial information, technical information,
preliminary safety analysis, Environmental report.
Submission of AER
Review of regulatory staff
Licensing
Review by ACRS
Public hearings
Against Atomic safety and Licensing board which
decides if application should be approved.
Appeals
Licensing
Operation license
Submittal for Operating License
Review by Regulatory staff
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Nuclear power plant safety principles
Three main contamination paths
Operation
Refueling
Shipping of fuel
Nuclear power plant safety principles
Multiple barriers
Fuel
Cladding
Closed coolant system
Pressure vessel
Containment
Nuclear power plant safety principles

Containment. Left PWR, Right BWR. [Lamarsh]


Nuclear power plant safety principles
Three levels of safety
First:
Accident prevention by safe design, construction and
surveillance.
Negative void and temperature coefficients.
Only known property materials should be used.
Sufficient instrumentation so that operators should have
information at all times.
High quality construction.
Continual monitoring of plant.
Nuclear power plant safety principles
Second level of safety:
Objective is to protect operators and public from
radiation damage.
Emergency core cooling system
Fast shut down ability without control rod insertion
Independent sources of power from Nuclear power
plant for instrumentation.
Third level of safety
Margin of safety for very unlikely events
Radiation release
Dose sources
External radiation from emitted plume
Internal dose from radionuclide inhalation
External dose from radionuclide deposited on the
ground
External dose from radionuclide deposited on clothes
and body
Direct dose from power plant.
Radiation release
Gamma from released plume
It is taken that plume is infinitely large gives
conservative values and simplifies calculation.

For more than one gamma ray:

Dose rate:
Radiation release
dose:
Treatment is similar as gamma ray case.
Surface dose estimation
Internal dose estimation
Radiation release
Internal dose
Function of breathing activity
Steady state equilibrium equation for dose rate
Radiation release
Dose from Ground-deposited nuclides
80 % of dose form meltdown would be from Cs137
Release from nuclear power plant

Population dose:
Defined by person-rems
Data from NPP
Product Activity Average Vicinity of NPP
Lithuania 50 km diameter
Bq/kg Bq/kg
Milk 90Sr 0,020,01 0,030,01
137Cs 0,030,01 0,040,02
alfa 0,250,05 0,140,06
beta 501 494
Meat 90Sr 0,030,02 0,030,02
137Cs 0,140,18 0,090,03
alfa 0,390,29 0,570,29
beta 1176 1173
Cabbage 90Sr 0,060,02 0,050,03
137Cs 0,040,01 0,070,08
alfa 0,460,32 0,330,23
beta 716 623
Data from NPP

Milk
Meat
Fish
Veggies
Data from NPP
Average dose to NPP workers in Sweden in year 2010
1.7 mSv per year.
Maximal dose in 2010 - 16.9 mSv.
Doses are ~50 % higher in BWR reactors in Sweden.

Nuclide Coal, Lodz


power station
238U 1.1 GBq/year
210Pb 1.2 GBq/year
Data from NPP
131mXe, 133mXe, 135Xe up to 96 % of released
radioactivity.
2790 GBq/a from Xenon
During Fukushima accident 19.0 3.4 Ebq of
Xenon.
References
www.RSC.lt
Lamarsh, Introduction to unclear engineering
Walinder Robert, Radiation doses to Swedish nuclear
workers and cancer incidence in a NPP
Martin B. Kalinowski, Matthias P. Tuma, Global
radioxenon emission inventory based on nuclear power
reactor reports, Journal of Environmental Radioactivity,
Volume 100, Issue 1, January 2009,
Andreas Stohl, Petra Seibert, Gerhard Wotawa, The total
release of xenon-133 from the Fukushima Dai-ichi
nuclear power plant accident, Journal of Environmental
Radioactivity, Volume 112, October 2012
Dispersion of Effluents
Reactor physics 2013

SANDRA ANDERSSON
Atmospheric
structure
Themperature profile of the lowermost
troposphere
Atmospheric stabillity
Atmospheric stabillity
Atmospheric stabillity
Atmospheric stabillity
Atmospheric stabillity
Dispersion of a plume
Dispersion of a plume
Modelling the dispersion of pollutants
Diffusion of Effluents
Mainly turbulent diffusion
Spreads out in gaussian
distribution

