THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF PETROLEUM GEOLOGISTS BULLETIN

V. 5 1 . N O . 11 ( N O V E M B E R , 19671. P. "246-2259. 4 F I G S , , ' TABLE

D R A I N A G E ANALYSIS I N GEOLOGIC I N T E R P R E T A T I O N A SUMMATION'

ARTHUR DAVID HOWARD^

Stanford, California 94,^0^

.\BSTR.ArT
Drainage analysis is useful in structural interpretation, particularly in areas of low relief.
Analysis includes consideration of drainage patterns, drainage texture, individual stream patterns,
and drainage anomalies.
Drainage patterns generally are subdivided into basic and modified basic. To these might be
added pattern varieties. A basic pattern is one whose gross characteristics readily distinguish it from
other basic patterns. Modified basic patterns differ from the type patterns in some fairly obvious
regional aspect as, for example, a tendency toward parallelism of the larger tributaries in a dendritic
pattern. Thus many modified patterns are transitional in character between basic patterns, and the
naming of such patterns may be a matter of judgment. Pattern varieties are characterized by internal
details, commonly obscure. In a broad sense, the basic patterns, the modified basic patterns, and the
pattern varieties are analogous to the genera, species, and varieties of the zoological classification.
A complex pattern consists of two contemporaneous patterns adjacent to each other; a compound
pattern consists of two unlike superimposed patterns. The palimpsest pattern consists of two super
imposed patterns, but one is a paleopattern.
Drainage texture depends on a variety of factors. In any one small area where all other factors
are constant, drainage texture may firovide information on underlying materials and indirectly on
structure.
Individual stream patterns may display characteristics similai- to lho.se of the gross drainage
pattern and may be referred to by the same name. Thus individual patterns may be referred to by
such terms as rectangular, angulate, or contorted. Other stream patterns include irregular, rectilinear,
meandering, braided, misfit, and beaded.
Drainage anomalies are local deviations from drainage and stream patterns which elsewhere
accord with the known regional geology and/or topography. The expectable pattern is regarded as the
norm; the anomalies indicate departures from the regional geologic or topographic controls. Analysis
of drainage anomalies has revealed structural data in some ilalland reciions WIKTI' other methods of
investigation have been unsatisfactory.

INTRODUCTION DR.\I\,\GK l'..\TTERNS

Drainage analysis is an important tool in pho-
togeologic interpretation, particularly in area? of
low relief. It m a y provide clues to inactive struc-
tural features exposed at the surface, to structur-
al features currently rising, and, possibly, to bur-
ied structural features. T h e density of drainage
may provide information on permeability and
texture of materials, and may infer the identity
of materials. T h e characteristics and significance
of drainage patterns, drainage texture, individual
stream patterns, and drainage anomalies are con-
sidered here.
Techniques involving grid sampling and the use
of digital computers eventually may result in the
applicati(m of numerical values to drainage pat-
terns (Merriam and Sneath 1966). I t is too
early, however, to speculate on the advantages
and disadvantages of this procedure.
^ Manuscript received, June 25, 1966; accepted, Feb-
ruary i, 1967.
"Geology Department, Stanford University, The
writer is indebted to Chester R. Longwell and Stanley
N, Davis for review of the manuscript, but only he is
responsible for its content.
2246
A drainat^e pattrni i< ;hc design formed by the
aggregate of drainaiieways in an area regardless
of whether they ,.irc o, cupied by permanent
streams. A strniDi pii/lcn: is the design formed
by a single drainageway
Both basic and iiKiditied basic drainage pat-
terns have been des.ribed (Zernitz, 1932). In ad-
dition to these there are drainage varieties. A
basic pattern is oiii' whose gross characteristics
readily distinguish it from other basic patterns. A
modified basic pattern iliffer- from the type basic
pattern in some regional aspect as, for example,
the close spacing o: small piirallel tributaries in
the pinnale-dendriti' ii.ilirii or the preferred or-
ientation of long-er iriliularics in the directional-
trellis pattern i Fis. .?. 1! :uiii G ) . Drainage vari-
eties differ from the liasii and modified basic pat-
terns in internal details. \'arieties are legion and
the application of individual names is impractical.
In a broad sense, the basii patterns, the modified
basic patterns, and the pattern varieties m a y be
likened to the genern, sfii ries and varieties of the
zoological rlassificat ion
 DRAINAGE ANALYSIS IN GEOLOGIC INTERPRETATION
BASIC PATTERNS
Most of the basic patterns are controlled by
regional structure. Zernitz (1932) classified as
major (basic?) the following patterns: dendritic,
parallel, trellis, rectangular, radial, and annular.
Because these are discussed in most elementary
geology texts, only a pictorial review (Fig. 1,
A-F) and a brief summation of characteristics
and geologic significance (Table I) are included.
Two other patterns, multibasinal and contorted,
are grouped with the basic patterns in this report
(Fig. 1, G and H; Table I). The original or ear-
nest known references to most of the basic and
modified basic patterns are recorded in the foot-
notes to Table I.
MODIFIED BASIC PATTERNS
Modified basic patterns, although usually rec-
ognized as belonging to one of the basic types,
differ in certain regional characteristics. For ex-
ample, the degree of parallelism of the main
streams in a region of dendritic drainage is gener-
ally a function of the regional slope. On different
declivities, therefore, there may be all transitions
from dendritic to parallel drainage. Transitional
types also may result from changes with time.
The change toward parallelism might result from
progressive steepening of a slope. Trellis charac-
teristics may appear in a dendritic pattern as
streams are superposed from an overlying cover
onto dipping rocks. Transitions among all the
basic types seem possible. Some of the modified
patterns are considered below.
Dendritic Pattern Modifications
Subdendritic.This pattern differs from the
type dendritic only in the lack of perfection.
Deviations are presumably due to secondary re-
gional controls, either structural or topographic.
Thus, in part of the Amazon basin recently
studied by the writer (Howard 196S), the den-
dritic pattern, inherited from an unconformable
mantle, is being transformed to a trellis pattern
by adjustment of tributaries to the strike of
underlying formations. Along the lower Yellow-
stone River in eastern Montana, the dendritic
drainage is slowly developing trellis character-
istics under the influence of a prevailing system
of poorly expressed joints (Fig. 2, A).
Pinnate.This pattern is characterized by
many closely spaced, more-or-less parallel tribu-
2247
taries entering the larger streams at an acute
angle. The drainage, therefore, has a featherlike
or frondlike appearance (Fig. 2, B). The pattern
is best developed in fine-textured, easily eroded
materials such as loess. The fine texture of the
materials accounts for the close spacing of the
small tributaries, and the steep valley sides are
the cause of their parallelism. On some slopes,
particularly solifluction slopes in the Arctic, the
closely spaced parallel tributaries are long com-
pared with those in Figure 2. They are barely in-
cised into the gentle slopes and extend to the
crests of the rounded divides. The pattern resem-
bles feathery plumes.
Anastomotic.This pattern, characterized by a
network of interlocking channels, sloughs, bayous,
and oxbow lakes, is found on floodplains and del-
tas and in tidal marshes (Fig. 2, C). Varieties of
the pattern have been termed "reticular" by Par-
vis (1950, p. 43-44) and "reticulate" by White-
house (1944, p. 9).
Distributary.This is the branching pattern
found on alluvial fans and deltas (Fig. 2, D). It
resembles the dendritic pattern except that the
tributaries diverge from, rather than converge to-
ward, the main stream.
Parallel Pattern Modifications
Subparallel.The subparallel pattern (Zernitz,
1932, p. 518) shows less parallelism than the
basic pattern. If due to slope alone, the pattern
resembles that formed by the branches of a pop-
lar tree. Where due to mild structural control by
deformed strata of relatively uniform resistance
to erosion, there is sufficient parallelism among
segments of the main streams and tributaries to
suggest the bedrock control, but streams com-
monly diverge from the geologic grain. The elon-
gate streams are not ordinarily as continuous
along the strike as those of the trellis pattern.
These differences from the trellis pattern also
apply to the subparallel pattern of drumlin areas
(Fig. 2, E).
Colinear.This pattern (Zernitz, 1932, p. 519)
is characterized by remarkably straight parallel
streams or channels which alternately disappear
and reappear (Fig. 2, F). The pattern is found
in areas of linear loess and sand ridges.
Trellis Pattern Modifications
Subtrellis.The subtrellis pattern differs from
the type trellis only in the degree of continuity
2248 ARTHUR DAVID HOWARD

