ARTICLE IN PRESS

Journal of Cereal Science 48 (2008) 224231

www.elsevier.com/locate/jcs

Optimization of non-fermented gluten-free dough composition based on

rheological behavior for industrial production
of empanadas and pie-crusts
G. Lorenzoa,b, N. Zaritzkya,c, A. Califanoa,
a
Centro de Investigacion y Desarrollo en Criotecnologa de Alimentos (CIDCA), Facultad de Cs. Exactas,
UNLPCONICET. 47 y 116, La Plata (1900), Argentina
b
Area Departamental Ciencias Basicas, Facultad de Ingeniera, UNLP, Argentina
c
Area Departamental Qumica, Facultad de Ingeniera, UNLP, Argentina
Received 24 May 2007; received in revised form 3 September 2007; accepted 7 September 2007

Abstract

Celiac disease is an autoimmune disorder caused by intolerance to gluten, which is found in wheat and similar proteins in barley, rye
and oats. The present study was designed to examine the effects of the addition of gums, whey protein concentrate, dry egg, and water to
corn and cassava starches on the rheological properties of a non-fermented dough used for the production of empanadas (a traditional
meal in Latin America) and pie-crusts suitable for people with celiac disease. A 24 full factorial design was chosen. Viscoelastic
measurements and texture analysis (puncture and elongation tests) were performed. The increase in gums content and the decrease in
water level produced an increase in both moduli (G0 and G00 ) and a more elastic dough was obtained. Higher protein contents interfered
with the formation of the three-dimensional gum network making the dough less ductile. Texture analysis led to similar conclusions to
those obtained by dynamic rheological analysis. Formulations containing higher percentages of gums and lower water content led to an
appropriate behavior for industrial production of these doughs.
r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Gluten-free dough; Texture; Rheology; Hydrocolloids

1. Introduction made or industrially prepared and sold refrigerated. When

Empanadas is a traditional meal in Latin America,
quite similar to Cornish pasties. Small circles (11 cm
diameter) of pastry dough are lled with different llings
and folded over into a half-moon. The pastry edges are
rmly pressed together to seal the lling and uted.
Empanadas are baked or fried before eaten. The non-
fermented dough used for empanadas normally includes
wheat our, fat and water (Lupano, 2003); they are home-
Abbreviations: D, deformation at break in elongation test; E, dry egg
concentration; FE, maximum breaking force in elongation test; FP,
maximum breaking force in puncture test; G, hydrocolloids concentration;
G0 , storage modulus; G00 , loss modulus; W, water content; WPC, whey
protein concentrate content; Z*, complex dynamic viscosity
Corresponding author. Tel.: +54 221 4254853; fax: +54 221 4249287.
E-mail address: anc@quimica.unlp.edu.ar (A. Califano).
people with celiac disease eat foods containing gluten, their
immune system responds by damage to the small intestine.
Specically, nger like protrusions called villi, are lost. So,
as nutrients from the food are absorbed into the blood-
stream through these villi, without villi a person becomes
malnourished, regardless of the quantity of food eaten
(Arendt et al., 2002; Lazaridou et al., 2007). Thus, people
affected by celiac disease cannot eat empanadas because
the pastry contains gluten.
Gluten is the main structure-forming protein in our,
and is responsible for rheological characteristics of dough,
such as elasticity, extensibility, resistance to stretching and
mixing tolerance. Thus, the replacement of gluten by starch
results in a major challenge to the cereal technologist
mainly from the structural point of view (Gallagher et al.,
2004). Gluten-free starches have been utilized to formulate

