Interviews as a qualitative

research method in management

and economics sciences

Magorzata Styko-Kunkowska

The textbook is co-nanced by the European Union from the European Social Fund
Interviews as a qualitative
research method
in management
and economics sciences
 Magorzata Styko-Kunkowska

Interviews as a qualitative
research method
in management
and economics sciences

Warsaw 2014
This textbook was prepared for the purposes of International Doctoral
Programme in Management and Economics organized within the Collegium
of World Economy at Warsaw School of Economics.

The textbook is co-nanced by the European Union from the European Social Fund.

This textbook is distributed free of charge.

Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1. The growing interest in qualitative methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2. Interviews as a qualitative method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3. Aim of the handbook and background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4. The ow of the book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

CHAPTER 2. FIRST STEPS IN RESEARCH PLANNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2.1. How to begin the research process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2. Expectations of academic environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.3. A problem well-dened is half solved . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

CHAPTER 3. METHOD CHOICE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

3.1. Consideration set of methods and method choice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.2. Main characteristics of interviews as a qualitative method. . . . . . . . 25
3.3. Advantages of interviews as a qualitative method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.4. Limitations, myths about limitations and dealing with them . . . . . . 31
3.5. Interviews in a mixed-method design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.6. Interviews in multi-method approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.7. Interviews in a case study method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.8. Typology of qualitative interviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.9. Individual interviews. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.10. Focus group interviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.11. e-Interviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.12. Tele-interviewing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.13. Rules of method choice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

CHAPTER 4. SAMPLING AND RECRUITMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

4.1. The strategies of sampling and selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.2. Number of cases and participants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.3. The particular criteria for selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.4. From criteria to recruitment how to nd a participant? . . . . . . . . 76
4.5. Additional remarks: What about anonymity? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

5
 Table of Contents

CHAPTER 5. HOW TO DEVELOP A TOPIC GUIDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

5.1. The main characteristics of topic guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.2. From research guiding questions and objectives, theoretical
and epistemological approach into eldwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.3. Facilitation of natural process through group dynamic
management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.4. Better insight into the phenomena via questioning and supporting
techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.5. From topic guide to interviewing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

CHAPTER 6. HOW TO ANALYZE QUALITATIVE DATA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

6.1. General assumptions of qualitative approach to data analysis . . . . 111
6.2. Main strategies of analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.3. Main stages of generic process of analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
6.4. Transcripts, recordings and eld notes as bases of formal analysis . . 121
6.5. The systematic data analysis via coding and displaying data . . . . . 122
6.6. Establishing the shared vision of reality via triangulation. . . . . . . . 127
6.7. Understanding differences between participants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
6.8. Data verication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
6.9. Additional remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

CHAPTER 7. HOW TO REPORT QUALITATIVE DATA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

7.1. The role of the report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
7.2. The style of results reporting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
7.3. Structure of the report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
7.4. Content of the report and ways of presenting results . . . . . . . . . . 140

CHAPTER 8. BRIEF CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

6
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to explain the background of this
handbook and to provide an introduction to the further chapters. In
particular, the current status of qualitative research involving inter-
views, definition of interviewing, aims of the book and its flow will
be presented.

1.1. The growing interest in qualitative methods

Qualitative insight has a long history in management and economics due to
its contribution to knowledge development and its practical meaning (Denyer &
Traneld, 2006). However, for many years qualitative research as a primary source
of data has been discouraged by academic journals, by academic environment
and was limited in the course of MA and Ph.D. education (Cassell, Buehring,
Symon, & Johnson, 2006). Undoubtedly, the current academic literature in
management and economic sciences is dominated by quantitative research
and positivist approach (Burton, 2007; Cassell, Symon, Buehring, & Johnson,
2006). Also, the academic environment still indicates a number of barriers
toward qualitative methodology. In 2006 some British academics (Cassell et al.,
2006) conducted the qualitative research to understand the current status of
qualitative research in the management eld. The project involved 45 in-depth
individual interviews with four international stakeholders groups including
qualitative researchers, academic disseminators (such as journal editors and
funders), Doctoral Programme Leaders and practitioners. Researchers revealed
the diversity of interpretations of the concept of qualitative research and a
number of barriers including credibility, difculties in assessing the qualitative
research quality and problems with result presentation in academic articles.
The results also suggest the need for more systematic training during graduate
and postgraduate education. The distance toward qualitative research is not
limited to academic environment in management and economic sciences. Bent
Flyvbjerg (2006) described also misconceptions about qualitative methods
among academics in social sciences.

7
 Introduction

Nevertheless, over the last two decades one may observe the renaissance of
qualitative methodology (Burton, 2007; Denyer & Traneld, 2006). The empirical
articles involving qualitative methods have started to be published in prestigious
journals such as Journal of Management Studies and Organization studies (Cassell
et al., 2006), and Journal of Financial Economics (Burton, 2007). Journals in this eld
published special issues on qualitative research in nances and management with
Management Decision in 2006 as one of the prominent examples. Additionally,
the Qualitative Research in Organizations and Management: International Journal
was set up in 2006 to publish excellent works in this eld (Cassell & Symon, 2012).
Moreover, the systematic approaches to synthesis of qualitative research results
have been developed (Denyer & Traneld, 2006). Last but not least, qualitative
methods (although not only interviews) have been applied to study many
different topics including organizational analysis, information systems, nances
and accounting (Burton, 2007; Cassell et al., 2006; Cohen & Ravishankar, 2012;
Merrilees, 2007; Runyan, Huddleeston, & Swinney, 2007).
One may observe many reasons of the coming back of qualitative methods.
First, demand on the link between academic research and practice is growing and
need for a better insight into various processes in a fast changing and complex
social-economic environment is increasing; and both requirements are considered
to be better achieved by qualitative than quantitative research (Cassell et al.,
2006; Denyer & Traneld, 2006; Gummesson, 2006). Second, some issues about
qualitative methods have started to be claried. Conventional misconceptions
about some qualitative methods have been addressed in the literature as being false
or too general (Buchanan, 2012; Flyvbjerg, 2006; T. W. Lee, 1999); this topic will be
discussed thoroughly in Chapter 3. Moreover, the number of publications including
books on qualitative methods has been increasing: on specic applications (e.g.
in information systems in business and organizational setting and on designing
and conducting qualitative research projects regarding a variety of methods (one
may nd information about them throughout the whole script). Finally, computer
programs supporting qualitative analysis are rapidly being developed and completed
by friendly handbooks and web-trainings (see section Additional remarks in
Chapter 6). Although many authors repeat that applying qualitative methods is
a way of thinking and there is lack of rigor procedure, in the last decade one may
observe a movement toward the description and establishing of key procedures of
conducting, analyzing and evaluation of qualitative research to enable publishing of
valuable research results (Symon & Cassell, 2012a; Yin, 2003).

KEY POINTS
The qualitative research has played the growing role over the recent
years for many reasons. There are opportunities to reduce the distance in
academic environment (dominated by quantitative researchers) toward this
methodology; however, still some misconceptions need to be addressed.

8
 1.2. Interviews as a qualitative method

1.2. Interviews as a qualitative method

The variety of qualitative methods is huge (see Frame 1) with qualitative
interviews as one of the leading methods of gathering qualitative primary
data (Thorpe & Holt, 2008). Interviews may be conducted both as an
independent method, as a part of mixed-method projects including both
qualitative and quantitative methods (Venkatesh, Brown, & Bala, 2013), and
multi-method projects including various qualitative methods such as case
studies (Buchanan, 2012) and ethnography (Pritchard, 2012; Yanow, Ybema,
& van Hulst, 2012).

Frame 1.1. Examples of qualitative methods applied in management research

Individual and group interviews (and variety of their types)
Observation
Participatory visual methods
Other methods and techniques, e.g. diaries, analysis of documents
Multi-methods: case study, ethnography
Others: e.g. electronic interviews

Source: Own elaboration, based on: Cassell & Symon (2004), Symon & Cassell (2012b).

The term interview has many meanings. The method of interviewing is

not exclusively a qualitative method. Interviews are the basis of at least three
main quantitative methods, such as Paper and Pen Personal Interview (PAPI),
Computer-Assisted Personal Interview (CAPI), Computer-Assisted Telephone
Interview (CATI). In a quantitative research the term of interviewing is being
used also to name some self-reporting methods with or without the presence of
an interviewer, such as Computer-Assisted Web Interview (CAWI) or Computer-
Assisted Self-Administered Personal Interviewing (CASI) in which respondents
complete the questionnaire available in the Internet (CAWI) or in computer in the
presence of an interviewer (CASI), or Audio Computer-Assisted Self-Administered
Interviewing (ACASI) when a respondent answers questions that are played back
by a software. So, what distinguishes a qualitative method of interviewing from
quantitative interviewing?
Intuitively every person who frequented any course on social or marketing
research methods has his/her own overall idea what is qualitative research and
qualitative interviewing, or at least has some selected associations in mind such
as subjectivity, focus groups, etc. As some authors notice (Cassell et al., 2006),
it is not easy to define qualitative research as a whole given that it includes
many different methods, many different paradigmatic approaches (positivism,
qualitative neo-positivism, interpretivism, critical theory or phenomenology,

9
 Introduction

constructivism, realism, postmodernism1), many different analytical strategies

(e.g. grounded theory, template analysis, pattern matching) and individual
approaches of authors. The broadest, the most generic and most conventionally
used (also in management eld) denition recognized qualitative methods as
those techniques of data collection and analysis that rely on non-numerical
data (Cassell et al., 2006). Although simplied and potentially controversial,
this denition is most helpful to understand the core idea of qualitative
interviewing as a starting point as well. However, to enable the gathering
and analysis of non-numerical data, the whole research process has also specic
characteristics, beginning from the problem denition and type of main research
questions via the level of standardization, number of research units and methods
of sample selection, data collection and analysis till the way of reporting data
and possibility of generalization. Many authors even emphasize that qualitative
research is the way of thinking, thus that application of procedures is not sufcient
without good understanding of the core idea (Kvale, 1996).
Also, it is not easy to dene interviewing because the qualitative interview
itself is not uniform, not only because it shares characteristics of differences within
the qualitative approach. Without any doubt, the qualitative interviewing is
a type of interaction between a person who conducts the interview and
a participant(s) of the study; interaction which is based on a conversation
(Thorpe & Holt, 2008). This interaction may be direct (complete) or indirect
(limited) mediated by a phone or Internet. One participant or a small group of
participants may take part in this interaction. As a research method, qualitative
interviews have a structure and purpose directed on achieving research goals;
however, this structure is lower than in case of quantitative interviewing. The
conversation is focused on understanding and identifying meaningful parts
of phenomena. To achieve it, the process of qualitative interviewing is flexible
with domination of open questioning and a huge role of active listening on
the part of the researcher to obtain this goal; in each interview the researcher
may ask questions differently and the interview may have different ow. The tool
(that is called topic guide) assumes the exibility during the interviewing and is
exibly applied during the conversation. Interviews are often recorded and then
transcribed what may be completed by some field notes. The process of analysis
is based on coding, although a wide range of analytic strategies may be applied.
Reports include a description of results and may be completed with quotations,
tables, figures, but rarely numbers of answers. The statistical generalization
is not possible mostly due to non-standardized and flexible procedures at all
stages of the research process as well as due to a small number of research
1
In literature authors use different categorizations of approaches. For instance, Piotr Zaborek
distinguishes positivist and phenomenological approach including critical theory, realism and con-
structivism; Nigel King (2004) make a distinction of positivist, phenomenological and constructivist
approach, Orlikowski and Baroudi (2007 in Myers and Avison, 2007) positivist, interpretive and
critical theory approach.