FIG. 1.Basic drainage patterns. Each pattern occurs in a wide range of scales. Examples shown may be
regarded as types. Dendritic pattern resembles spreading branches of oak or cheslnul tree with tributaries
entering at wide angles. In trellis pattern, small tributaries to long parallel subsequent streams are about
same length on both sides of subsequent streams.
 DRAINA(}E ANALYSIS I N GEOLOGIC I N T E R P R E T A T I O N 2249

TABLE I. SIGMFICANXE OF BASIC AND MODIPIED BASIC DRAINAGE PATTERNS

Basic Significance Modified Basic Added Significance or Locale

Horizontal sediments or beveled, uni- Subdendritic Minor secondary control, generally
formly resistant, crystalline rocks. structural.
Gentle regional slo]>e at present or at
time of drainage inception. Type pat- Pinnate^ Fine-textured, easily erodable ma-
tern resembles spreading oak or chest- terials.
nut tree.
Anastomotic^^ Floodplains, deltas, and tidal
marshes.
Distributary
(Dichotomic )i^ Alluvial fans and deltas.
Parallel^ Generally indicates moderate to steep Subparallel^^ Intermediate slopes or control by
slopes but also found in areas of paral- subparallel landforms.
lel, elongate landforms. All transitions
possible between this pattern and Colineari^ Between linea: loess and sand
type dendritic and trelHs. ridges.
Trellis^ Dipping or folded sedimentary, vol- Subtrellis Parallel elongate landforms.
canic, or low-grade metasedimentary
rocks; areas of parallel fractures; ex- Directional Trellis Gentle homocUnes. Gentle slopes
posed lake or sea floors ribbed b v with beach ridges.
beach ridges. All transitions to paral- Recurved Trellis Plunging folds.
lel pattern. Type pattern is regarded
here as one in which small tributaries Fault Trellis" Branching, converging, diverging,
are essentially same size on opposite roughly parallel faults.
sides of long parallel subsequent
streams. Joint Trellis Straight parallel faults and/or
joints.
Rectangular^ Joints a n d / o r faults at right angles. Angulateis Joints and/or faults at other than
Lacks orderly repetitive quality of right angles* A compound rec-
trellis pattern; streams and divides tangular-angulate pattern is com-
lack regional continuity. mon.
Radials Volcanoes, domes, and erosion residu- Centripetal IS Craters, calderas, and other de-
als. A complex of radial patterns in a pressions. A complex of centripetal
volcanic field might be called multi- patterns in area of multiple depres-
radial. sions might be called multi-
centripetal.