0733-5210/$ - see front matter r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jcs.2007.09.003
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
G. Lorenzo et al. / Journal of Cereal Science 48 (2008) 224231
breads (Cunin, 1999; Gallagher et al., 2002, 2003;
Kobylanski et al., 2004; Ranhotra et al., 1975; Toufeili
et al., 1994; Ward and Andon, 2002). However, they fail to
form a continuous phase and thus lack the necessary dough
structure for the production of good quality dough.
Therefore, gluten-free bakery products require polymeric
substances that mimic the viscoelastic properties of gluten
in doughs.
Hydrocolloids are widely used in the bakery industry to
impart texture and appearance properties to cereal-based
foods. A number of studies have used a range of starches
with gums for making gluten-free bakery products
(Gallagher et al., 2004; Lazaridou et al., 2007). Xanthan
gum and guar gum are some of the hydrocolloids that may
be added to gluten-free doughs. The molecular structure of
these two polysaccharides is well documented in the
literature (BeMiller and Whistler, 1996). The pseudoplastic
behavior of xanthan gum is important in bakery products
during dough preparation, i.e. pumping, kneading and
rolling. Interactions between xanthan gum and guar gum
may also exert synergistic effects, which depend on
different factors such as xanthan/guar ratio, mixing
temperature and ionic strength (BeMiller and Daniels,
2002; Khouryieh et al., 2006; Quintana et al., 2002). This
property can enhance viscosity improving dough handling.
Another possibility is to incorporate egg or dairy
proteins which are highly functional ingredients and due
to their versatility can be adequate for many food products
(Gallagher et al., 2003). Whey proteins are well-known
ingredients for improving food products, because of their
high nutritional quality and their functional properties (De
Wit, 1998). They are primarily added to cereal products to
improve their nutritional properties by increasing the
content of essential amino acids (Kenny et al., 2000).
Hens eggs or their constituents are key ingredients
associated with unique sensory characteristics and excellent
functionality for industrial applications. During prepara-
tion of several composite products, egg constituents may
have to function as emulsiers and foaming agents as well
as network structure formers (Ibanoglu and Erc- elebi,
2007).
There are no studies on the formulation of gluten-free
empanada dough and its rheological behavior. The
present work was designed to examine the effects of the
addition of gums, whey protein concentrate (WPF), dry
egg, and water (used in combination at different levels), to
corn and cassava starches on the textural and rheological
properties of gluten-free pastry dough in order to
formulate a dough suitable to prepare empanada disks
and pie-crusts adequate for celiac people.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Ingredients and additives
Corn starch (12.5% moisture, 0.3% protein) was
obtained from Unilever de Argentina S.A. (Argentina)
225
while cassava starch (14% moisture and 0.2% protein) was
from Indecar S.A. (Argentina). Commercial 100% sun-
ower oil (Molinos R o de La Plata SACIFI, Buenos
Aires) was purchased from a local supermarket and used
without further treatment. WPC containing 80% protein
(Arla Food Ingredients S.A., Argentina), food-grade
commercial xanthan and guar gums (Sigma Chemical
Co., St. Louis, MO), dry egg (6% moisture, 38% lipids,
Tecnovo S.A., Argentina), and analytical grade NaCl were
used. Distilled water was used in all formulations.
2.2. Dough preparation
The basic dough formula consisted of a mixture of corn
and cassava starches in a ratio of 2:1 w/w (Lang, 2006).
Xanthan and guar gums were used maintaining a 2:1 ratio,
which is usually considered as a synergistic ratio (BeMiller
and Daniels, 2002). Salt (2%) and 20% sunower oil were
included. Percentage concentrations of the formula are
given in g/100 g total starch basis. Combinations of gums
(G), WPC, dry egg (E) and water (W) were used following a
two-level, full-factorial design for four factors, namely the
24 design with two center points added (Table 1) (Box and
Draper, 1987). The experiment resulted in 17 different
formulated doughs; the keys and coded contents used for
each formulation are shown in Table 2. Dry ingredients
were premixed for 1 min in a commercial food processor
(Universo, Rowenta, Germany) at 400 rpm using a knead-
ing attachment. With the processor still running, oil was
slowly added and mixed for one more min. Finally, water
was added and the dough was mixed for 5 more min to
combine the ingredients. The dough was briey kneaded by
hand, wrapped in a lm, put in a tightly sealed container
and kept refrigerated (4 1C) for 24 h to let the starches
hydrate and to let the dough consistency stabilize (Manley,
2001). Dough was rolled out with a rolling pin over a
platform to give a sheet of 2 mm thick.
2.3. Texture analyses
All objective texture analyses were done in a TAXT2i
Texture Analyzer (Stable Micro Systems, UK) interfaced
with a computer, which controls the instrument and
analyses the data, using the Texture Expert Exceed
Table 1
Compositions of the tested formulations and coded levels for gums, whey
protein concentrate, dry egg, and water
Factor Levels
1 (%) 0 (%) +1 (%)
Gums (2:1 w/w xanthan gum to guar gum) 1.5 2.25 3
Whey protein concentrate 3.5 5 6.5
Dry egg 3.5 5 6.5
Water 51 53 55
Percentages are given as g/100 g total starch basis.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
226 G. Lorenzo et al. / Journal of Cereal Science 48 (2008) 224231