10
 1.3. Aim of the handbook and background

units and non-probabilistic methods of sampling. However, other type of

generalization is possible and is named analytical or theoretical generalization,
although generalization is sometimes considered not necessary at all. These
characteristics predispose this method similarly as other qualitative methods
to achieve different aims than aims of quantitative research. They enable
to explore, descript or explain some phenomena, or to generate some ideas by
obtaining better insight into participants perspective and/or phenomena under
consideration. They are best whenever the researcher expects the answer for
questions such as How/which way? Why/what for?
As one may see, this denition is extensive. Its aim is to bring closer the method
of interviewing. I will come back to these characteristics in further chapters.

KEY POINTS
In short, interviewing as a qualitative academic method in management
and economic sciences may be described as the method of data collection
based on interaction between one interviewer and one or more participants.
Moreover, it shares characteristics of a qualitative research as a whole group
of methods including, among others, analyses that rely on non-numerical
data, mainly gathered from small samples in a more or less exible manner.

1.3. Aim of the handbook and background

Many current practical handbooks on qualitative research including
interviewing refer to social sciences in general (Kvale, 1996; Miles & Huberman,
1994; Silverman, 2001; Yin, 2003) or are targeted to practitioners in market
research (Maison, 2010; Mariampolski, 2006). They do not refer to management
and economics sciences and they omit examples specic for this eld of study.
The textbooks on qualitative research in organizational settings (Cassell & Symon,
2004; Gummesson, 2000; T. W. Lee, 1999; Symon & Cassell, 2012b) are very
extensive and very detailed, sometimes too detailed for beginning researchers at
the start of academic adventure with qualitative interviewing. Moreover, they
rarely focus on the method of interviewing itself (with short texts of Alvesson
(2012), King (2004) and Perry (1998) as exceptions).
Thus, the concise handbook with a short overview of the method of
interviewing, some practical guidelines and references for further reading
for academic research involving the qualitative interviewing method in
management and economic sciences is still lacking. This book is trying to ll
this gap. In particular it is addressed to students in any educational programs
in management and economics sciences. Its objective is to make interest in
conducting interviews in organizational and economic setting, or at least to
limit negative attitudes toward this methodology through introduction with its

11
 Introduction

key ideas and procedures including explanation of some detailed issues that
may raise some doubts.
The choice of content and structure has several bases including my academic,
teaching and practical experience. Since 1998 I has been a consultant in social
and market qualitative research cooperating with various research agencies
in Poland. This part of my experience includes projects with professionals and
on management and organization issues as well as a broad scope of marketing
topics and a wide range of research problems. During my teaching career
I have run courses for international postgraduate students of Warsaw School
of Economics (Doctoral Programme in Management and Economics), graduate
courses on application of qualitative market research (specialty Economic
Psychology, Faculty of Psychology at University of Warsaw) and other courses
helpful in my methodological progress (on unstructured methods including
interviewing in psychological diagnosis, on experimental psychology and on
trainings). In my academic development, I have participated in single and multi-
stage projects including qualitative interviewing methods (Hodgkins et al., 2012)
as well as quantitative and experimental methods (Koenigstorfer, Wsowicz-
Kiryo, Styko-Kunkowska, & Groeppel-Klein, 2013; Stysko-Kunkowska & Borecka,
2010; Wsowicz & Styko-Kunkowska, 2011). Invaluable contribution to my
understanding of the application of the case study method in management and
economics sciences have made publications of Piotr Zaborek from Warsaw School
of Economics (Zaborek, 2007, 2009a, 2009b) as they are based on his academic
experience in conducting case study research for his doctoral dissertation on
information systems management in organizations (defended with honors!), his
broad experience in teaching graduate and postgraduate students at Warsaw
School of Economic and in leading business projects.
Due to my psychological background, the book is slightly biased into the
direction of soft aspects of qualitative research application in management
and economics sciences, in which the investigation of interview participant
perspective is of key interest.

KEY POINTS
The handbook is addressed mainly to students in any educational programs
in management and economics sciences. Its aim is to introduce the qualitative
method of interviewing, reduce potential distances toward it and make interest
in broader application of this methodology in this eld of study.

1.4. The flow of the book

In this first introductory chapter I have presented the background for the
rest of the book including the increasing interest and application of qualitative

12
 1.4. The flow of the book

methods in a eld of management and economic sciences eld of study and

the general description of qualitative interviewing. The aim, recipients and
background of the author were also explained. In the second chapter the
process of qualitative research will be explained and its preliminary stages
will be discussed. Special emphasis will be put on general expectations toward
student papers, MA thesis and Ph.D. thesis as the important starting point for
any research. Next, issues related with problem denition and formulation of
key and detailed research questions will be discussed with highlighting specic
topics by examples.
The order of succeeding chapters is directed by the ow of research stages.
The third chapter introduces the issue of method choice. It presents the
establishment of method consideration set, the advantages of interviews as
a qualitative method including the area of applications, and limitations of
qualitative methods. Special emphasis is put on controversial characteristics
of qualitative methodology in academic environment and ways to deal with
them. Further on, particular methods will be described. First, issues related
with application of interviews in mixed designs involving also quantitative
research and in a multi-method designs with particular emphasis put on the
case study method as compared with ethnography method. Next, typology of
interviews will be presented completed with the description of individual in-
depth interviews, focus group interviews and methods of indirect interviewing
with those, which use the recent technological achievements. The fourth
chapter presents guidelines to designing the recruitment criteria and
choosing participants. It is completed by some pieces of advice how to nd
participants. In the fifth chapter the main rules of designing a research tool
(topic guide) will be discussed including underlying psychological processes and
guidelines how to use the topic guide during interviewing. The sixth chapter is
dedicated to issues of analysis. It discusses general assumptions of qualitative
analysis; then main analytic strategies are presented (template analysis, pattern
matching and the grounded theory approach as a background) and main stages
of analysis. Further, it describes the detailed analysis process via coding and
displaying data. Some issues related with relying on general patterns and ways
of dealing with outstanding participants will be also highlighted as well as
issues of data verication. In the final seventh chapter I present selected issues
related to reporting results of qualitative interviews in academic papers with
special emphasis on Ph.D. thesis and manuscripts for publication as indicating
key directions of reporting qualitative data.
Each chapter begins with a short summary and is completed with examples of
research in management and economic sciences whenever possible. Each section
ends with key notes containing practical conclusions for academic researches
when applicable. In the end of most sections I present the literature references
that I consider most valuable to deepen the knowledge for a given topic.

13
 CHAPTER 2

First steps in research planning

This chapter presents the process of research and highlights first steps
in research planning the understanding of academic environment
formal and informal requirements and issues related with problem
and guiding research question definition. Specific issues related to
qualitative research planning will be emphasized, e.g. dealing with not
uniform attitudes toward the qualitative research, wording related
to qualitative research questions, examples of unique contribution of
the qualitative research involving interviews.

2.1. How to begin the research process

When some researchers start thinking about a new research project, they begin
with a general topic idea and start thinking about methods. For instance, they
had observed very interesting phenomena in practice and they want to examine
it. Some others start with the detailed review of literature that becomes the basis
for the problem formulation and method choice. Whatever is the starting point,
the researcher should thoroughly understand the whole process of planning,
conducting, analyzing and reporting before taking the nal decision about the
research scheme and before the start of gathering data. The whole research
process involving qualitative interviews alone, or as a part of mixed-method
approach or multi-methods, has certain main stages (Sinkovics & Alfoldi, 2012;
Yin, 2003), which are presented in Figure 2.1. In practice, one may meet also
different approaches. Buchanan (2012) presents the case study, in which data
collection is a starting point. Also in grounded theory approach (described
later in details) eldwork is a starting point. However, it is worth noticing that
researchers who conduct such type of research have often great experience or at
least knowledge both in their own eld of study and in methodology. Thus, they
know well the ow of the research process. For graduates and postgraduate
students as academic researchers, the scientic environment as a whole and
specic institutions have specic requirements and it is good to recognize them
as a starting point. Dening the audience and its expectations sets the general

15
 First steps in research planning

direction of thinking about the level of self-reflection during research process

as the researcher should be able to justify almost any decision that was taken.
Main stages are strictly related; they occur more or less simultaneously, and the
researcher may come back to the previous stages. All the steps will be discussed
in further sections and chapters of this book.

Figure 2.1. Main stages of research process including qualitative interviews

Research planning

First steps in research planning Method choice Preparation for fieldwork

Defining the audience and its Consideration set Design and sampling
requirements Reasons underlying Topic guide development
Research problem and a choice
guiding question definition

Fieldwork including
interviewing or Data analysis and
Results reporting
Interviewing completed interpretation
with other methods

Source: own elaboration based on: Maison (2010), Malhotra & Birks (2007), Sinkovics &
Alfoldi (2012), Stewart, Shamdasani, & Rook (2007), Yin (2003).

2.2. Expectations of academic environment

As mentioned, academic community and particular institutions have specific
formal (and informal) requirements about the graduate and postgraduate
students work, which may be applied also to other student papers. These
requirements are independent of the chosen method; however, they direct
attention to what has a key role when qualitative research is applied. I will present
an example of Ph.D. thesis, but in my opinion it sets a general direction of
academic expectations, even though they may be slightly lighter in case of
seminar papers or diploma thesis.
According to the formal guidelines for Ph.D. students in Poland
(Dz. U. z 2011 r. Nr 84, poz. 455), the doctoral dissertation should meet three
main criteria: (1) deliver original solution of the scientific problem, (2) convince
that candidate has overall theoretical knowledge about a given field of science
and (3) confirm that candidate has the skills to conduct an academic work
alone. As underlines Robert Yin (2003), the author of Ph.D. thesis is supposed to
convince academics about the significance of the problem and the results, the
good knowledge in the theory and methodology as far as skills to conduct

16
 2.2. Expectations of academic environment

scientific research of good quality. Academics may be also interested in the

relationships between the current research and previous theoretical models and
research ndings (Yin, 2003).
If a student is planning to publish the work as an article, a chapter in
a textbook, a book or text in conference proceedings (what is an obligation for
Ph.D. students according to Dz. U. z 2011 r. Nr 84, poz. 455), he or she should
think about it also in advance and have particular concern about requirements of
journals or book editors in the eld. Good quality of the whole research process,
convincing knowledge in the eld and in methodology and valuable contribution
are again particularly worth being underlined as important for reviewers. The
last one may be evaluated in various ways but with general conclusion that
research should give original insight and widen the current knowledge in a eld
(Cassell et al., 2006). Buchanan (2012) advises also to follow the guidelines of
the Harvard Business Reviews that recommends to contributors to search for
the compelling insight (p. 361) that is expressed as so what and aha
effects. Even if someone is not planning to publish research at the beginning, it
is worth acting as if it was planned, than later wish that something was being
neglected.
Some students may say, What about practice? with tacit assumption that
academic research is far from it. First, currently in the eld of management
and economy the close relation between academic research and practice is
expected (Cassell et al., 2006; Denyer & Traneld, 2006; Gummesson, 2006) and
even the action research methodology was developed as a separate approach
(Heller, 2004; Malhotra & Birks, 2007). Second, if a student wants to focus on
issues rooted mainly in practice, even then the research should have academic
bias in the whole research process for successful academic results.
Dening the audience and its requirements is particularly important in
qualitative research due to inconsistent, often distant or negative, attitudes in
academic environment. Thus, not only formal but also informal beliefs within
academic community are important. To deal with potential critics, any research
author which work is reviewed should be able to justify any decision that was
undertaken in a research process. Some other ways of dealing with possible
critics are highlighted in the section about limitations in Chapter 3.
Expectations of the academic community in the eld one may identify by
reading the most valuable journals in a given eld. Formal and informal
requirements of academics within a given institution, one may examine by talks
with a supervisor and other academic workers, other students and by reading
the most successful papers of other students.