Annular^ Structural domes and basins, dia-
tremes, and possibly stocks.
Multibasinal' Hummocky surficial deposits; differ-
entiaDy scoured or deflated bedrock;
areas of recent volcanism, limestone
solution, and permafrost. This de-
scriptive term is suggested for all
multiple-depression patterns whose
exact origins are unknown.
Con tor ted 8 Contorted, coarsely layered meta-
morphic rocks. Dikes, veins, and mig-
matized bands provide the resistant
layers in some areas. Pattern differs
from recurved trellis (Fig. 2, H) in
lack of regional orderliness, disconti-
nuity of ridges and valleys, and gener-
ally smaller scale.
Longer tributaries to annular sub-
sequent streams generally indicate
direction of dip and permit distinc-
tion between dome and basin.
Glacially Disturbed Glacial erosion a n d / o r deposition.
Karst Limestone.
Thermokarst^^ Permafrost.
Elongate Bay^s Coastal plains and deltas.
T h e longer tributaries to curved
subsequent streams generally indi-
cate dip of metamorphic layers and
permit distinction between plunging
anticlines and syncHnes.

1 Described by D u t t o n (1882, p. 6, 62, 63) and applied as a drainage term at least as early as 1898 (Russell, p. 204). Classified as a basic
pattern by Zernitz (1932, p. 499).
^Zernitz (1932, p . 510).
3 Willis (1895, p. 186).
* First used in modern sense by Zernitz (1932, p . 503), but the pattern was recognized much earlier (Daubree, 1879, p . 357-375; Kemj),
1894, p . 438-440; Hobbs, 1904, pi. 47).
6 Radial drainage is described and illustrated in Jaggar (1901, p . 174, pi. X V I I I ) and is referred to by Dake and Brown (1925, p . 134).
6 Jaggar (1901, p. 277) refers to anniJar draniage, but Zernitz (1932, p. 507) may have been the first to apply the name to the drainage
pattern.
^ The descriptive term "multibasinal" is used here as a substitute for genetic terms such as "kettlehole" and "sinkhole" which have
been applied to patterns characterized by numerous depressions. T h e term "poly basin" (Parvis, 1950, p . 57) would have been appropriate
had it not been restricted to the area of the Ogallala Formation in the Great Plains and specifically related to the presence of an impervious
substratum.
8 Von Engeln (1942, p . 113, 336).
s Zernitz (1932, p . 512).
^'^ Described as a pattern by Zernitz (1932, p. 514). T h e descriptive adjective "anastomosing," however, had been used long prior to 1932.
Johnson (1932, p . 497) restricted the term "braided" to the interlacings of an individual stream.
^1 Parvis (1950, p . 41) attributed the term "dichotomic" to Finch and Trewartha (1942). The writer was unable to locate the term in the
1942 reference or in the first edition of their Elements of Geography, b u t m a y have overlooked it. Distributaries are mentioned on pages
307, 342, and 355 of the 1st ed., 1936, and on pages 290, 326, and 340 of the 2d ed., 1942.
^2 Zernitz (1932, p . 5181.
13 Zernitz (1932, p . 519).
1* Dake and Brown (1925, p . 191).
15 Zernitz (1932, p . 517).
16 Davis (1889. p. 249),
1" Muller (1943), p . SO.
18 Parvis (1950), p. 43.
2250 ARTHUR DAVID HOWARD

FIG. 2.^Modified basic patterns. Each pattern occurs in u v\ifle ran^e <if scales.