Standard deviation:
1/2
2
=

1/2
2
=

Concentration of effluents

2 + 2 2 2
= + + +
2 2 2 2 2

2 z=0 => at ground level


=
2 2 y=0 => at centerline, use if
know emission altitude

h=0 => released at ground level, use if


do not know emission altitude
[X]/Q= dilution factor
Deposition and radioactive decay

2
=
2 2

2
= + =
2 2

Depositionrate: = Ci/m2/s


Radioactive decay: = 0 exp()=0 exp( )

Releases from Buildings
Releases from Buildings

= Building dilution factor


The wedge model
The wedge model
The location of a nuclear reactor has an obvious bearing on the consequences of a reactor accident
to the public

construction permit from the NRC (regulations regarding reactor site criteria)
-without undue risk to the health and safety of the public
-minimal effect on the environment

The NRC evaluation considerations

Reactor itself, its design characteristics, and its proposed mode of operation.
Population Considerations
the physical characteristics of the site :seismology, meteorology, geology, and hydrology of the area
the use of appropriate engineering safeguards
Population Considerations

the NRC has defined two areas in the vicinity of the reactor

An exclusion area, or exclusion zone: is that area surrounding the reactor in which the reactor licensee has
the authority to determine all activities including exclusion or removal of personnel and property from the
area
A low-population zone (LPZ) is "the area immediately surrounding the exclusion area which contains
residents, the total number and density of which are such that there is a reasonable probability that
appropriate protective measures could be taken in their behalf in the event of a serious accident

the NRC also defines


the population center distance. "the distance from the reactor to the nearest boundary of a densely
populated center containing more than 25,000 residents."

total radiation dose to the whole body in excess of 25 rem


the population center distance be no less than 1 .33 times the radius of the LPZ.
Population Considerations

The assumptions that the NRC makes in calculating the radii of the exclusion area and the LPZ , are used
to compute the external and internal dose from the effluent cloud and the direct dose from nuclides
Population Considerations

To begin the computation


If the cumulative yield of the fission product is Yi atoms per fission, the rate of production of this
nuclide is
rate of production = P Yi atoms/sec.

Reactor power(MW)

The amount of a fission product available for release to the atmosphere can be estimated by

where Fp is the fraction of the radionuclide released from the fuel into the reactor containment and Fb is
the fraction of this that remains airborne and capable of escaping from the building.
Physical Characteristics of Site
Nuclear power plants must be designed and constructed in such a manner that all structures and systems
important to safety can withstand the effects of earthquakes, tornadoes, hurricanes, floods, and other
natural phenomena, without a loss of safety function

Seismology: Geologists now believe that the surface of the earth is composed of large structures called
tectonic plates.

the centers of 42,000 earthquakes

Figure 1 1 .19 The earth's tectonic plates and earthquake belts (From C. Kissinger, "Earthquake Prediction," Physics Today, March, 1 974.)
Physical Characteristics of Site

Meteorology To safety-related structures of reactor plant


from: hurricanes and tornadoes
Limitations
Hurricanes: up to 600 miles in diameter, with winds from 75 to 200 mi/hr
Tornadoes, Their diameters range from several feet to a mile

Geology :Studies must be made of the geological structure of a proposed site in order to
determine whether the area can family support the reactor building with all its internal
components.

Hydrology It is necessary to prevent large quantities of water from entering the site of a nuclear
power plant, since water could compromise some of the safety-related systems of the
plant.
the hydrological phenomena : depends upon the nature and location of the site
the NRC has divided the spectrum of possible accidents into nine classes,
Loss-of-Coolant Accident
coolant flow through a reactor core ---- caused by leak in a small coolant pipe
-to serious consequences for the plant as a whole
-the pressure in the reactor vessel quickly drops to the saturation
pressure
-change in the average water temperature
control: emergency core cooling system (ECCS):
when the pressure has dropped below about 650 psi
Three Mile Island Accident: The accident at the Three Mile Island nuclear power station (TMI) near
Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, in March 1979 is one of the worst that has occurred in a commercial nuclear
power plant.
During maintenance operations, the feedwater flow to the steam generator was lost, an event that can be
expected to happen two or three times a year in a plant. Because of the sudden loss of heat removal,
pressure began to increase in the primary system