KEY POINTS
In graduate and postgraduate student work, understanding of the aca-
demic formal and informal requirements is important to achieve success-

17
 First steps in research planning

ful results in writing any paper, thesis, etc. These requirements are particu-
larly important in research involving qualitative methods due to its still un-
clear status as a valid method in management and economics sciences.
The main expectations include: (a) original and valuable contribution, (b) con-
vincing presentation of knowledge in a eld and in methodology, (c) good
quality of research, (d) reasons underlying any decision in a research process.

More about expectations of journal editors toward qualitative
research process one may nd in a publication of Catherine
Cassel et al. (2006) that conducted qualitative research on the
current role and status of this methodology in the management
eld (some issues from this research were highlighted in the
introductory chapter of this handbook).

2.3. A problem well-defined is half solved

The statement in the title of this chapter in this or similar form has been
attributed to many authors including John Dewey (an American philosopher,
psychologist and educational reformer), Charles Kettering (an American inventor
and social philosopher), or to Albert Einstein, and was repeated many times in
many different contexts, as one may see in Google search. Most of handbooks
on qualitative research (and other research methods as well) also emphasize
the research problem identication having a key role for any further steps of
research process.
After the preliminary choice of a topic and identication of rationale
of the study, the researcher should conduct a thorough, critical and
rigorous review of literature including theoretical models and research and
establishment of practice needs. This is important for at least two reasons.
First, it helps to determine the potential contribution of the research because
the topic could have been investigated by other researchers. Second, the gaps
existing in the literature may be identied, so the research has a better chance
for valuable and unique contribution. Further, the theoretical and conceptual
foundations may be developed. The literature reviewing process should end
with a preliminary problem statement and identication of a guiding
research question.
From technical point of view, at least two issues are important in a problem
denition. First, to identify when qualitative methods involving interviews
are the most appropriate solution. Second, to understand how to formulate
the problem statement so that it ts for qualitative research. In this section
I highlight only the latter one formal issues of this process. The remaining
topics will be developed in the section about method choice.
18
 2.3. A problem well-defined is half solved

In qualitative research the problem formulation includes most often such

terms as to explore, to recognize, to investigate, to determine 2 with
the most qualitative terms to thoroughly, deeply, in-depth understand, to
extensively and in-depth describe, to gain deep insight. In turn, research
questions may include such terms as how and why or questions about
specic role of some variables within a given phenomena. Frame 2.1. presents
some examples of research questions in qualitative research involving interviews.
The way of the formulation of the research problem and the guiding research
question may help researcher to understand which type of methodology to
use in the given occasion and will help to avoid the gross mists(Yin, 2003)
meaning that another method may be more benecial than the chosen one.

Frame 2.1. Examples of key research questions in qualitative research

involving interviews
How is relationship marketing implemented in a modern accounting
practice? (Perry, 1998, p. 788)
How does the marketing infrastructure of a foreign country impact
on its own internationalization process? (Perry, 1998, p. 788)
How do Australian high value-added manufacturing companies
develop their market entry modes into China? (Perry, 1998, p. 788)
Do the resources of brand identity and social capital mitigate a hostile
local environment for small retailers (Runyan et. al., 2007, p. 392)
How do factors such as gender and race play into participant accounts
of their works and professional identity (Ashcraft, 2005, 2007 and
Ashcraft and Mumby, 2004; see Alvesson & Ashcraft, 2012)

In this introductory stage the researcher aim is also to rene the guiding research
question by explicating a few (not too many) objectives (in a form of issues
or questions). If they are too many, it may be unrealistic to investigate them
within a given time framework. If deductive approach to theory development
is applied (see Chapter 5), specic issues/questions are followed by theoretical
model presentation (e.g. as a gure) and set of hypothesis. It is worth underlining
that neither the guiding research question, nor detailed questions or issues,
should be identied as questions to be asked directly during interviews. They
work more as a research goal and research objectives.
The researcher will return to the literature review, problem and guiding
question formulation many times during the research process, to develop
them further and to establish the consistent design. After the establishing the
problem and guiding research question, and after the next stage of method

2
Although these terms are not exclusively qualitative, because most of methods including
surveys may play explorative, explanative and descriptive aim.

19
 First steps in research planning

choice it is also worth thinking about the predicted contribution to the science
development and to the practice. It is helpful to establish if a given problem
is important enough to be investigated. Some examples of the contribution
of qualitative research involving interviews are presented in Frame 2.2. I will
develop this topic while discussing qualitative research advantages.

Frame 2.2. Examples of an innovative contribution of qualitative methods

involving interviewing, which were presented in papers published in the
field of management and organization field
Theoretical value, e.g. the development of coherent conceptual frame-
work; lack of investigation of some variables as mitigators of some
outcomes
Filling empirical gaps, e.g. lack of research in a given eld, or small
number of published research on a given topic , or application of a given
theory to a given target group, methodological rigor beyond those
identied within previous studies
Overpassing of limitations of quantitative methods, e.g. unfeasible
with quantitative methods, qualitative insight into practitioners deci-
sions such as perception of some aspects of the phenomena; empha-
sizing the important role of studying phenomena within its natural
real-life context as complex relationships

At this preliminary stage, the researcher should also make preliminary

decision about the title that is evolving but gives some boundaries of the area
under consideration (Sinkovics & Alfoldi, 2012).

KEY POINTS
Researcher tasks in this preliminary stage include:
preliminary choice of a topic,
a thorough, critical and rigorous literature review including potential
contribution of the research and identication of the gaps existing in the
existing literature,
research problem denition,
development of theoretical and conceptual foundations,
identifying a guiding research question,
articulation of research objectives/specic questions (not too many)
in some approaches hypothesis; if they are too many and dening
priorities,
initial decisions about further steps.
Nevertheless, the process of problem dening is evolving till closing the stage
of planning.

20
 2.3. A problem well-defined is half solved

The perfect example of the research planning one may nd in the
publication of Piotr Zaborek (2009b) that describes the process
of planning the study involving qualitative research for his Ph.D.
dissertation. For better understanding of the planning process in
academic student work, one may also read the article of Chad
Perry (1998). Worth reading is also a more general paper of Rudolf
Sinkovic and Eva Alfoldi (2012) about the usage of computer-
assisted qualitative data analysis software in all the stages of the
qualitative research process beginning with literature review,
problem denition title management, etc.

21
 CHAPTER 3

Method choice
In this chapter the issues related with the choice of interviews will be
presented. In a beginning section the broader context of choice will
be discussed. Next, main characteristics, advantages and limitations
of qualitative methods will be completed with propositions how
to deal with limitations, particularly with potential criticism in the
academic environment. The final sections present different types
of interviews. First, interviews as part of mixed-method and multi-
-method approaches will be discussed. Next, both face-to-face
(Individual In-depth Interview, Focus group interview) and indirect
(interviews via internet and telephone) will be presented.

3.1. Consideration set of methods and method choice

When the reader understands the main idea of qualitative research involving
interviews, it is time to establish which type of method or group of methods
to apply. Sometimes, the method choice is obvious from the research problem
and research question; however, sometimes the borders in the application of
some methods are not so apparent. Additionally, the qualitative method is not
leading methodological solution in the eld of management and economic
sciences and its choice requires supporting arguments (which may be either
explicitly presented in the nal report, or at least ready to be presented for
reviewers). Thus, the researcher should ascertain that a given method is the
most appropriate for a given research question, or at least to avoid gross
misfits (Yin, 2003).
The researcher should start with initial consideration of wide range
of methods, including qualitative methods of gathering primary data,
quantitative methods, mixed methods, and analysis of secondary data,
not to omit any method that may be best applied for a given aim. Next, the
researcher should undertake the following steps:
to establish a preliminary consideration set of core methods or sets of
methods (e.g. qualitative, quantitative or mixed approach; if qualitative

23
 Method choice

case study, ethnography or just interviews) and then specic method types
within a given method (e.g. if case study interviews, observation, etc.; if
interviews individual or group interviews, standard interviews or variants),
to identify their advantages and limitations regarding research problem
and guiding research question,
to chose the method definition, because in literature one may nd many of
them,
to determine the underlying epistemological approach,
to justify the choice regarding research problem and guiding research
question,
to check possible gross mists,
to check if the problem and guiding research question is formulated in an
appropriate manner for a chosen method and reformulate it if necessary.
In management and economics sciences literature, one may nd at least four
types of interviews applications in relation to other methods: interviews as a separate
method3, interviews as the only method in case-study research, interviews as
a part of multi-method design4 (part of case-study or ethnography method) and
as a part of mixed-design approach including both qualitative and quantitative
methods. The possible paths of decision are presented by the Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1. Path of possible choices in a preliminary consideration set

Preliminary consideration set

Qualitative Mixed method design Quantitative Secondary

data,
archives etc.

Qualitative multi-
Interviews
method design

Case studies Ethnography

Source: own elaboration.

3
In the current publications in the eld, whenever separate research including only interviews is
presented, it is described mainly as explorative, or as a part of case-study approach.
4
The terms multi-method and mixed-method designs is being used interchangeably in lit-
erature; however, some authors distinguish them for better understanding of each concept (Ven-
katesh et al., 2013). I will use the term multi-method to name the set of one type of methods, e.g.
only qualitative or only quantitative, while the term mixed-method include both types of methods:
qualitative and quantitative.

24
 3.2. Main characteristics of interviews as a qualitative method

KEY POINTS
After the problem denition, the researchers task is to consider a wide variety
of methodological designs to choose the one which ts problem the best.
If a qualitative method is considered, one may consider qualitative interviews
as a separate method, the only method in the case study method, a variety of
mixed-method designs, or multi-method designs. The aim is to establish the
preliminary consideration set of methods and underlying rationale.

3.2. Main characteristics of interviews as a qualitative

method
Taking into account that readers of this handbook are probably most familiar
with quantitative methods and that the quantitative methods are the most
widespread in academic environment in management and economics eld of
studying, but also the tradition in literature on qualitative methods, as well as
the denition of qualitative methods given at the beginning of the chapter,
the qualitative methods are best characterized by opposition to quantitative
methods. Various authors underline different aspects in this comparison
(T. W. Lee, 1999), but jointly and independently of the approach, they create
the consistent pattern. The main differences between the qualitative and
quantitative approaches and then differences between interviews in both
approaches are presented in Tables 3.1. and 3.2. They are discussed and
completed thoroughly in further two sections in which the strengths and
limitations of qualitative approach as a whole and interviews in particular are
discussed as well as in next chapters of this book regarding the subsequent
stages of the research process.
I presented the comparison of qualitative methods with quantitative methods
as a whole; nevertheless the researcher should also remember that some specic
quantitative methods may be relevant to the project problem as well. For
example, Robert Yin (2003) notices that experimental and quasi experimental
methods may achieve similar research aims to some extent because they are
designed to explain a phenomenon (identify its causes and answer questions
such as how and why) and under some circumstances they may include
small samples. However, experimental and quasi-experimental procedures of
data collection and analysis share characteristics of quantitative methods such
as the rigid procedure of data collection, structured questionnaire with mostly
closed questions, analysis based on statistical inferences, and as a consequence
the opportunities of statistical generalization and nally, presenting numbers,
percentages and tables and results of statistical analysis. However, differently
than qualitative and quantitative methods they require behavioral control over

25
 Method choice

events. Another quantitative method relevant to establish complex relationships

within results is the structure equation modeling.