and parallelism of the dominant drainage. The Directional trellis.This term is suggested for
distinction between subtrellis and subparallel is a modification of the irellis pattern in which the
commonly a matter of judgment. tributaries to the long subsequent streams are
 D R A I N A G E ANALYSIS I N G E O L O G I C
consistently longer on one side of the valley than
on the other (Fig. 2, G ) . T h e pattern most com-
monly is found in areas of gently dipping homo-
clinal beds, but also occurs on gentle slopes with
parallel beach ridges.
Recurved trellis.This is a modification of the
trellis pattern in which the pattern as a whole
forms sweeping curves around the noses of plung-
ing folds (Fig. 2, H ) . It is more orderly and sys-
tematic, and generally larger in scale, than the
contorted pattern in metamorphic terrain. Com-
parison of the lengths of small tributaries on op-
posite sides of the curved subsequent <lreams,
particularly at the noses of the folds, commonly
permits distinction between plunging anticlines
and synclines; the direction of flow of the longer
tributaries generally indicates the direction of
dip.
Fault trellis.This pattern has been attributed
by Dake and Brown (I92S, p. 191) to "alternat-
ing grabens and horsts or a succession of parallel
rifts." It is described as less closely spaced than
the trellis pattern on tilted or folded strata, with
a tendency toward dendritic drainage between the
faults. Right-angle turns are also less common. In
the San Mateo quadrangle, just south of San
Francisco, California, the fault-controlled
streams, although grossly parallel, locally diverge,
converge, and branch, and the broader inier-
stream segments show dendritic, radial, or other
drainage patterns (Fig. 3, A ) .
Joint trellis.A second fracture trellis pattern,
characterized by short, remarkably straight paral-
lel streams, m a y be referred to as joint trellis,
although the fractures may include faults. A good
example is found in the Zion Park region of Utah
(Fig. 3 , B ) .
Both of the fracture trellis patterns differ from
the rectangular pattern in having one dominant
set of parallel streams.
Rectangular Pattern Modifications
Angulate.This pattern (Zernitz, 1932, p. 517)
is characterized by numerous acute-angle
bends and barbed tributaries. It is generally
found in areas where an additional set (or sets)
of fractures is superimposed on a rectangular set.
There may be two superimposed rectangular sys-
tems of different orientation. Figure 3C is a
generalized portrayal of the drainage of part of
the Yellowstone plateau. T h e drainage alignments
INTERI'Kl/rA'nON 22>\
clearly indicate one rectangular system with ele-
ments oriented approximately north-south and
east-west, and another system oriented northeast-
southwest and northwest-southeast.
A remarkable cxanipU- of joint control is pres-
ent in French Cuiana, where several sets of more
or less equally s|)acid joints impart a geometric
pattern to both the drainage and topography. The
pattern has been referred to as "honeycomb" by
Zonneveld el al \')^!. ]), I S3). Another geomet-
ric pattern, on a much jmaller scale, is found in
permafrost areas where in.- wedges thaw around
the margins of soil polygons. This pattern is best
described as polyconal
Radial Pattern .Modifications
Centripetal.This pattern (Davis, 1889, p.
249) is a modification of the radial pattern in
which the streams flow inward toward a closed or
nearly closed central dejircssion (Fig. 3, D ) . The
pattern commonK' i> .issoi iated with caters, cal-
deras, and a wide \'arirty nf depressions. In some
areas, suth as the jian belt'' of the Union of
South Africa (King, \'i?\. p. 91 ), there is a com-
plex of centripetal pat I e m s T h e regional pattern
might be icferir'il m ;L^ multicentripetal.
Multibasinal Pattern Modifications
T h e multibasinal pattern occurs principally in
areas of glacial erosion and deposition, eolian ero-
sion and deposition, solution, and permafrost. It
also is found, however, in regions of recent vol-
canic activity and in landslide areas. There are
many modifications of the pattern, even within
individual regions. Thus in glaciated areas, the
majority of the depressions may be small or
large, closely spaced oi widely scattered, and the
drainage may display \arii.-d amounts of integra-
tion. In sandy areas, the depressions may display
great diversity in shajic MIKI size in accordance
with the characteristics of ihe dunes within which
they occur, and ina\' aUo display a certain
amount of integrated drainage. The pattern may
then closely resemble the drainage pattern in mo-
rainal area.s.
In volcanic areas, the depressions may include
craters and caldera>, lava-dammed valleys,
interflow basins, or collapsed lava caves or tun-
nels. In many lava fields, depressions large
enough to be shown on topographic maps are less
profuse than in morainal or sand areas.
2252 A R T H U R DAVID HOWARD