Table 2
Texture analysis results: puncture force (FP), elongation force (FE), and
deformation at breaking (D) for the different tested formulations 25 10

Formulation G WPC E W FP (mN) FE (mN) D (mm)

ab a
20
1 1 1 1 1 72 100 4.6ab
38 2
2 1 1 1 +1 45c
3 1 1 +1 1 54cd 65ab 4.7ab 90
4 1 1 +1 +1 54cd 53b 2.3a
5 1 +1 1 1 55cd 75ab 3.7a
Fig. 1. Dog-bone shaped specimen used for elongation tests. Dimensions
6 1 +1 1 +1 52cd 63ab 4.0ab
are given in mm.
7 1 +1 +1 1 61ad 71ab 5.6ab
8 1 +1 +1 +1 44c
9 0 0 0 0 78be 115c 7.4bc
10 +1 1 1 1 130f 208d 15.4d tude of the stress was stepwise increased from 0.5 to 100 Pa.
11 +1 1 1 +1 103gh 206d 10.5c After positioning the sample on the sensor system, excess
12 +1 1 +1 1 129 197d 15.6d dough protruding from the edge of the plate was carefully
13 +1 1 +1 +1 101gh 146ce 15.0d trimmed; a resting time of 10 min was allowed before
14 +1 +1 1 1 167j 200d 14.3d
starting the corresponding measurement to relax any
15 +1 +1 1 +1 92gk 162e 11.15cd
16 +1 +1 +1 1 109hi 154e 15.0d normal stresses induced during sample loading (Ribotta
17 +1 +1 +1 +1 88e 141ce 11.4cd et al., 2004). In all cases, samples were covered with a thin
lm of low viscosity silicone oil to prevent dough
G, gums; WPC, whey protein concentrate; E, dry egg; W, water; FP,
dehydration. The measuring system was covered with a
maximum force at puncture; FE, maximum elongation force; D,
deformation at breaking. Two of the formulations could not be tested in special device to maintain a humid environment around the
the elongation experiment (). wet samples. Temperature was maintained at 20 1C
*Different superscripts within the same variable indicate signicant throughout the experiment. Two replicates of each test
differences (Po0.05). were performed.

2.5. Statistical analysis

software supplied by Texture Technologies Corp. For each
formulation, six repeated measurements on separate
samples were taken and mean values were reported.
2.3.1. Puncture tests
A cylindrical probe 2 mm in diameter at a constant rate
of 1 mm/s was used. Tests were performed on disks of
40 mm diameter and 2 mm thickness from each dough
formulation. Maximum breaking force was determined
(FP).
2.3.2. Elongation tests
Tensile stressstrain relationships were determined by
elongating a dog-bone shaped specimen (Fig. 1) at a
constant rate using a tension grip system A/TG while
recording the load and elongation. Crosshead speed was set
at 0.5 mm/s. Maximum breaking force (FE) and deforma-
Analyses of variance (ANOVA) were conducted sepa-
rately for the puncture, elongation, and oscillatory shear
tests observations. Gums (G), WPC, dry egg (E), and water
(W) contents were the factors analyzed. The Bonferronis
test was chosen for simultaneous pairwise comparisons.
Differences in means and F-tests were considered signi-
cant when Po0.05. In our case, the analyzed factors have
two levels; when the main effects are signicant, the
analysis involved comparison of the averages at the high
and low levels regardless of the three other factor
contents.
The following polynomial model was tted to the data to
express the relationships between the responses and the
process variables:
X
4 3 X
X 4

tion at break (extension at the moment of rupture, D) was Y b0 bi X i bij X i X j

i1 i1 ji1
obtained from force vs. deformation curves.
2 X
X 3 X
4 Y
4

2.4. Oscillatory shear tests bijk X i X j X k b1234 X i, 1

i1 ji1 kj1 i1

Dynamic rheological measurements (storage (G0 ) and
loss (G00 ) moduli vs. frequency, (o)) were performed in a
Controlled Stress Rheometer RS 600 (Haake, Germany)
using a plate-and-plate geometry (35 mm diameter, 1.6 mm
gap). Roughened plates were used to avoid wall slip errors.
Frequency ranged from 0.09 to 130 rad/s. To determine the
limit of the linear viscoelastic region, dynamics tests were
performed at xed frequency (1 Hz6.28 rad/s) and ampli-
where Y is the corresponding response variable, i.e. FP
(maximum breaking force in puncture test), FE (maximum
breaking force in elongation test) and D (deformation at
break); Xi are the coded process variables (G, WPC, E, W)
and b are the regression coefcients. A stepwise methodol-
ogy was followed to determine the signicant terms in
Eq. (1). All statistical procedures (analysis of variance,
multiple linear regression/stepwise, nonlinear regression)
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
G. Lorenzo et al. / Journal of Cereal Science 48 (2008) 224231 227