Table 3.1. Main characteristics of qualitative and quantitative methods

Qualitative methods Quantitative methods

Research Need for understanding and Exploration, description or ex-
problem identication of meaningful planation by:
parts of phenomena with the - assessment of a scale of
aim of exploration, description a phenomena; focus on
or explanation plus ideas gener- predicting outcomes
ating, see also further sections - explanation by searching of
causes and effects between
a small number of variables
Research How/which way? Why/what for? Who? What? Where? How
questions many? How often? How much?
Level of Low High
standardization General rules as a basis Precisely dened uniform pro-
Some rules for systematization cedures
Number Relatively small samples: several Relatively large samples: 200-
of research units a dozen or so interviews (20- 1000 units of analysis
50 persons) or one to several
cases
Method Non-probability sampling, main- Random
of selection ly purposive
Data collection Flexibility in research procedure; Rigidity, standardization of all
focus on understanding and the actions
identication of meaningful
parts of phenomena
Data analysis Looking for repetitive patterns Statistical analyses
of results, analysis of meaning,
analysis of similarities and differ-
ences , rarely counting of an-
swers and statistics, sometimes
counting what is countable
Generalization Analytical or possibility of trans- Statistical, based on statistical
ferability of results (generaliza- representativeness of sample
tion to theory) Generalization to general popu-
lation
Reporting Description, gures, tables, rare- Numbers, percentages and
ly numbers of answers tables, results of statistics

Source: Own elaboration, based on: Buchanan (2012), Cassell & Symon (2012), T. W. Lee
(1999), Malhotra & Birks (2007), Noga-Bogomilski (2007), Saunders (2012), Yin (2003),
Zaborek (2009a).

Table 3.2. presents the comparison of more specic issues related with
interviewing in qualitative and quantitative approaches.
26
 3.2. Main characteristics of interviews as a qualitativemethod

Table 3.2. Main characteristics of interviews as the qualitative method as

compared with characteristics of quantitative methods

Qualitative interviewing Quantitative interviewing

Level of Two levels of interaction between Three levels of interaction
interaction the researcher and participant(s): between the researcher
complete (face-to-face) or limited (or his representative) and
(via phone, via Internet) respondent from complete
by limited to lack of
interactions
Interviewee Called participant or in some Called respondent
types of case studies informant
The person that Researcher, interviewer, moderator Interviewer being
conducts the in case of group interviews; representative of researcher,
research researcher itself, experienced or rarely researcher itself
well-trained representative of
researcher
Level of Non-standardized Standardization of all the
standardization Flexible, but documented, structure actions including recruitment,
at all the stages of the process place of eldwork and the
tool
Tool Topic guide with different levels of Structured questionnaire
generality: general including main including uniform content,
topics or detailed including specic order and way of questioning
question and procedures
Questions Mostly open questions Mostly closed questions
Tool application Flexible, tted to the research Precise uniform instructions
objectives, the participants and that enable to conduct the
ow of the talk interview according the same
Question included in a topic guide procedures
should not be read by interviewer
The huge role of active listening,
going beyond guidelines in a topic
guide
Process of It is based mostly on transcripts Based on statistical inferences
analysis completed by eld notes
The process of analysis is directed
by epistemological approach,
with template analysis, pattern
matching, grounded theory as
some of examples
Generic approach to analysis
include coding
The interviewer To achieve answers to research To gather respondents
goal objectives; To understand and answers and conduct the
identify the meaningful parts of interview according to
phenomena the same precise uniform
procedures
Reporting Compare Table 3.1. Description Compare Table 3.1.
may include quotations

Source: Own elaboration, based on: Maison (2010), Malhotra & Birks (2007), Noga-
Bogomilski (2007), Stewart et al. (2007).
27
 Method choice

To conclude, qualitative methods including interviews are worth being applied

whenever problem and research question require qualitative approach. However,
the boarders are not clearly established both types of research may achieve
explorative, descriptive and explanative aims. Good understating of the problem
and typical features of qualitative methods and specic types of interviews, as
far as their benets and limitations (presented in the next sections) should help
to choose the method of interviewing appropriately.

KEY POINTS
After the problem denition, the researcher task is to consider a wide variety
of methodological designs that t problem the best. If a qualitative method
is considered, one may consider qualitative interviews as a separate method,
the only method in the case study method, a variety of mixed-method designs
or multi-method designs. The aim is to establish the preliminary consideration
set of methods and underlying rationale.

For further reading about main characteristics of qualitative
approach in organization and management research, one may see
publication of Thomas Lee (1999), Evert Gummesson (2000), and
the dictionary edited by Richard Thorpe and Robin Holt (2008).

3.3. Advantages of interviews as a qualitative method

As a qualitative method, interviews share some of the benets of this
methodological approach. The key advantages of qualitative methods including
interviews one may attribute to two main categories that are presented by the
Figure 3.2. Functional advantages include the unique contribution of qualitative
research into theory testing and development. Procedural advantages contain
the features that are the mean to achieve research goals such as appropriate
understanding of the phenomena or preparing the list of statements for the
questionnaire. Some further advantages refer to concrete methods and will be
presented in further sections.
Although some opponents may perceive the open frame and flexibility
as a risky feature of qualitative approach, the open frame is being perceived
also as the biggest advantage as it enables to go beyond the knowledge that
the researcher already has, or that is difcult to be captured with structured
questions. Nevertheless, exibility at different stages of the research project
should be controlled, justied and in case of gross changes in the research design
well documented (the topic of exibility will come back in further chapters).
The controlled open frame enables to capture the holistic dimension of the
phenomena and understand its essential characteristics. An example one
may nd in Frame 3.1.
28
 3.3. Advantages of interviews as a qualitative method

Figure 3.2. Advantages of qualitative methods including interviews as

a method applied independently, or in combination with other methods
(qualitative or quantitative)
ADVANTAGES OF QUALITATIVE METHODS

FUNCTIONS

The holistic dimension: comprehensive Examining complex phenomena: description of what is

and complete picture of the phenomena difcult to capture with structured questions

Insight & understanding of peoples

Subconscious, implicit, difcult to verbalize, sensitive
perspectives, mechanisms and outcomes
reasons, beliefs and emotions, styles, values, behaviors
of the phenomena

Exploration of unknown phenomena

Development of a new theory Testing and completing of an existing theory

Natural, real-life context

PROCEDURES

Controlled open frame Application of supportive techniques that enable to understand better
and flexibility people beliefs, emotions and behaviors, explain discrepancies

For every type of participant, including Usage of everyday language,

children, low-educated, professionals denition of notions

Interviews: More convenient, accessible and economical

compared to other qualitative methods, e.g. participant observation

Source: Own elaboration, based on: Flyvbjerg (2006); Malhotra & Birks (2007).

Frame 3.1. Example of multi-method approach including qualitative

interviews
The aim of June Worley and Toni Dolin exploratory research was
to examine the role of management support and communication in
facilitating lean manufacturing implementation. They conducted a case
study with the usage of a variety of qualitative methods such as participant
observation and structured and unstructured interviews in an electronics
manufacturing company in the USA. Non-supervisory employees and
executive or managerial personnel participated in the structured interviews.
In unstructured interviews and observations took part all the executives
and managers, majority of department leads and minority of production
employees. They represented various departments of the rm. Interviews
lasted approximately one hour and were transcribed for analysis.

29
 Method choice

The exible frame may lead also to unexpected results, what in turn may
enable to develop a new theory or new elements of an existing theory
(Flyvbjerg, 2013; Malhotra & Birks, 2007), with this second situation being more
common in academic literature. For instance, David Douglas (2006) investigated
complexity of management processes (see Frame 6.2. in Chapter 6 about
data analysis for detailed description of this study). In turn, in the research of
Abimbola and Kocak (2007) theoretical aim was to develop a resource-based
view model by determining a key role of some factors (brand, organization
identity and reputation) in small and medium-size enterprises (see Frame 4.4. in
Chapter 4 for detailed description of this study).
Qualitative research including interviews may also deliver deep insight
into people perspectives and beliefs, and if necessary for research aims
emotions and mainly when complemented by other methods such as
observation in their behaviors. Researcher may observe people behaviors
and their non-verbal communication (gestures, smiles, etc.) and may use many
techniques that will help to, with techniques of questioning, active listening
and wide range of supporting and projective techniques as examples (I will
develop this topic in a chapter about topic guide). For example, Erna Szabo
(2006) conducted qualitative individual interviews with middle managers in ve
European countries to understand the meaning, performance and context of
participation in managerial decision making (see also Frame 4.2. in Chapter 4
for more detailed description). Moreover, the perspective of one group of
participants may be well completed with perspectives of other parties
(as in example of Douglass study in the previous paragraph).
Finally, during qualitative interviews, the participants use their own
language to describe a given phenomena (opinion, emotion, behavior) and
also a researcher may ask additional questions that will help him or her to
understand how people dene notions, what are differences between notions.
It is helpful to understand the participants point of view or the issue under
consideration but also it becomes very useful when one plans a questionnaire.
Slight differences in the understanding of notions (e.g. their evaluative meaning)
may lead to a wide range of different reactions toward the statements in the
questionnaire. Thus, qualitative research before the quantitative one may help
to avoid an additional source of error and false understanding of the
phenomena in quantitative research.
Last but not least, thanks to the exible structure of interviewing, it is possible
to conduct the research with people who may have difficulties in completing
questionnaires, including children and low educated persons or people who may
have opinions too complex to capture with closed questions as it happens
in case of professionals in many organizational studies. An example one may
nd in research of Calum Middleton, Suzanne Field and David Power (2007)
who investigated the perception of opportunities to undertake investments in

30
 3.4. Limitations, myths about limitations and dealing with them

Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) among institutional investors (see Frame 4.1.
in Chapter 4 for more detailed description).
In Chapter 5 about topic guides more details about functions and procedural
advantages of various interviews will be discussed.

KEY POINTS
Qualitative interviews as a qualitative method give some theoretical
advantages both in building, development and testing theories. They are
particularly valuable whenever a researcher is going to catch the holistic
picture of the phenomenon, to understand complex phenomena, or to
describe or understand issues difcult to capture with structured questions.

For further reading about functions of the qualitative approach
and chosen methods, one may see publications on a given
method in further sections. They mostly describe both advantages
of a qualitative method as a whole and advantages of particular
methods.

3.4. Limitations, myths about limitations and dealing

with them
The most important but also obvious limitation in applying qualitative
research is related with areas of its application. They are not the universal
solution, they are more appropriate in case of some research questions, but not
the others (e.g. they do not enable to predict the frequency of phenomena in
population).
Qualitative researchers both representing management and organization
research and social sciences often describe criticism that they met in practice
in academic environment from quantitative researchers. The objections include
mostly the area in which the qualitative research may deviate most explicitly
from quantitative research including different assumptions, quality of
research (credibility, validity and reliability), generalization, subjectivity
and other pragmatic issues. However, the current approach toward
qualitative methods claims that most of the differences are rather a myth,
misconception, or conventional stereotypical beliefs than the description
of real differences between two approaches, or at least are too simplifying
(Buchanan, 2012; Flyvbjerg, 2006; T. W. Lee, 1999). The reservations and some
ways of dealing with them are summarized by Figure 3.3. and are discussed in
next paragraphs. Some other limitations refer to concrete methods and will be
presented in further sections.

31
 Method choice

Figure 3.3. Limitations of qualitative research

LIMITATIONS HOW TO DEAL WITH THEM

Not following positivist, Not uniform approach to qualitative research including neo-positivist /
quantitative approach realism approach

Doubts about qualitity of

research in quantitative Lack of uniform specic criteria of evaluation
terms Following positivist criteria

Results cant be generalized

statisitcally Findings can be generalized analythically

Not always accepted among

The growing interest, knowledge and publications on qualitative research
scholars of economics
(see Chapter 1)
and management as a valid
Good understanding of requirements and following good practices
research method

Difculties in consice Following good practices in published papers (see Chapter 6)

reporting

Appropriate preparatory stage

Usage of computer-aided qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS) to organize
Time consuming analysis sources and data
and interpretation Change of the reserach problem and method if someone is not ready for time
requiring tasks

Source: Own elaboration.