FIG. ,?.Modified basic patterns (A-D); complex, compound, and |)alini|)sesl patternj (E-H).
Each pattern oi-curs in a wide range of scales.
 DRAINAGE ANALYSIS IN GEOLOGIC INTERPRETATION
In landslide areas, depressions are found either
behind rotated slump blocks, within chaotically
jumbled landslide debris, or where drainage has
been blocked. This multibasinal pattern is usually
of small regional extent.
The multibasinal pattern i.s rarely diagnostic in
itself of either process or material; patterns
formed by different processes may be remarkably
alike. A pitted outwash area in Minnesota illus-
trated by Cooper (r93S, Fig. 4, p. 10) is remark-
ably similar to the solution-pan landscape of parts
of Florida. Multibasinal patterns in areas of
moraine, sand dunes, limestone, recent lava flows,
landslides, and permafrost may resemble each
other at least superficially. Conclusions reached
as to process or type of materials based on pat-
tern alone could be in error. Nevertheless, several
genetic terms have been suggested for varieties of
the multibasinal pattern: glacially disturbed, de-
ranged, kettle hole, swallow hole, karst, and
others. If there is doubt as to genesis, the pattern
is best referred to simply as multibasinal. If, on
the other hand, the pattern includes features that
leave no doubt as to process or material, there
may be justification for using one of the estab-
lished genetic terms. Thus, a multibasinal pattern
with (f) depressions ranging from tiny steep-
sided pits, many of which are circular, to large,
deep, irregular valley-1'ke basins, (2) some de-
pressions ahgned rectinearly, and (3) scattered
disappearing and/or reappearing streams, may
perhaps be referred to as a swallow-hole or karst
pattern. Or, a multibasinal pattern associated
with evidence of thawing permafrost, such as po-
lygonal ground and beaded drainage, might be re-
ferred to as fhermokarst (Muller, 1943, p. SO).
Parvis (1950, p. 43) suggested the name "elon-
gate bay" for a multibasinal pattern in which the
depressions are large, elliptical, and parallel. The
pattern is found in some coastal-plain and delta
areas and has been variously attributed to meteo-
rite impact, solution, segmentation of lagoons at
higher stands of the sea, and to thaw of formerly
frozen ground. The value of the purely descrip-
tive term "elongate bay" for this pattern is obvi-
ous.
COMPLEX, COMPOUND, AND PALIMPSEST PATTERNS
Zernitz (1932, p. 521) proposed the term
"complex" for an aggregate of dissimilar patterns
reflecting different structural controls in adjoin-
2253
ing areas. Parvis (f9S0, p. 43) suggested the
term "anomalous" for complex patterns found in
areas of differing topography and materials. The
terms "complex" and "anomalous" have thus
been applied to situations that are in part similar
and in part dissimilar. Inasmuch as the term
"complex" has priority, it should be retained but
perhaps with its scope enlarged to include all pat-
terns representing an aggregate of adjoining dis-
similar patterns due to structure, materials, and/
or differences in topography. In Figure 3, E, the
contrasted patterns are due to differences in
structural features. An example of drainage
differences caused by differences in topography
on identical materials is the multibasinal drainage
of moraine versus the subparallel drainage of
drumlin topography.
The term "compound" was applied by D. W.
Johnson (personal commun., 1931) to drainage
consisting of two or more contemporaneous pat-
terns in the same area, as, for example, the com-
bination of radial and annular patterns character-
istic of many domes (Fig. 3, F). Dendritic and
multibasinal patterns commonly are combined in
areas where streams have cut youthful valleys
into a relatively insoluble formation below a solu-
tion-pitted limestone formation. The depressions
are restricted to the limestone-capped divides be-
tween the streams. A somewhat similar combina-
tion of patterns results from partial integration
of drainage in morainal areas.
The writer encountered an interesting drainage
pattern which he has called palimpsest (Howard,
1962, p. 2255). In the palimpsest pattern, an
older, abandoned drainage or stream pattern
forms the background for the present pattern.
The example (Fig. 3, G) is in the western coastal
plain of Taiwan. At the site of the anomaly, the
present drainage pattern is radial. Faintly visible
through the rice paddies is a meandering channel
whose presence is indicated primarily by the
somewhat smaller size of the paddies within its
confines. The meandering channel crosses the
present low topographic bulge toward its crest.
Clearly, the topographic high was not present
when the meandering stream crossed the area.
The meandering stream apparently was deflected
by the growing arch on which the present radial
drainage came into existence. The situation sug-
gests either active deformation within the coastal
plain, not an unlikely possibility considering the
2254 ARTHUR DAVID HOWARD
instability of the island of Taiwan as a whole, or
differential settling over a buried topographic
high, or both. Any drainage pattern that includes
traces of an older, unlike pattern may be re-
ferred to as palimpsest. Remnants of original
stream courses are common in many areas of gla-
cial and eolian activity, multiple piracy, and re-
cent warping and faulting. Figure 3H illustrates
in generalized fashion the relation of the Mis-
souri River (or the Ohio River) to aliandoned
preglacial valleys.
PATTERN VARIETIES
Pattern varieties differ from basic and modi-
fied basic patterns in internal details. They com-
monly provide useful geologic information.
Regional differences, such as contrasts in densi-
ty of drainage, do not distinguish varieties. I t is
expectable that a dendritic pattern in shale will
be finer than that in sandstone, and that a Irellis
pattern in slate will be finer than thai in in-
terbedded sedimentary strata. Any drainage pat-
tern may be fine, medium, or coarse textured.
Intrapattern differences in texture, however, do
distinguish varieties. Thus, a dendritic pattern in
an area in which thick, horizontal beds of sand-
stone and shale are exposed in the slopes may
display a coarse texture in the sandstone and a
finer texture in the shale. The pattern is 'le.xtur-
ally zoned."
In another variety of the dendritic pattern,