The accident at Three Mile Island did seriously damage the core, but did not result in a large release of
radioactivity to the atmosphere
The Chernobyl Accident
Ukranian City of Kiev April 26, 1 986
The Chernobyl reactor was a graphite
moderated boiling water pressure tube
reactor of the RBMK

Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant

During the shutdown process, the reactor was in an extremely unstable condition. A peculiarity of the
design of the control rods caused a dramatic power surge as they were inserted into the reactor

The interaction of very hot fuel with the cooling water led to fuel fragmentation along with rapid steam
production and an increase in pressure.
Where a low power level with an unfavorable power distribution, a high coolant flow rate in the core,
a reduced feedwater flow rate to the reactor with increasing coolant temperature at the core inlet,
and an unstable xenon spatial distribution
BWR: Steam Pipe Break: The steam in a BWR plant is somewhat radioactive, since it is produced
directly in the reactor

In analyzing this accident


( 1 ) the isolation valves close in the maximum time characteristic of the valves
(2) all of the coolant in the broken steam line and its connecting lines at the time of the break, plus the
steam passing through the valves prior to closure, is released;
(3) the activity (including all the iodine and noble gases that may be present in the steam from leaking fuel
rods) is released to the atmosphere within 2 hrs, at a height of 30 feet, under fumigation conditions.

BWR: Rod Drop : The control rods in a BWR enter from the bottom of the core and are inserted
upwards.
A number of failures in the control rod drive system: to the release of some activity
into the containment.

PWR: Rod Ejection


failure of the control rod housing could occur in such a way that high-pressure reactor coolant water
might forcibly eject a cluster control rod assembly.
-power transient similar to that in a BWR rod drop accident
The Meaning of Risk
as the consequence of the event per unit time

the average individual risk is defined as

The risk of an event can be computed in an obvious way from the frequency
of the event and the magnitude of the consequences of the event:

However, the public acceptability of a given risk depends not only on the size
of the risk, but also on the magnitude of the consequences of the event.
Risk Determination
The calculation of the risk associated with accidents in a nuclear power plant is a three-step process:
1- determine the probabilities of the various releases of radioactivity resulting from accidents
2- the consequences to the public of these releases must be evaluated
3- the release probabilities and their consequences are combined to obtain the overall risk.

event trees :the identification of the accident sequences leading to various releases
The effluent released to the environments: gaseous or liquid form
the origin, amount, and composition of this effluent varies from plant to plant,

Regulation of Effluents
The NRC has translated its "as low as reasonably achievable
Doses from Effluents
The gaseous effluents emitted to the atmosphere and liquid wastes discharged to bodies of water, and
these two cases will be considered separately.
Gaseous Effluents :noble gases and the isotopes of iodine 131I

radiation dose from ingested food

Where Vd is a proportionality constant, has


units of 0,01m/sec and is called the deposition
velocity, Rd has units of Ci/m2-sec and X is in
Ci/m3

Because the emission of radioactive


effluent is often stated in Ci/yr

Where Q is in Ci/yr, (X / Q') is the dilution factor in


sec/m3
Once the Iodine has fallen on the foliage ?

*When the rates of production and decay are equal

*the Iodine concentration in sample

*the annual dose rate is


Liquid Effluents
There are several pathways by which man may become exposed to the radioactive waste
discharged into bodies of water

The calculation of the radiation dose from contaminated seafood?

1)-the concentration of the radionuclides discharged from the plant is estimated from the discharge rate
and dispersion characteristics of the receiving body of water.

2)-the concentration of the radionuclides in seafood is computed

the proportionality constant CF is usually called the concentration factor and sometimes the
bioaccumulation factor.
3)-the consumption rate of seafood from waters near the power plant must be estimated
4)-the dose rate can be found by comparing the activity of the seafood Cs in Ci/cm3 and its consumption
rate Rs in cm3/day with the dose rate
the dose rate received from the seafood:

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