Different assumptions. Creswells model summarized here based on

Thomas Lee publication (T. W. Lee, 1999) describes ve main differences between
quantitative and qualitative research. Regarding ontological differences, among
quantitative researchers there is a typical assumption about existence of objective
reality. Qualitative researchers rather assume coexistence of multiple subjective
realities. Considering an epistemological distinction, quantitative research is
considered as independent from the phenomena under study, whilst qualitative
researchers assume the need for interaction with the phenomena. An axiological
dissimilarity refers to the beliefs about inuence of researchers values: with the
claim of being unbiased and value-free in case of quantitative methods, and
a value-laden and biased approach in case of qualitative research. A rhetorical
difference regards the more impersonal, formal and rule-based language style
of quantitative researchers and more personalized, informal and context-based
way of reporting in case of qualitative researchers. A methodological assumption
includes the deductive (testing theory), context-free and limited causal inferences
in quantitative methods and inductive inferences (theory based on data), complex
relationships and context-specic qualitative methods. However, Lee who reviews
this model underlines that beliefs about inductive, subjective, non-positivist, only
theory-generating process in qualitative interviewing are too simplistic and rather
stereotypic.
32
 3.4. Limitations, myths about limitations and dealing with them

First, qualitative research is not a uniform methodology. One may distinguish

at least two main traditions (Lee, Collier & Cullen, 2007; Malhotra & Birks, 2007):
positivist tradition that dominates in the USA and non-positivist tradition
that is more wide-spread in UK. The rst is represented among others by Yin
(2009), the author of one of the leading books about case-study research.5 The
other is presented in publications by Lee (e.g., Lee, Collier & Cullen, 2007) in
a eld of organizational research or by Flyvbjerg in more general eld of social
sciences. A short summary of these two approaches one may nd in Table 3.3.
that gather descriptions present in works by many authors (e.g., Duberley,
Johnson, & Cassell, 2012; Malhotra & Birks, 2007; Perry, 1998). However, even
this simplistic categorization does not exhaust the variability of approaches. For
instance, Joanne Duberley, Phil Johnson and Catherine Cassell (2012) mention
eight different approaches having some shared and some different characteristics
with positivism, qualitative neo-positivism, interpretivism, critical theory and
others (rarely mentioned in publications by other authors on qualitative research
in management and economics) such as post-modernism and poststructuralism,
postcolonialism and indigenous epistemologies, with most of them consisting of
a variety of philosophical approaches. Thus, Creswells model is far too simplistic.
Specically, neo-positivist approach and realism deny the assumption about only
deductive approach to theory development (theory testing) while they share the
belief about objective status of reality and commensurability. Moreover, mix of
induction and deduction in current approach to qualitative research is preferred,
except followers of classic ground theory (see Chapter 6).
Qualitative researchers counteract to the criticism that qualitative research is
more susceptible to biases related with subjectivity of researcher including the
tendency to conrm the researchers preexisting views, assumptions, concepts
and hypothesis (Flyvbjerg, 2006). This way of thinking is correct in the sense
that philosophers, sociologists and psychologist argue that subjectivity is
a fundamental human characteristic. However, all the methods are susceptible
for researchers subjectivism. For example, also in case of quantitative methods
a researcher to some point arbitrarily chooses the method of sampling, variables,
the way of their operationalization and structure of the questionnaire what may
become the source of biases. Bent Flyvbjerg (2004) argues that (a) verication
bias may be reduced, (b) qualitative methods have its own rigor although it
is different than in quantitative methodology, (c) there is more tendency to
falsication than verication of pre-existing concepts and theories, (d) the close
contact with reality in qualitative methods requires continuous verication of pre-
existing views. Thus, in case of any method the great role of self-consciousness

5
Buchanan (2012) notice that this book is well welcome by reviewers of Ph.D. thesis, while Lee,
Collier & Cullen (2009) emphasize that this approach denes a narrow range of case study applica-
tions at least in accounting, management and organizational disciplines although they appreciate
his merits for case study development.

33
 Method choice

and experience of the researcher as far as proper research design and following
best practices may help to reduce at least some of the unwanted biases.

Table 3.3. Two main traditions in qualitative research

Non-positivist
(wide range of philosophical
and epistemological approaches:
phenomenological, interpretative, critical,
constructivist, grounded theory)
Neo-positivist, realism
Inductive approach
Theory building
Generating theory based on data
Reality is subjective and relative (critical
theory, constructivism) or objective
(realism)
Research on non-observable and
observable phenomena
Results possible to evaluate
commensurable (critical theory, realism) or
difcult to evaluate incommensurable
(constructivism)
Qualitative research
o Origin in psychology, sociology and
anthropology
o Aim: exploration and going in-depth
o Less structured, analysis taking place
during a group
o Emphasis on understanding
More idiographic
Phenomenological richness
Threats:
More difcult comparisons between
cases due to different ow of
interviews
The risk of discovering existing
theories (Perry, 1998, p. 790)
British tradition of qualitative research
Source: own elaboration.
Positivist
Deductive approach
Theory testing
To conrm, challenge, or extend the
existing theory
Reality is objective; Fixed rules underlie
the social and natural phenomena; facts
and reliable information are the basis for
science
Research on non-observable and
observable phenomena
Commensurability
Quantitative methodology as a crucial
method of gathering data
Qualitative research
o Origin in quantitative research
o Aim: Looking for objective truth,
establishing facts, preliminary to
quantitative research
o More structured procedure
o Emphasis on external validation
More nomothetic, developing normative
decision models
Analytical reduction
Threats:
The risk of biases toward existing
theory and hypothesis
USA tradition of qualitative research

Quality of qualitative research. There is a wide discussion in literature how

to evaluate a quality of qualitative research. Some criteria are considered as
shared by both type of research qualitative and quantitative (Symon & Cassell,
2012a) such as:
34
 3.4. Limitations, myths about limitations and dealing with them

application of criteria for good practices in any scientific project such

as embedding the current research in an understanding of previous
research (Symon & Cassell, 2012a, p. 220),
convincing justification of method choice (Symon & Cassell, 2012a),
presentation of all the stages of the process in the report in a credible
way (Symon & Cassell, 2012a) and other indications of credibility (Thorpe &
Holt, 2008),
following a chosen philosophical by (Duberley et al., 2012):
determining own philosophical approach that inuence the research
inquiry,
the congruence of philosophical approach, methodology, methods of
data collection and analysis,
strategies of research evaluation, which are in accordance with the
enquiry,
determining epistemological and ontological assumptions for strategies
of analysis.
In the positivist or neo-positivist approach, researchers share also common
criteria such as objectivity, validity (construct validity, internal validity,
external validity) and reliability. Figure 3.4. presents how to reach positivist
criteria of quality in qualitative methods such as case studies indicated by Yin
(2009).6 Researchers of non-positivist approaches try to follow these criteria to
be in line with dominant positivist perspective; however, many authors conclude
that they are not always applicable. The consistent set of criteria is still lacking,
or if they exist they are rarely applied or are under elaboration (Symon & Cassell,
2012a). Any time, to convince others about good quality of work, the
researcher should present and check the set of criteria. Taking into account
the positivist bias in academic environment, to reduce criticism, in student
work it is best to apply positivist criteria.
Moreover, among criteria of good qualitative research, Thorpe and Holt
(2008), p. 40, indicate: presentation of research process that enables the
reader to follow it, adequate access, contribution, a dynamic research
process, the satisfactory personal qualities of the researcher. Dominika
Maison (2010) in case of marketing qualitative research adds that good analysis
should be systematic, focused on research objectives and in-depth, what means
including both description and interpretation.

6
Some authors use different denitions of external and internal validation. For instance, internal
generalization may mean that results revealed in interviewing situation represent their typical words
and behaviors in other situations (Flick, 2007) and internal validity may mean that two persons
make the same conclusions based on data (Maison, 2010), while external validation may mean that
conclusions cant give false vision of reality (Maison, 2010).

35
 Method choice

Figure 3.4. Tactics of reaching validity and reliability in case study research
according to Yin (2009)

multiple sources of evidence

Construct usage of appropriate concepts and
establishment of chain of evidence
validiy operational measures
review of draft report by informants

establishing a causal relationship in conducting analytical strategies such as pattern

Internal explanatory and causal research or matching, explanation building, logic model
validity excluding the rival infrecens in case of addressing rival explanations (see Chapter 5)
inferences based on unobservable events

determining the transferaiblity of ndings usage of theory in single-case studies

External usage of replication logic in multiple case
to other settings via analytic generalization
validity studies (see Chapter 3)
to the broader theory (next subsection)

usage of case study protocol (see Chapter 4)

achieving the same results and conclusions
Reliability developement of database (see Chapter 5
via following the same procedures
data assambly)

Source: based on Yin (2009).

Generalization. Some opponents of qualitative approach underline the lack

of generalizability of qualitative ndings. Qualitative researchers call it a myth
(Buchanan, 2012) or misconception (Flyvbjerg, 2006). The problem is that in
conventional wisdom, generalization is identied with statistical generalization
(formal generalization in terms of Flyvbjerg (2006)). As mentioned in the rst
section of this chapter, indeed statistical generalization (involving statistical
analysis) is not allowed. It results from non-randomized sampling, small
numbers of units of analysis and flexible way of data collection. However,
another type of generalization refers to many qualitative studies. It is called
analytical generalization (analytical renement in terms of Buchanan (2012),
transferability of ndings, theoretical or logic generalization in terms of
Saunders (2012)). This type of generalization means that empirical findings
may be generalized to theory, what enables to draw conclusions of what
may happen in other cases, situations or settings (Buchanan, 2012; Kvale,
1996; Yin, 2003). Yin (2009) even says that previously developed theory is used
as a template, with which to compare the empirical results of the case study
(p. 36). In turn Perry (1998) claims that if particular results are generalized
to theory, that means that they provide some evidence that supports a theory
but not necessarily proves it denitely (p. 790). Analytic generalization requires
explicit course of reasoning and presentation of supporting evidences,
which may help the reader of the report judge the correctness of generalization.
36
 3.4. Limitations, myths about limitations and dealing with them

The inferences are stronger when one may notice the repeated pattern of results
in projects involving more than one unit of analysis (Maison, 2010; Yin, 2009).
The key characteristics of two main types of generalizations are summarized in
Figure 3.5. 7 If one understands the idea of analytical generalization, one may
took it as the characteristic, but not weakness of qualitative research.

Figure 3.5. Two main types of generalization

Analytical (theoretical, logical)

Statistical generlization generalization/analytical/refinement
transferability of findings

Based on the sample (that is chosen randomly from
the given population) via statistical analysis, one may
formulate inferences about population (with some
probability). This type of reasoning is formal
and explicit. (Kvale, 1996)
Results are not generalized to a population
but to theoretical proposition. In this way, one have
indications what may happen in other settings.
It requires supporting evidences and explicit
course of reasoning

Quantitative research Qualitative research

Source: own elaboration, based on propositions of many authors.

Time requirements. One must admit that qualitative research leaves

a researcher with a huge amount of data as to which analysis is time-consuming.
As Bent Flyvbjerg (2004) argues, the complexity of data in case of qualitative
methods is often related with diversity of real life. In his opinion complexity of
results shows that the issue is highly problematic and thus, researcher should
focus on description of all discovered nuances than trial of its simplifying and
summarizing in brief. Steiner Kvale (2004) raised another argument. According
to him, whenever the researcher notices the problem with analysis of 1000
pages of transcripts of qualitative data after the eldwork, it means that the
researcher conducted the research process not correctly, because similarly
as in case of quantitative methods, the method of analysis should be planned
before the data are gathered. First, the proper research problem and questions
indicate the scope of answers and direct the process of analysis. Second, the
way the research scheme is planned indicates the ways of further analysis. If not
enough data for particular analysis are available, some analysis cant be done.