many streams consistently are closer to one side
of their valleys than the other. In the Leaven-
worth Cjuadrangle (Kansas-Missouri), streams
that flow generally east or west hug the steeper
south (north-facing) slopes. The dendritic pattern
suggests essentially horizontal sedimentary rocks
or beveled, uniformly resistant crystalline rocks,
but the valley a.symmetry suggests an additional
influence such as a gentle southward dip, active
tilting, or differences in degree of erosion of the
valley slopes due to direction of exposure. T h a t
the asymmetry is not due to stream (leilecti(m
resulting from terrestrial rotation is evident from
the fact that the steep slope is on the left side of
some streams and on the right side of others.
Another variety of the dendritic pattern, char-
acteristic of granitic areas, displays numerous sick-
lelike curves. These apparently are the result of
' The term right and left apply when facing down-
current.
deflection of .-streams around bodies of relatively
unfractured or otherwise resistant rock.
Comparable varielie> a r t found in each of the
other basic and modified basic patterns. A de-
tailed treatment ol ihe>c i.^ beyond the scope of
this report. T h e irnportani point is ihal careful
study of local departure^ from the regional pal-
terns may reveal unsuspected information of con-
siderable value. The anal>'sis of drainage varieties
and of the related draiiuige anomalies discussed
below presenis w. iiniiiuc challenge to the geolo-
gist .
DRAI.\A(,E T E X T U R E
Drainage texture refer-, lo the relative spacing
of drainage lines regardless of occupancy by
perennial streams. The u-inis "fine," "medium,"
and "coarse" generall\ arc used in a relative
sense to indie ati' ihe .-paung. A fine texture is
one in which there i> a high degree of
ramification of drainage lines resulting in a dense
network involving myiiad small streams. Fine
texture is typical ol i lay, -.hale, silt, and other
relatively impervious materials. A coarse texture,
in contrast, exhibits \ e r \ little ramification, and
longer, more widel\- .^e])arated valleys prevail.
Coarse texture i.-> typical of permeable materials
such as sand, gravt'l. and rocks that weather into
coarse fragment^. Medium texture is interme-
diate between the two extremes.
The use of these te.Mural terms without
clarification is inadvisal)le. not only because they
mean different things to different people, but be-
cause texture varies vviih -cale. Attempts have
been made lo exj)re^^ textures cjuantitatively on
the basis of the numbei i >l ream frequency) and
total length (drainage den-iiy) of drainage lines
per unit area ( H o n o n . 'U^', Smith, 1950), How-
ever, quantitati\e ilelerniiiiations of texture in-
volve laborious, time-consuming procedures, and
the resulting degree- ef refinement are greater
than necessary for many geologic problems, A
satisfactory ])ro( edure :'()r leports is to prepare
diagrams showing the drainage textures, at the
scale of the maps or photos, that are regarded as
fine, medium, and loai.-e atid perhaps as ultrafine
and ultracoarse.
Drainage texture is influenced by (1) climati-
cally controlled factors ^Ul:ll as amount and dis-
tribution of i^recipitation, \-egetafion, and per-
mafrost; (2) rock characteristics, including te,x-
 DRAINAGE ANALYSIS IN GEOLOGIC INTERPRETATION
ture and size of fragments released by weather-
ing; (3) infiltration capacity; (4) topography;
and (S) stage and number of erosion cycles. In
any one small area of study, the climatic factors,
the topography, and the stage and number of ero-
sion cycles may be reasonably constant, so that
the variations in te.xture will reflect differences in
rock characteristics and infiltration capacity.
In unconsolidated sediments, the drainage tex-
ture is related directly to grain size. On similar
declivities, small rills can easily move particles of
clay and silt and develop myriad small channels,
whereas larger streams, that is, the accumulations
from larger watersheds, are required to move sand
and gravel. Hence the channels are more widely
spaced. As Schumm reported (1956, p. 607), a
certain minimum drainage area is required to
maintain a stream channel in an area of uniform
lithology and simple structure. He expressed this
quantitatively as a constant of channel mainte-
nance, which is actually an expression of texture.
The reader is referred to Schumm's paper for
further discussion of this relationship.
In areas of hard rock, the size of the frag-
ments provided for transport is the decisive fac-
tor. The removal of large blocks ordinarily re-
quires larger streams than does the removal of
small fragments, if there are no strong contrasts
in stream gradients. Texture of drainage in gran-
ite areas, for example, may range from fine in
closely fractured zones to coarse where the frac-
tures are more widely spaced. On very gentle
slopes in humid climates, deep weathering may
result in a fine-textured soil regardless of the rock
type below. The fine-textured debris, however,
generally influences the texture only of that part
of the drainage system that has not eroded
through the surficial mantle.
Infiltration capacity, the rate at which water
soaks into the ground, depends to a large degree
on permeability. Deposits of sand and gravel, as
well as permeable rocks including those in which
the permeability is the result of fractures, readily
absorb precipitation. Therefore, they have few
surface streams and display a coarse drainage
texture. The pattern may be finer on steep slopes,
however, where velocity of flow results in re-
duced infiltration and greater surface runoff.
Clay, with a low infiltration capacity, has a large
surface runoff and a dense network of surface
drainage.
2255
Vegetation, with its absorbent root mat and
underlying soil, retards runoff and reduces
development of rills. Thus, the texture of drain-
age in humid climates is generally coarser than in
arid climates, and the texture is coarser on heav-
ily vegetated slopes than on barren slopes.
Some gravel deposits display a medium or even
fine texture of drainage. Such gravels may have a
high content of "fines"materially reducing the
permeabilityor may be exposed on steep slopes,
such as terrace scarps or steep dip slopes where
the velocity of flow is rapid enough to insure
considerable runoff.