were computed using the SYSTAT software (SYSTAT, Table 3

Inc., Evanston, IL). Regression coefcients obtained using a stepwise methodology for the
texture analysis measurements: puncture and elongation forces and
deformation at breaking
3. Results and discussion
FP FE D
3.1. Texture analyses
Constant 84 120.8 8.6
G 30 54.9 4.9
3.1.1. Puncture test WPC 1.2 9.9 NS
A 24 full factorial model was used to analyze the E 4.7 14.7 0.5
maximum force at rupture (FP) determined by the W 12 11.9 1.2
puncture tests. G  WPC NS NS 0.6
GE 3.4 NS NS
Statistical analysis (ANOVA) showed that all the terms GW 6.4 NS 0.3
were signicant (Po0.05) except the main effect WPC WPC  E 3.2 NS NS
(P 0.06), the double interaction (G  WPC), and the WPC  W 2 NS NS
triple interaction (WPC  E  W). However, the impact of EW 4.3 NS NS
the different ingredients on the force at rupture varied. The G  WPC  E 4 NS NS
G  WPC  W 2.9 NS NS
hydrocolloids content was the main factor that explained
GEW 2.5 NS NS
70.94% of the total variance; increasing G from 1.5% to WPC  E  W NS NS NS
3% increased average FP values by 60 mN; but FP was G  WPC  E  W 6 NS NS
smaller when dry-egg content was increased (9772 mN),
G, gums; WPC, whey protein concentrate; E, dry egg; W, water; FP,
showing an interaction between G and E. The main effect
maximum puncture force (mN); FE, maximum elongation force (mN); D,
term (W) indicated that less force (FP) was needed to deformation at breaking (mm). NS, terms which were not signicant on
puncture the dough when more water was added (from 120 the surface response analysis.
to 83 mN, 12.1% explained variance). As high order
interactions were signicant for several of the tested
parameters, the analysis of the effects must consider each
specic combination of WPC, G, W, and E levels. In 3.1.2. Elongation test
particular, since the (G  E) interaction was signicant, Two of the formulations with high content of water (+1)
increasing G has a more marked effect at low dry-egg and low content of gum (1) (formulations 1 and 8) were
content (E (1)) than at E (+1); the same occurs for the too soft to handle, and it was not possible to perform
(G  W) interaction, at lower water content the effect of the elongation test on them. Fig. 3 shows that the
increasing G was larger (Table 2). maximum elongation force (FE) and the deformation
The results obtained for the puncture test were also (length, D) of the dough specimen before breaking
analyzed using a stepwise procedure to nd the linear model can be linearly correlated in all the tested samples. Besides
that best ts the data (Eq. (1)), including the center point FP (puncture test) was also linearly correlated with D
(Formulation 9). The obtained coefcients are shown in (Fig. 3).
Table 3, where FP is given in mN, and the independent According to the ANOVA, only three main effects
variables are coded values (1, 0, +1) according to Table 2. signicantly affected the deformation at breaking point
Values of FP as a function of water and gum content, (D); changes in hydrocolloid level (G) explained 78.3%,
(that have the most marked effect) are shown in Fig. 2a as a water (W) and egg (E) contents explained 3% and 0.8% of
response surface for two levels of E maintaining WPC the total variance, respectively; the G  W interaction was
concentration at the central value. Regarding the effect of also signicant. Since, as was previously mentioned, there
water content, the negative coefcient in Table 3 indicates was a positive correlation between FE and D (Fig. 3),
that less force was needed to puncture the dough when increasing hydrocolloids or dry-egg content increased not
more water was added to the formulation. The obtained only D but also the force at breaking point (Po0.05).
response surfaces also show that at high gums and water However, hydrocolloids had a much greater impact than
content, lower dry egg content increases the maximum dry egg. On the other hand, when WPC or W increased, FE
puncture force, which is in accordance with the ANOVA and D decreased (Po0.05).
interaction. Probably when egg protein content decreased, A similar conclusion was achieved using the stepwise
more water was available to fully develop the xanthan and regression procedure to nd the response surface; two
guar network, thus resulting in a harder dough. On the interactions G  WPC and G  W were signicant for D
other hand, at high W (+1) and low G (1), the maximum (Table 3).
force at puncture was smaller at low egg content, because Figs. 2b and c show the corresponding surface response
there were lower contents of polysaccharide to form strong plots for the maximum elongation force and deformation
entanglements and the contribution of the egg proteins to as a function of W and G, respectively. Higher gums
structure was noticeable (Fig. 2a). Interaction coefcients content increased FE and D, while both values decreased
between variables are also shown in Table 3. when WPC, E or W contents were raised, thus making
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
228 G. Lorenzo et al. / Journal of Cereal Science 48 (2008) 224231