7
In literature one may nd more types of generalizations that are applicable to some qualitative re-
search (internal generalization, Flick, 2006; moderatum generalization and isomorphic learning, Bu-
chanan, 2012) or which are typical for everyday life functioning (naturalistic generalization, Kvale,
1996, Buchanan, 2012). Flyvbjerg (2006) presents also the invaluable contribution of inferences
based on knowledge on single cases in human development.

37
 Method choice

If too many data are gathered (too big sample, too many variables), some of
them may be unnecessary or lost in the process of analysis, implying wasting
time and money and inappropriate choice of a research method or research
scheme (e.g. less interviews could have been conducted to reach the aim or
other techniques could have been applied). Moreover, as Steiner Kvale (2004)
claims, to some extent analysis and interpretation should be included into the
process of gathering data. It means that researcher should think about research
questions and possible hypothesis all the time and verify possible interpretations
by gathering additional data (e.g. asking additional questions leading to check
the adequacy of interpretation) or conducting the research in the way, that
analysis will be coherent, consistent and creative (Kvale, 1996, p. 182).
Furthermore, some general rules of analysis are available, that may be helpful
in analysis of data and will be described in the section about analysis process.
More advanced proposition is presented by Yin (2009) who advocates for the
usage of pattern matching analytic approach as a helpful tool to simplify the
complexity of data (see Chapter 6, section 6.2.).
Anyway, indeed the process of analysis of qualitative results is very demanding,
especially in case of academic research and Ph.D. research in particular (Zaborek,
2009a) and even in case of properly dened research designs, even for the
experienced researcher and in case of computer assistance. If there is only one
researcher who conducts the whole process from the beginning to the end,
as it happens in many Ph.D. research, the workload of the researcher is much
bigger than in case of quantitative methods (when the eldwork is quicker, may
be cheaply outsourced to the hired assistants as far as data entering, and the
process of analysis is quicker due to application of highly developed statistical
techniques that are supported by computer packages) (Zaborek, 2009a).
In this and previous section I presented the pros and cons for qualitative
research with specic reference to advantages and limitations for Ph.D. thesis in
economics and management. They clearly state that qualitative methods are more
appropriate for some research questions, although the boundaries are not always
clear. The proper understanding of limitations may help to design the research
properly and to deal against criticism of reviewers. The main general rules of
designing the research scheme I will present in further chapters. However, if the
researcher is not ready for such an effortful task as qualitative research process or
for assertive dealing with reviewers comments, it is better to nd or reformulate
research problems and research questions to conduct quantitative research that is
less demanding and less controversial in academic environment.

KEY POINTS
The qualitative research including interviews is not the universal solution: they are
not appropriate method whenever the statistical inferences about populations are
required. Other limitations include the area in which the qualitative research may

38
 3.5. Interviews in a mixed-method design

deviate most explicitly from quantitative research, but arguments against this one
may nd in literature. Dealing with critics and with high time-requirements are
a challenge for any researchers, both beginners and experienced ones; however,
one may deal with them via good quality of research, arguments from literature
and appropriate planning including analytic strategies. Good understanding of
limitations among recipients of the nal report and addressing them in a student
paper or thesis may increase the probability of success.

For further reading about dealing with limitations of qualitative
methods in the eld of management and organization one may see
many publications such as Buchanan (2012), B. Lee, Collier, & Cullen
(2007), T. W. Lee (1999), Symon & Cassell (2012a), Yin (2003).

3.5. Interviews in a mixed-method design

Out of four possibilities the mixed-method design including usage of both
qualitative and quantitative methods is the most approved in an academic research
in the eld. As noticed by Venkatesh et al. (2013), there is a need for wider usage of
mixed-method approach in information system eld. In this set, qualitative methods
including interviews may play four different roles (Creswell and Clark, 2007 in
Venkatesh et al., 2013; for slightly different typology one may see Lee, 1999):
1) triangulation: the application of two methods serves the better problem
understanding,
2) embedded: in a overall study dominates one type of method (either quantitative
or qualitative) and data gathered by other method constitute only small
component designed to answer only some part of research questions,
3) explanatory: qualitative research serve to explain or better understand the
ndings of preceding quantitative research,
4) exploratory: qualitative research is followed by a quantitative research; the
former serves to recognize the phenomena, whereas the latter is designed
to test and explain the nature of relationships.
To understand better the joint usage of methods, Venkatesh et al. (2013)
distinguished seven specic purposes of the mixed-method approach:
complementarity, completeness of a phenomenon picture, development
of research questions or hypothesis, expansion upon the understanding
based on one of the method, corroboration/confirmation of the credibility
of inferences, compensation for weakness of a one approach, and diversity
of perspectives on a given phenomenon. As the main advantage of the mixed
method approach they emphasized the development of deep understanding
of phenomena of interest. Among strengths they mention also: answering
exploratory and conrmatory research aims, stronger inferences than derived
only from one type of method, contradictory or complementary conclusions
39
 Method choice

may encourage more thorough examination of the theoretical framework and

methodological assumptions. In the literature review of research on information
systems in 20012007 involving mixed-method designs, those authors also
found out the domination of individual interviews and positivist approach over
group interviews and other methods, and interpretive approach.
An example of implementation of mixed-method approach one may nd in
Frame 3.2.

Frame 3.2. Example of mixed method approach including exploratory-

explanatory qualitative interviews
Yuliya Strizhakova, Robin Coulter and Linda Price (2008) conducted
a cross-cultural research in the United States, Ukraine, Romania and
Russia. Their aim was to test hypotheses on the mediating role of the
belief in global citizenship thanks to global brands in inuence of
consumer ethnocentrism and cultural openness on branded product
importance. In the rst stage, qualitative research was involved to
investigate the concept of belief in global citizenship across countries
under consideration and to develop measures of this independent
variable and branded product importance as dependent variable.
Four men and four women in youths segment (2029 years old) took
part in individual interviews. Research of duration between 45 and
70 minutes was carried out at participants home. All the interviews
were audiotaped, translated and transcribed for the further analysis.
Findings complemented with literature examination resulted in
a decision about the questionnaire content and a preliminary version
of the questionnaire was developed. In the main part of the research
authors conducted survey with a convenience sample of 1261
students in four countries in on-line or paper-and-pencil version. While
presenting results of quantitative research, researchers described
qualitative data that supported the obtained pattern of differences
between countries.

KEY POINTS
While considering the mixed-method design, the researcher should decide
what function of the qualitative research including interviewing is intended
(triangulation, embedded, explanatory, exploratory) and the overall purpose of
such a mixed study, e.g., complementarities, completeness of a phenomenon
picture, development of research questions or hypothesis, what will be very
helpful in the development of topic guide and eldwork.

40
 3.6. Interviews in multi-method approaches

For further study about mixed method designs, examples of
its implementation in information systems and guidelines for
application, one may read publication of Venkatesh, Brown, and
Bala (2013).

3.6. Interviews in multi-method approaches

Both case study method and ethnographic approaches are presented among
core methods in organizational setting (Cassell & Symon, 2012); however, in
journal publications in the eld one may nd rather case studies than ethnography
(although ethnography may be implemented in many organizational contexts
(Yanow et al., 2012). Both case study and ethnography may be based on
one method (e.g. interviews in case study (Buchanan, 2012; Perry, 1998) or
observation in ethnography (Malhotra & Birks, 2007), or include multi-method
designs (e.g., Yin, 2009 or Yanov et al., 2012).
Neither case study method nor ethnography has a uniform denition (Thorpe
& Holt, 2008). Mostly, the denition depends on a given research context (e.g.,
phenomenological approach or article goal). For instance, in Yins (2009) denition
the case study is an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon
in depth within its real-life context especially when the boundaries between
phenomenon and context are not clearly evident (p. 15), what is completed by
second part of denition about (a) coping with situation in which more variables
are under consideration than data points, (b) relying on multiple sources of data
which need to be triangulated, and (c) drawing advantages from prior development
of theoretical propositions to guide data collection and analysis (p. 16). In the
article about case studies for Ph.D. thesis in marketing, Perry (1998) denes case
study research methodology as based on interviews that is used in a postgraduates
thesis involving body of knowledge (Perry, 1998, p. 786) and accepts the scope of
applications presented in the rst part of Yins denition. However, some authors
(Buchanan, 2012; B. Lee et al., 2007) nd Yins denition as far too narrow and not
including many case studies. Slightly different denition than this of Yin is presented
by Jean Hartley (2004). According to her case study research consists of a detailed
investigation, often with data collected over a period of time, of phenomena, within
their context. The aim is to provide an analysis of context and processes which
illuminate the theoretical issues being studied (p. 323). In turn, Naresh Malhotra
and David Birks (2007) by case study in the market research context understand
a detailed study based upon the observation of the intrinsic details of individuals,
groups of individuals and organizations (p. 159). Thus, their denition underlines
different aspects of the method under consideration.
Similarly, denitions of ethnography also refer to many different aspects
of this method. Among repeating features are methods of data gathering,

41
 Method choice

people or their behaviors as unit of analysis and process of meaning making.

Dvora Yanow et al. (2012) who is implementing ethnography in organizational
setting denes it as a research process involving eldwork methods engaging
the extraordinary-in-the-ordinary with a particular sensibility towards often
more hidden or concealed meaning making processes, reported in a particular
form of writing that places both author and reader at the scene, in the thick
of things, through actor-centered and context-sensitive analysis and theorizing
grounded in layered data (p. 332). Peter Brewer (2004) also in organizational
context describes ethnography as a style of research that is the study of people
in natural settings or elds by means of methods which capture their social
meanings and ordinary activities, involving the researcher participating directly
in the setting, if not also the activities, in order to collect data in a systematic
manner but without meaning being imposed on them externally (p. 312). The
narrower denition is proposed by Naresh Malhotra and David Birks (2007) who
dene ethnography as a research approach based upon the observation of the
customs, habits and differences between people in everyday life (p. 161) in the
context of marketing research.
The main characteristics of case study and ethnography are presented in Table
3.4 with omitting different origin of both methods. As one may see, the list of
sources in both techniques is rather similar. In both methods interviews are one
of the implemented methods of gathering data. However, in the case study
method interviews are considered as the leading method of gathering data or even
the only implemented method, while core method of ethnography is observation.
Moreover, case study may also be part of the mixed-method design by including
some quantitative elements (despite that case studies are considered as mainly
qualitative approach) (Thorpe & Holt, 2008). Also both of multi-method inquiries
are devoted to examining the phenomena in its natural setting.
One of key differences lies in a subject of analysis. In the case study method
a phenomenon is the subject of analysis and probably any issue can be turned
into a case (Thorpe & Holt, 2008, p. 38) including industry, company within
industry, one of departments, any process or individuals, whereas in ethnography
the social world and its meaning for people is the main issue under consideration.
Nevertheless, some units of analysis may be similar, e.g., organizational culture,
values. There are also differences in epistemological approach, a way of analysis and
reporting. In the case study method, one may nd both deductive and inductive
approaches to theory building, while in ethnography theory is driven from data.
Among variety of analytical strategies to case study, one may nd both inductive
and deductive strategies tending to dene the real state of phenomena and
more subjective as well, while in ethnography context sensitive and actor centered
approach is dominant. Finally, in the case study method, results are reported in
the more objective way (e.g., within neo-positivist or realistic approach), whereas
more subjective approach in ethnography is applied. Thus, these inquiries overlap
to some extent without sharp boundaries between them in some aspects.
42
 3.6. Interviews in multi-method approaches