Drainage texture may vary within the confines
of a single drainage pattern depending on the na-
ture of the rocks exposed. Theoretically, the
cross-country trend of the boundary between tex-
tural zones should assist in correlation of rock
units from one drainage basin to another.
STREAM PATTERNS
The names apphed to stream patterns are self-
explanatory, and most of the patterns are so well
known that further explanation is not required.
However, a few comments seem pertinent.
Some individual stream patterns show the
characteristics of the overall drainage pattern and
are referred to by the same names (Johnson,
1932). Thus, a stream showing right-angle bends
may be referred to as rectangular; one with acute
angle bends, as angulate; and one with tight hair-
pin turns, as contorted. The geologic implications
of these stream patterns are the same as for the
corresponding drainage patterns.
Other distinctive stream patterns are: the ir-
regular pattern characterized by a more or less
random course and suggesting an absence of
structural or topographic control; the rectilinear
pattern, with abnormally long straight reaches,
generally indicating fracture control; the mean-
dering pattern, indicating competency on the part
of the stream to transport available bed load
(Leopold and Wolman, 1957, p. 39); and the
braided pattern, indicating an inability to handle
bed load.^ Alternate meandering and braided
reaches, therefore, suggest local differences in the
texture of the materials being supplied to the
stream and may indicate alternate exposures of
* Detailed discussions of floodplain stream patterns
appear in Melton (1936) and Russell (1939).
2256 ARTHUR DAVID HOWARD
unlike materials. Misfit meandering streams, in
which the dimensions of the meanders do not
agree with those of meander scars or of flood-
plain scrolls, suggest geologic or climatic change.
The sickle pattern displays some arcuate curves
and is most common in areas of plutonic rocks
and migmatites. The barbed pattern indicates ei-
ther piracy or the presence of joints, faults, or
layers of weak rock trending obliquely across the
path of the stream. The term "beaded" has been
applied to streams in the subarctic along which
small thaw sinks are present at irregular inter-
vals. Successions of beaver dams give a
superficially similar pattern, as do, on a larger
scale, strings of glacial lakes.
The writer has named a new pattern, spatulate,
which could be included under beaded, but which
he believes is distinctive enough to warrant a sep-
arate designation. In essence, it consists of alter-
nate broad valley segments and narrow defiles.
The pattern is displayed by some of the valleys,
such as the Aragva, that drain south from the
Caucasus in southern Russia. The Aragva and its
sister streams pass intermittently through resis-
tant and weak Cretaceous sedimentary rocks
(Renngarten, 1937, p. 104). The streams are re-
stricted to defiles where the more resistant car-
bonate rocks of the Upper Cretaceous are
brought down to river level in the troughs of
synclines, but they meander in broad open reaches
in the weaker, sandy-argillaceous Lower Creta-
ceous sediments of the anticlinal cores. The
defiles and open reaches range in length from O.S
to 2 mi or more. The pattern is quite regular in
these open folds, with the broad, elongate seg-
ments occurring at uniform intervals along the
valley.
Other spatulate patterns may have no structur-
al significance. The spatulate pattern displayed by
the Missouri River in eastern Montana and west-
ern North Dakota is glacial in origin (Howard,
1958). The Missouri trench is locally 1 mi or less
in width; in intervening areas its width may ex-
ceed 4 mi. The narrow segments represent ice-
marginal paths cut across former divides,
whereas the broad elongate segments represent
parts of preglacial valleys. The pattern is irregu-
lar in that the broad segments inherit their
trends from an ancestral drainage whose trends
were opposed to the trend of the ice front. Thus
the broad segments are considerably varied in
orientation and are irregularly distributed along
the present valley.
DRAINAGE ANOMALIES
Anomalies in drainage patterns and in the pat-
terns of individual streams have been the subject
of discussion in recent years. They are of partic-
ular importance in the flatlands. The analysis of
drainage may provide clues to structural features
undetectable by other methods.
A drainage anomaly can be defined as a local
deviation from the regional drainage and/or
stream pattern which elsewhere accords with the
known regional structure and/or topography.
The expectable pattern is regarded as the norm
(DeBlieux, 1949, p. 1253-1254), and the devia-
tions are anomalies. An alternation of broad val-
ley segments and narrow defiles along transverse
streams in areas in which the structure is known
to consist of folded weak and resistant rock is
herein regarded as normal, as are sicklelike
curves in granite areas. However, in many other
geologic environments these phenomena are
anomalous. Anomalies suggest structural or topo-
graphic deviations from the regional plan. Many
composite patterns, for example, involve a small
enclave of one pattern within another, rather
than two adjacent patterns of equal magnitude.
An illustration is the local occurrence of radial
and annular drainage within a regional dendritic
pattern (Fig. 4, A). Many pattern modifications
and varieties also involve anomalies as, for exam-
ple, local parallelism of streams in a dendritic
pattern (Fig. 4, B). Many anomalies are localized
along individual streams. Some of these are listed
below.
Rectilinearity.Long, rectilinear segments of
streams, particularly if aligned across divides
with rectilinear segments of other streams, con-
stitute an anomaly if the regional pattern is other
than rectangular, angulate, or fault-trellis. A frac-
ture, or an easily erodable vein or dike is indi-
cated. In Figure 4C the arrow indicates a recti-
linear stream.
Abrupt and localized appearance of meanders.
DeBlieux (1949, p. 1259) has described an inter-
esting stream anomaly at the Lafitte oil field in
Jefferson Parish, about IS mi south of New
Orleans (Fig. 4, D). The channel of an aban-
doned Mississippi River distributary is relatively
straight and simple for several miles upstream
 DRAINAGE ANALYSIS IN (iEOLOGIC INTERPRKTA'l'ION 2257