Fig. 2. Response surface plot as a function of water (W) and gum (G) content of: (a) maximum force at puncture for two different levels of dry egg (E) and
a xed whey protein content (WPC) (5%); (b) maximum elongation force for two different levels of E and a xed WPC content (5%); (c) deformation at
the breaking point for two different levels of WPC and a xed content of E (5%).

the dough less stretchable and more brittle. Values of D From the puncture and elongation tests it was possible to
decreased when E decreased (Table 3), and at low G conclude that G(+1) combined with W(1) gave doughs
content, D decreased when WPC decreased (Fig. 2c). that were easy to handle because they seem to better resist
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
G. Lorenzo et al. / Journal of Cereal Science 48 (2008) 224231 229

250 106 106

FE vs. D
200 FP vs. D
105 105

G'; G'' (Pa)

* (Pa.s)
FP; FE (mN)

150
104 104

100
103 103

*, G', G'' Formulation 6

50 *, G', G'' Formulation 14
102 102
10-1 100 101 102
0 (rad/s)
0 5 10 15 20
Fig. 4. Dynamic viscosity (Z*), storage, (G0 ) and loss moduli (G00 ) vs.
Deformation at breaking (mm) frequency (o) for formulations 6 and 14.
Fig. 3. Puncture force (FP), and breaking force in elongation (FE) as
linear functions of maximum deformation for the elongation tests.
This behavior could yield to a crossover point for
frequencies lower than 102 rad/s indicating that the
higher stresses and tearing, that might occur during dough recovery of the stressed dough network was a slow process
industrial preparation. Furthermore these doughs, exhibit- and the network was not completely elastic.
ing high FE and D values, would resist better upon The inspection of the frequency sweep curves also
stretching at the initial stage of cooking due to air and showed that elastic characteristics increased (higher storage
vapor dilatation. modulus) when G was raised or W decreased, conrming
the results obtained by the texture experiments. These
3.2. Oscillatory dynamic test results are in accordance with our dough behavior
previously reported by Berland and Launay (1995) and
The results of small amplitude oscillatory shear tests by Kenny et al. (2001). To quantify these qualitative
were expressed in terms of the storage modulus (G0 ) and observations, the methodology proposed by Bruno and
loss modulus (G00 ). For all the studied formulations, Moresi (2005) was applied.
frequency sweeps were carried out in the linear viscoelastic Friedrich and Heymann (1988) demonstrated that, in the
range, which was previously determined using stress sweep linear viscoelastic regime, in the high frequency range or
runs. Results of the dynamic oscillatory tests are presented near the gel point, G0 and G00 are given by
in Fig. 4 for two of the formulations; the curves were r p 
qualitatively similar for all the formulations assayed. G0 2 
0
G o G1;a S a cos a oa , (2)
was always greater than G00 in the frequency range p 2
measured and the increase of the two moduli with r
frequency was small; the curves were almost parallel. This 00 2  p  a
G o S sin a o , (3)
result could be explained in terms of the interactions p a 2
between xanthan gum and galactomannans (Dea et al., where a is the order of the relaxation function, G1;a is the
1977; Khouryieh et al., 2006; Shatwell et al., 1990). The equilibrium shear modulus and S*a is a material parameter
plateau region in G0 is related to the formation of physical related to the material strength.
entanglements among polymeric chains that form a three- The tangent of phase shift could be expressed as
dimensional network of interacting molecules (Ferry, p 
1980). The starch granules probably acted as inactive G 00
tan d 0 tan a . (4)
llers because of their inability to form a cohesive network G 2
(Aguilera and Rojas, 1996; Ravindra et al., 2004), which Eq. (4) is exact at the gel state only in a frequency range
was mainly formed by the xanthan and guar gums. where the equilibrium modulus can be neglected. In Eq. (2),
Several authors have reported a similar trend for our when G 1;a is assumed to be much lower than G0 , the
dough with G0 and G00 increasing with frequency (Agyare complex dynamic viscosity (Z*) can be expressed as
et al., 2004; Dreese et al., 1988; Lefebvre et al., 2003; Ribotta follows:
et al., 2004). Hence, the doughs studied in the present work p
showed a predominantly elastic response, although in the G G 02 G002
Z  Aa oa1 . (5)
low-frequency regime both curves (G0 and G00 ) come closer. o o
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
230 G. Lorenzo et al. / Journal of Cereal Science 48 (2008) 224231
Thus, viscoelastic characteristics of doughs could be
described in terms of a (order of the
relaxation function)
p
and the parameter Aa Aa 2=pSa , which represents a
measure of the strength of the cross-linking network. As an
example, Fig. 4 also shows the complex dynamic viscosity
as a function of frequency for two of the formulations
studied. Complex dynamic viscosities were calculated from
frequency sweep data and their dependence with frequency
was modeled according to Eq. (5). In all the experiments,
the approximation G1;a 5G0 , necessary to apply Eq. (4),
was veried in the frequency range analyzed. Parameters
obtained under this approximation led to practically
coincident values of tan(ap/2) and tan(d) (0.31).
All the doughs showed similar a values; an average
a 0.19 was obtained, which reected the weak depen-
dence on the frequency for both moduli (Eqs. (2) and (3)),
typically observed in gel-like samples (Steffe, 1996).
Besides, all the doughs showed a similar shear-thinning
behavior over a wide range of frequencies with
a1 0.81 (Eq. (5)). Aa changed signicantly (Po0.05)
only with gum and water contents. Table 4 shows average
values (for the 17 formulations) of the material strength
parameter (Aa), calculated using Eq. (5), as a function of
dough composition. Increasing gum content strengthened
the cross-linking network thus resulting in higher Aa
values; the same effect was observed when water content
decreased but only at low gum content. When less water
was available in the system the hydrocolloid dispersion
was more concentrated and Aa was also higher. Under
these conditions, the more rigid dough structure (more
elastic polymer network) would imply stronger entangle-
ments among hydrocolloids molecules in the composite
network.
Data of FP, FE and D obtained from puncture and
elongation tests were related to the storage and loss moduli
(G0 , G00 ) at 1 Hz (6.28 rad/s) obtained from small defor-
mation tests. Both moduli were positively correlated
with either FP or FE (Po0.001). As an example, Fig. 5
shows the linear relationships obtained for G0 vs. FP and G0
vs. FE.
These relationships demonstrate how the combined
responses from large and small deformation rheological
testing can be related to dough handling or other textural
properties of these gluten-free formulations, and how this
can be translated into optimization of dough composition
and processing conditions.
Table 4
Average values of material strength parameter (Aa) as a function of dough
composition
Gum level Water level
1 1
1 +1
0 0
+1 1
+1 +1
1.2x105
1.0x105
8.0x104
G' (Pa)
6.0x104
4.0x104
2.0x104
50 100 150 200
FP; FE (mN)
Fig. 5. Relationship between large deformation texture properties and
viscoelastic measurements. Puncture () and elongation (&) forces vs.
storage modulus (G0 ) at 1 Hz (6.28 rad/s).
4. Conclusions
Gluten-free doughs for pies and empanadas (non-
fermented products) were formulated with starches, pro-
teins and gums at different levels. Texture analysis
(puncture and elongation tests) led to similar conclusions
to those obtained by dynamic rheological measurements.
Higher protein contents interfered with the formation of
the three-dimensional gum network making the doughs
more fragile. Formulations containing higher percentages
of gums and lower water content led to an appropriate
composition for the industrial production of empanada
disks and pie-crusts, with an adequate elasticity and
puncture resistance.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to Tecnovo, S.A., Argentina
and to Arla Food Ingredients S.A., Argentina, who
provided the dried egg and milk protein concentrate for
this study, respectively. The nancial support of the
Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cient cas y Tecno-
logicas (CONICET), Agencia Nacional de Promocion
Cient ca y Tecnologica, Comision de Investigaciones
Cient cas de la Provincia de Buenos Aires (CIC), and
Universidad Nacional de La Plata are also acknowledged.
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