Table 3.4. Characteristics of multi-method inquiries involving interviews

Case study
Design Multi-method (one method/source
or diversity of one type methods,
e.g. only qualitative) or mixed
method (both types of methods, i.e.
qualitative and quantitative) design
Methods/ Interviews (both individual and
sources focus groups), documents, archival
records, direct observation,
participant observation,* physical
artifacts and others (ethnography,
lms, photographs, videotapes,
street ethnography, psychological
testing, life histories etc.**)
If one method, mainly interviews or
secondary data
Denition A variety of denitions
Subject of Case
analysis
Phenomenon within its real-life
context
Epistemo- Primarily deductive or inductive;
logical examination of particular theoretical (the grounded theory approach)
approach proposition or theory driven from
data
Analysis Wide range of strategies
More or less objective,
intersubjective or subjective
Reporting Mostly objective approach
Source: own elaboration based on: Buchanan (2012), Hartley ( 2004), B. Lee et al.(2007),
Thorpe & Holt (2008), Yanow et al. (2012), Yin (2003).
* More about participant observation one may nd in Brannan and Oultram (2012).
** For longer list of methods (in case study research often called sources) see Buchanan
(2012).
Ethnography
Multiple design (one or diversity of
qualitative methods)
Observation or participant obser-
vation (covert/overt, structured/
unstructured), interview, diaries,
studying of material artifacts such
as organizational documents (an-
nual reports, correspondence,
internal memos, cartoons /jokes/
photos on the ofce doors, bulle-
tin boards, WebPages) or personal
documents (e.g., albums, trash),
registration of behaviors (photo,
video), assisted work
If one method, mainly observation
or participant observation
A variety of denitions
An orientation towards the social
world actors, (inter-) actions,
settings (Yanow et al., 2012,
p. 331), with central focus on
hidden and concealed meaning
and meaning making processes
and understanding peoples
interpretation of events
Social world, social groups, orga-
nization culture and its meaning
for phenomena participants
In the setting of everyday life
Mostly theory is based on data
Actor-centered and context-
sensitive analysis
Mostly both author and reader are
visible
43
 Method choice

Due to prevalent role of the case study method over ethnography in literature
on the qualitative methods in management and economics sciences, this inquiry
is more recommended for papers and MA and Ph.D. thesis in management and
economics sciences. That is why in further part of this chapter I develop only the
implementation of interviews in the case study method.

KEY POINTS
Interviews are implemented in two multi-method inquiries: case-study and
ethnography, with the former being more respected in academic environment
due to its more objective and more positivist bias.

3.7. Interviews in a case study method

Although the case-study as a method is difcult to dene, one may
recognize consistent pattern of successful applications of this multi-method
design (Buchanan, 2012; B. Lee et al., 2007; Thorpe & Holt, 2008; Yin, 2003),
including:
understanding the complexity of interrelationships between many elements
within a given phenomena,
examining:
o phenomena that are little understood (ambiguous, fuzzy, even chaotic),
o dynamic processes,
o phenomena including large number of variables,
o phenomena difcult to predict,
getting a deep understanding of a given phenomena,
situation when quantitative approach is not appropriate,
explanation of mechanisms and outcomes,
situation when answers to research questions are contained in multiple
sources,
investigating a contemporary phenomenon in dept and within its real-life
context when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not
clearly evident (Yin, 2003, p. 13).
In this context only the last feature derived from Yins (2003) denition makes
this methodology clearly distinctive compared to other qualitative methods.
Robert Lee et al. (2007) names the following main advantages of case-studies:
capacity to draw from different sources, several levels of simultaneous analysis
of the dynamic in a single setting and potential for a richer understanding of
organizational phenomena.
The case study is not a uniform method due to both variety of designs
and different understanding of its essential idea between researchers
working in accordance with positivist approach and non-positivist approach.

44
 3.7. Interviews in a case study method

Despite the recently growing number of publications including non-positivist

phenomenological approach, graduate and postgraduate students as well as
beginning researchers are recommended to focus on a positivist approach
(Zaborek, 2007; Zaborek, 2009b). The best publication for beginning academic
researchers is the book Case study research: Design and methods by Robert Yin
(2003). This publication presents positivist approach and many useful detailed
guidelines for adepts in case study methods. However, it is worth having in mind
that this publication is being criticized by non-positivist European academics
including editors of some recent journals publishing qualitative research in
the eld of management and economics sciences (B. Lee et al., 2007). Thus,
some Ph.D. students who consider to publish the research in international
journals should very thoroughly examine the expectations of own academic
environment as far as opportunities for academic publication in international
journals in the area of their research and in journals publishing qualitative
research. Nevertheless, the researcher should chose which phenomenological
paradigm intends to implement in own project and be consistent with it.
One may nd two types of applications of interviews in case study method:
interviews as one of methods/sources of information,
interviews as the only method/source of information.
Reading articles including research with only interviews sometimes it is
difcult to notice the difference between implementation and description of
interviews results as a separate method and interviews as the only method in
case-study research.
The multi-method case study design including interviews may have many different
compositions. For instance, Piotr Zaborek (Zaborek, 2007; Zaborek, 2009b) has
started with observation and analysis of the companys information system. A series
of qualitative interviews was next conducted, followed by internal documentation
analysis, till additional questions that were sent to interviews participants by e-mail.
More examples of multi-method approach involving interviews one may nd in the
section 2.2. about advantages of interviewing as a qualitative method.

Persons who are interested in interviews as part of case studies
may read the publication by David Buchanan (2013) on the
case study method in organization research as an example of
non-positivist approach; then as an example of more positivist
approach the publication by Chad Perry (1998) on the case study
method in Ph.D. thesis in marketing, and the book by Robert Yin
(2003) on case study in social sciences.
To extend the knowledge about ethnography as an approach
applied to research organizations, one may read the text of Dvora
Yanow, Sierk Ybema and Merlijn van Hulst (2012), and as applied
to market research, Hy Mariampolski (2006).

45
 Method choice

In turn, publications by Michael Humphreys and Mark Learmonth
(2012) and Suzanne Tietze (2012) are a valuable source of
information on ethnography and on issues regarding researching
own organization.

3.8. Typology of qualitative interviews

Qualitative interviews vary in number of participants (individual or group,
groups consisted of different number of participants), length, and the range of
applications (wide, universal vs. narrow and specic). They may be conducted
directly (face-to-face) or indirectly (mediated by Internet or phone). They may
differ also in the level of structure and style of interviewing, what some authors
(King, 2004; Malhotra & Birks, 2007) ascribe to differences in philosophical
(positivism vs. non-positivism) and epistemological approach (realism,
phenomenology, constructivism). Figure 3.6. presents typology of interviews
according to methodological features. It will be elaborated in the further part of
this chapter with exception of issues related to structure and style of interviewing
and that I discuss in the chapter on topic guide development.

Figure 3.6. Typology of interviews according to methodological features

Interviews

Individual or group How

How many Structure

How Face to
Where participants in a and style of Online Telephone
long face
group interviewing

Source: own elaboration.

Among core methods implemented in organizational setting one may nd

face-to-face individual interviews and focus groups (Cassell & Symon, 2012).
However, the latter method is reported in publications on the matter more rarely
(e.g., Venkatesh et al., 2013).

3.9. Individual interviews

Individual interviews involve one person who conducts the research
(a researcher or his representative) and one participant. In literature one may
46
 3.9. Individual interviews

meet at least two terms to name a standard type of individual interviews:

having psychological background, wide-spread in market research term of
Individual in-Depth Interviews (IDI) and rooted in sociology term of semi-
structured interviews (as compared to unstructured and structured interviews).
In marketing research setting Naresh Malhotra and David F. Birks (2007) dene
IDI as an unstructured, direct, personal interview in which a single participant
is propped by an experienced interviewer to uncover underlying motivations,
beliefs, attitudes and feelings on a topic (p. 207), while Steiner Kvale (1996)
denes a semi-structured interview as an interview which purpose is to obtain
descriptions of the interviewee with respect to interpreting the meaning of the
described phenomena (p. 6). So both denitions underline the need for in-deep
understanding. It happens also that authors use only the term interviews or
one may meet also specic types of interviews as open-ended interviews or
focus interviews (Yin, 2003). In this book the term of in-depth interview or its
short version (IDI) is used as it highlights the most important idea of qualitative
interviewing thorough understanding of participants perspective or
a phenomena under investigation and is more general (includes interviews
with different level of structure).
The main idea of IDI is to identify and understand the pattern of thoughts,
emotions and behaviors of an individual participant. Thus, this type of
methodology is perceived as best tted for identication of individual decision
processes. As in any qualitative methods, the issues to be discussed during an
interview and techniques of gathering data should be preplanned based on the
research problem and research questions. The preplanned course of interview
is described in a research tool that is called a topic guide (or topic guideline
or research schedule). The topic guide contains issues to be discussed and in
detailed version questions, but also allows for a exibility of the course of
interview (I will come back to this issue in the section about tools). For the
observer, the IDI seems to be like a casual talk, very uent, although asymmetric.
However, questions have their aim and are well suited within preplanned
framework of the research problem, guided research question and research
objectives. As the name In-depth interview indicates, the goal of the researcher
is to go beyond the superfluous and rational opinions and understand the
participant perspective or the phenomena under study. Thus, the interviewer
may ask many additional questions and apply psychological techniques of
active listening to understand properly what a participant has in mind. This
implies that the interviewer should be trained both in psychological process of
interviewing and in research objectives as well (this issue will be discussed in the
section about interviewing). Non-verbal communication may be treated as an
additional source of information facilitating the further talk and becoming data
itself. To assure the uent course of IDI and have reliable source of information
in the process of data analysis, the interviews are usually audio-recorded (and

47
 Method choice

video recorded if non-verbal communication or some behaviors are going to be

analyzed). Next, the recording is transcribed (I will say more about transcripts
in the section about data-analysis) and transcripts become the basis for further
analysis.
The length of IDI may differ from one hour to three hours, with interviews
of 11.5 hour as being involved the most often. The longer interviews are
involved when there is a need to cover more issues, in more explorative research
(when more topics are included due to less known nature of the phenomena)
but also when the level of structure is lower. To make the interviews more
efcient, one may use supporting techniques as a shortcut to faster obtain
some results (see the following chapter on topic guide development).
Application of supporting techniques helps to maintain the interest, attention
and involvement of the participant. It is worth mentioning that also the
duration of interview should be predicted in advance it determines the scope
of topics that may be discussed during research and is part of a contract
with the interviewee.
The summary of the advantages and disadvantages of IDIs is presented in
Table 3.5. Some of them were discussed in the previous chapter. Here only the
pragmatic components will be emphasized. The wide-spread of application of
individual interviews as compared to other qualitative methods of gathering
primary data (e.g., participant observation or even focus group interviews)
may result from perception of this method as more convenient, accessible and
economical (Alvesson & Ashcraft, 2012). Moreover, compared to observation
and participant observation, which is usually covert, interviewing is an overt
method and thus less raises ethical issues (Chell, 2004). Some beginning
researchers perceive individual interviewing method also as easy to implement,
however as one may notice in further sections its proper application
requires specic skills, knowledge, self-awareness that are developing through
experience. Considering disadvantages, when all the costs of planning,
eldwork and analysis are accounted (as it has place in commercial market
research setting), they generate a higher cost per participant as compared
with group interviews. For academic purposes, IDIs may be cheaper than group
interviews due to lower facility requirements, lack of costs of incentives and
most of the work like planning, eldwork, analysis being done by a student.
IDIs are also the leading method in researching professionals (Malhotra & Birks,
2007). Professional topics and professional language are often complex,
thus it requires time to express them fully without limits (during FGIs other
participants may take over the voice).
The main typology of IDIs includes a place of eldwork. Interviews may
be conducted either in the professional facility with technical recording
equipment, in natural setting of participants work or living, or in other accidentally
chosen places. Any solution has some advantages and disadvantages.