A. Dendritic with r a d i a l - B. Dendritic. Trellis influence C Rectilmeoi

onnular enclave

s-r^v / mile

D. Local meandering E Compressed meanders ^ I ocal

^^i_
braiding

Abandoned
Mississippi
distributary Abandoned* * > \\ \
e.ees W I K \ \ \

G. Pinched valley H. Anomalous flore in I Anomolous pond.morsh, or

valley alluviQi fiM
1 L Kiogo

I'
m Scherr
J. Variation in levee width L. Anomalous :;urves and
turns -
2 miles

/ Schematic

FIG. 4.Examples of drainage anomalies. A. E, C, G--Amazon basin; E Kent County, Te-icas, after
DeBlieux and Shepherd, IP.'il; D, F, JLouisiana, after DeBlieu.x, 1Q45: K bouisiana. generalized after
DeBlieux, 1940; IEast Africa, after Holmes, 106,=^; H, L generalized exumpU-

and downstream from the Lafitte salt dome. At
the dome, however, two meanderlike curves are
present. This interruption of the normal pattern
may be related to a subtle upstream reduction in
stream gradient caused by the appearaiu:e of the
dome along its path.
Compressed meanders.DeBlieux and Shep-
herd (1951, p. 98) described a stream pattern
in which several meanders of an otherwise nor-
mal and continuous series are squeezed, com-
pressed, and incised (Fig. 4, E). The anomaly,
along the Double Mountain Fork of the Brazos
River in Kent County, Texas, is at the site of a
subsequently demonstrated structural anomaly.
No explanation of ihc anomaly is offered. Mc-
Kenzie Creek, a tributary from the south, dis-
plays an anomalous (ur\e apparently influenced
by the dome.
Abrupt and localized braiding.DeBlieux
(1949, p. 1'2S9) reported the abrupt and local ap-
pearance of braiding at Scully salt dome in aban-
doned distributaries of Bayou Lafourche about 30
mi southwe.'^l of New Orleans Fig. 4. F). Braiding
generally indicates inal)ilit\- of a stream to trans-
port its bed load (Leopold and Wolman, 1957, p.
50). Inability may resull from local acquisition
of a coarser load than the .stream is competent to
handle, loss of volume ilue to locally increased
2258 ARTHUR DAVID HOWARD
underflow, loss of velocity caused by flattening of
the gradient (perhaps by a rising structure), or
some other geologic or hydrologic factor. De-
Blieux attributed the braiding to flattening of the
gradient. The presence of similar anomalies in
neighboring streams may permit regional delinea-
tion of the area or zone of anomalous behavior
and allow a more informed consideration of
cause. Correlation of meandering and braided
reaches in adjacent streams conceivably might
permit the delineation of formational boundaries.
The same may be indicated by more subtle varia-
tions in stream patterns (Tator, 1954, p. 414),
such as zonal variations in drainage density with-
in the drainage pattern.
Anomalous pinching or faring of valleys or
channels.Local widening or narrowing of val-
leys or channels, not a repetitive feature of the
regional drainage pattern, may indicate local
structure. A shallow upwarp, for example, might
bring slightly weaker or more resistant materials
to stream level, thereby influencing the rate of
valley widening; or upwarping might result in in-
cision of the stream, the valley being broader up-
stream and downstream (Fig. 4, G and H).
Anomalous ponds, marshes, or alluvial fills.
The presence of an isolated pond, marsh, or allu-
vial fill along the path of a mature stream where
landslides or other surficial causes can be exclud-
ed, may indicate damming by subsidence or by
uplift directly downstream. Some streams have
been able to maintain their courses across rising
obstructions; other streams have been diverted.
Excellent examples of anomalous ponding are
provided by Lakes Victoria and Kioga in East
Africa (Fig. 4, I). The lake basins originally
drained westward by way of the streams labeled
A and B in the figure. Relative subsidence of the
central area contemporaneous with creation of
the western and eastern rift valleys resulted in
drowning of the lake basins and reversal of the
direction of flow of the outlet streams, many of
whose tributaries are barbed and locally drowned.
Blocking of the western outlets diverted the wa-
ters of newly created Lake Victoria northward to
Lake Kioga and thence northwestward around the
northern end of the western rift valley. Although
these drainage modifications are on a grand scale,
similar phenomena may occur at all scales.
Anomalous breadth of levees.Russell (1939,
p. 1212) noted that leaves of abandoned channels
along the Mississippi River are narrower in some
places than others. He suggested that subsidence
of the levees at these places permitted encroach-
ment by the neighboring swamp or marsh result-
ing in the reduced levee width.
It is recognized generally that subsidence in the
Mississippi delta is differential, being retarded
over the sites of buried structural features. Thus,
levees are generally broader where they cross
such structural features than they are up- or
downstream. This is true of the levees of the
abandoned Bayou Lafourche (Fig. 4, J) where it
crosses the Valentine dome about 30 mi south-
west of New Orleans in Lafourche Parish (De-
Blieux, 1949, p. 12S3). DeBheux recognized that
levee broadening may be caused by factors other
than subsidence, such as crevassing, bifurcation,
and coalescence, but believed that these causes
are readily recognizable.
Flying levees.In many parts of the Missis-
sippi delta, former channels have subsided below
marsh level and only small fragments are
preserved, perhaps because they are on buried
structural features (Fig. 4, K). Because these
levee remnants are completely isolated, the
expression "flying levee" is herein proposed. De-
Blieux (1949, p. 1253) cited the levee remnants
at Four Isle dome, about 70 mi southwest of
New Orleans in Terrebonne Parish, as an exam-
ple. Here, the flying levees are more than 3 mi
downstream from the present terminus of Bayou
Grand Caillou.
Anomalous curves and turns.^An anomalous
curve or turn is one that is abnormal within the
drainage pattern in which it occurs. The varieties
are legion, being most common in the flatlands
(Fig. 4, L). For example, a domal upwarp across
the path of a stream may gently "shoulder" the
stream aside, forcing it to follow a curved, com-
monly semicircular path around the structural
feature. Barbed junctions similar to those result-
ing from piracy may be formed where tributaries
to one stream are blocked by an upwarp and are
deflected sharply into neighboring drainage. If a
domal upwarp takes place between parallel
streams, both streams may be deflected, resulting
in a peculiar "blowlegged" pattern. A stream
crossing an active strike-slip fault may be offset
laterally and display sharp right-angle turns where
it enters and leaves the rift. Faults may lead to
anomalous lengthening and flattening of a curve.
 D R A I N A G E ANALYSIS I N GEOLOGIC I N T E R P R E T A T I O N
SUMMARY
Drainage analysis may provide information on
structural features and type of materials. T h e
analysis should consider not only basic patterns,
but also modified basic patterns, pattern varieties,
drainage texture, stream patterns, and anomalies.
The drainage patterns, individually and in com-
bination, provide a certain amount of information
which, in the flatlands at least, may not be ob-
tainable by ordinary field methods. The pahmp-
sest pattern is of special interest inasmuch as it
may indicate current tectonic activity.
Drainage texture within any one small area in
which climate, topography, and erosional history
are reasonably constant commonly may be indica-
tive of the permeability of materials or of the
size of particles provided by weathering.
Individual stream patterns may provide infor-
mation on structural features, rock type, hydrau-
lic conditions, or geomorphic changes.
Drainage anomalies may provide information
on local structural features, active deformation,
differential subsidence, or changes in the hydrolo-
gic regimen.
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