48
 3.9. Individual interviews

Table 3.5. Advantages and disadvantages of Individual in-Depth Interviews as

compared to other interviewing methods, mainly focus group interviews

Advantages
Detailed, in-depth data (especially as
compared to group interviews)
more information from one person
more in-depth info from one person
more time for one person (to express
and explain opinions)
opinions are attributed directly to one
person
opinions isolated from inuence of
other discussion members
Observation of non-verbal communication
may increase richness of information
Sense of privacy and condentiality
More difcult criteria of participant
recruitment may be applied (compared
with group interviews)
Easy to be organized
More direct, overt purpose (as compared
with observation and participant
observation, thus less raises ethical issues)
Disadvantages
High inuence of an interviewer
on a ow of an interview
Fast tiredness of the interviewer
Limited possibility of observation
by an external researcher
Less info in the same time (as
compared with group interviews)
Detailed analysis is more time
consuming
Mostly fewer participants (due
to costs and time)
Difcult to analysis and
interpretation due to a hidden
message

Source: own elaboration, based on Maison (2010), Malhotra & Birks (2007).

The new place such as professional facility draws participant away from
his/her work and enables to focus on the topic under study. Also, the researcher
doesnt have to think about technical equipment. If one cant afford renting
such a facility, what is typical in academic student research, one may arrange
such a facility e.g., at a university campus. If one invites the participant to any
facility, it is worth preparing something to drink (water, juice, sometimes tea
or coffee) and some snacks (e.g., cakes) it makes the atmosphere nicer and
may be functional. In a professional facility, the setting supports cooperation
via sitting diagonally (as compared with sitting positions opposite that may be
more confrontational). A market research practice and my academic research
experience shows that if the respondent is invited to any facility, some incentive
(most often money, sometimes another gift) to recompense for the time of
interview and transport are motivating. Doing research outside the workplace
may also enhance the feeling of anonymity (if it is assumed) and thus encourage
openness (Chell, 2004). Some may criticize, however, that the participant is out
of natural context.
Interviews may also be arranged in a place of participants work or living or
in other place, sometimes due to practical reasons, sometimes due to research
objectives. Such a solution has two main advantages. First, in academic research
it is cheaper than renting a facility. Second, it is practical regarding respondents

49
 Method choice

time accessibility. In case of some participants (e.g., higher level managers

and business topic), meeting in a place of work is much more convenient for
a participant. The choice of a given space may have also substantive rationale.
First, in some circumstances the choice of an interview place may help to answer
some research questions. For example, if a researcher wants to recognize the
inuence of ofce space structure on management, the interview with systematical
observation of the ofce space may be very advantageous. Second, a participant
may have access to some documents that may help to answer questions. Eventually,
some followers of humanistic approach consider such natural environment as
safer for participants and thus more favorable for spontaneity. Moreover, meeting
in a place of work may serve better understanding of participant perspective or
phenomena under study.
Finally, it may happen that the researcher will choose any possible place
available (e.g., room at the hotel) or any place convenient for a participant
(e.g., cafeteria) with the latter one as being the most risky.
The main problem in case of interviews outside the professional research
facility is low level of researchers control over situation, while the participant exists
in his/her own natural environment or while the interview takes place in other
setting (e.g., cafeteria). For example, a telephone may ring, other staff members
may disturb, music may be loud. From the psychological point of view, the process
of interviewing (building comfort, structure of talk) may be disrupted in this way.
To conclude this point, it is worth emphasizing that any choice of interviewing
place should be carefully considered with its advantages and disadvantages.
Then it is worth anticipating many uncontrolled issues and informing the
participant of our needs (of a calm silent place with no disruption). But even
then the researcher must be prepared to react with exibility.
The IDIs may also differ in the level of structure, what will be discussed
in details in the chapter about topic guide development. I would like only to
emphasize that some interviews may be conducted in a very structured way
with standardized procedures and questions (each participant answers the
same form of question in the established order). The questionnaire of this
type includes closed and in main part open questions. Answers to open
questions are written down immediately without any tape-recording and mostly
analyzed quantitatively. The great advantage of such approach is a possibility
to have answers from a bigger sample, easiness of ordering data for analysis
and if costs are taken into account lower price of the interview. This type of
standardized interviews should not be called Individual In-depth Interviews
as this approach doesnt enable to go so deep as IDIs. In practice, only rst
answers are thoroughly noted. Notes may be biased via shortage in making
notes. Finally, when making thorough notes, it is difcult to listen actively.
However, the name structured and semi structured is also misleading given
denitions in the beginning of this section.

50
 3.10. Focus group interviews

KEY POINTS
Individual In-depth Interviews (IDIs) are the most popular qualitative methods
of gathering primary data in management and economic setting because of
difcult recruitment, need for individual data and often exploration of decision
processes, motivations etc. While planning IDIs, the researcher should consider
carefully the place of interviewing (outside facility, ofce, home, others) and
level of structure (what will be discussed in one of further chapters).

For further readings about interviews in organization setting, one

may read texts by Alvesson & Ashcraft (2012) and King (2004).

3.10. Focus group interviews

The leading method in qualitative group interviewing is a focus group
interview (FGI), also called a focus group or focus group discussion or just group
interview. Some authors try to differentiate them (Thorpe & Holt, 2008), but
mostly they designate the same type of discussion conducted by a professional
moderator (a person experienced in facilitation of group processes) with
a small group of participants. Usually FGIs are video-recorded (with some very
rare exceptions of interviews in which the identity of participants should be
extremely protected); transcripts and audio- and video-recordings together with
eld-notes from observation are the bases of analysis.
In a standard version, a focus group interview involves 68 persons. The
interview is focused on a specic topic. Its duration starts from 1.5 to 2 hours. Time
of duration may be different from given above when some variants of this method
are applied. In classic positivist approach the number of participants increased to
even 12 persons but positivist interviews were focused rather on counting votes
than understanding opinions in depth manner (Malhotra & Birks, 2007). In market
research practice, the current tendency is to lower the number of participants
and make group interviews even longer than 2 hours, what is related with
needs of deeper investigation of phenomena under study. Formally, it means
the tendency to apply variants of FGIs such as a mini-group (46 participants)
and extended groups (duration of 2.5 hour and longer) with usage of more
supporting, often individual, techniques to support an interest of participants
and gain more individual data (Maison, 2010). As one may see in Table 3.6.,
the three types dont exhaust the whole range of group interviewing methods.
Other methods have specic areas of applications, may differ in procedures,
duration, type and number of participants.

51
 Method choice

Table 3.6. Types of focus group interviews

Interviews with
wide range of Interviews particular applications
applications
STANDARD FGI: CREATIVE GROUPS: Creative techniques, creative
68 persons, 1.52 participants looking for creative results
hours WORKSHOP/PROJECT GROUP generation of ideas
(theory, outcomes)
DYNAMIC GROUPS (concept labs): Change of subject from
one to another group Looking for creative results and
their evaluation
CONFRONTATIONAL GROUPS/DIADS: One differing criterion
of recruitment Confrontation of opinions, involving
MINI-GROUPS: 46
topics, better insight
persons, 1.52 hours
RECONVENED GROUP (PANEL): Meeting twice with the
More individual
same participants with a manipulation in-between
data, participants
To examine change of opinions after a manipulation in
that need more
practice
time to talk: experts,
AFFINITY GROUPS: Pairs of friends, coworkers To support
children
comfort of participants, e.g., some sensitive topics
SHORT GROUPS: Less than 1 hour Less goals to reach
EXTENDED TRIADA: Three participants, e.g., three members of
GROUPS: 2.53 decision process (parents and kid, three employers
hours or longer from different departments more complete pattern,
More supporting complementation of perspectives, natural setting
techniques HOMOGENOUS DIAD: The same recruitment criteria for
both participants To deliver more info than IDIs in the
same time, more individual and in-depth data than FGIs

Source: own elaboration, based on Maison (2010), Malhotra & Birks (2007).

FGIs are mainly conducted in professional facilities or other facilities adapted

to this aim. In market research with consumers one may also nd interviews
at home of one of participants (Maison, 2010; Malhotra & Birks, 2007). In
professional venue one may nd the room for discussion with oval or round
table (to facilitate discussion), audio- and video-recording equipment, ipchart
and double-side mirror. There are also a room for direct observation and waiting
room for participants. Currently, one may order also video-streaming.
During FGIs, obtaining results are powered by group dynamic, that is
considered both as one of main advantages and disadvantages of this method.
In literature one may nd them as 5S of advantages and 4I of disadvantages
from the rst letters of a given feature (Malhotra & Birks, 2007; Stewart et al.,
2007). Thanks to group dynamic one may gather more information than from
single persons (synergy effect). When something was said during discussion,
the further opinions stick to it without unnecessary repetition (snowballing
effect). When talking in a group, people are implicitly encouraged to talk
(stimulation effect). The group is also a source of atmosphere of safety e.g.,

52
 3.10. Focus group interviews

while hearing that others are opening themselves, the readiness to own talking
activity is arising (safety effect). Finally, while discussing in a group vividly, people
do not have time for too much reection what may foster the spontaneity of
opinions (spontaneity effect). However, the group is also the source of inuence at
least in four aspects (4I). Discussion delivers new information and insights into
some topics not only to a researcher but also to participants who may change their
opinions given a new knowledge (social informational inuence). Group members
have a tendency to conform to expectations of other group members, what may
increase their interpersonal attractiveness (social normative inuence). The group
setting may also cause the dependability of own answer from others opinion
(inuence of others opinions) and some respondents (e.g., dominant person) may
inuence the course of the discussion (inuence of respondents types). The proper
group dynamic management facilitates natural group processes that may reect the
natural diffusion of opinions in reality. The role of a moderator and researcher is
to enhance advantages related with group presence and reduce disadvantages
or at least to understand the group influences. Thus, understanding of the group
inuence is part of analysis. The most spectacular example of the role of a group
one may nd in the example in Frame 3.3.

Frame 3.3. Example of group role in understanding natural processes

In the 1980s the concern of Coca-cola entered the market with the new
reformulated avor of the product that was going to replace the existing
classic version. After initial positive reaction of consumers and good
sale results, some loyal users of old Coke rebelled and encouraged
to boycott the new Coke, and information about protesting angry
consumers were reported by media. Their inuence extended as much
on other consumers reaction, and consumer acceptance of the new
Coke over the old Coke decreased (what was monitored by a tracking
survey). It was surprising given that the preceeding extended research
including qualitative methods (both IDIs, FGIs) and quantitative
methods (with blind tests among of them) suggested the acceptance
of this avor replacement. According to dominant interpretation,
researchers had been asking inappropriate questions. Robert Schindler
(1992) describes the reanalysis of the research and added an alternative
interpretation. He revealed that during focus group discussions, part
of participants rejected the new idea and inuenced others opinions.
Further quantitative research found this as an opinion of minority what
led the Coca-cola company to the decision about taste reformulation.
While social factor was absent, IDIs showed positive opinions. It turns
out, however, that the real life repeated similar pattern of social
interaction role as observed during focus groups.

53
 Method choice

The list of advantages and disadvantages of focus groups is much longer.

Naresh Malhotra and David Birks (2007) summarize them as additional 4Ss of
strengths (with 5th S found in literature and practice) and 5Ms of weakness.
The summary of all mentioned strong and weak points is presented in Figure 3.7.,
with the rest of the ndings discussed below.

Figure 3.7. Advantages and disadvantages of Focus Group Interviews

Misjudgment
Synergy
Snowballing Meeting Misrepresen-
Spontaneity
tation

Security Stimulation Messiness Moderation

Advantages Dis
of FGIs -advantages
of FGIs
Serendipity Scientic Social
scrutiny Inuence of infomational
others opinions inuence
Speed
Specialization Social
Structure Inuence of
respondent normative
types inuence

Source: own elaboration based on Malhotra & Birks (2007).

Pros include serendipity meaning a higher probability of unexpected

results compared to IDIs, specialization of experienced moderator (this topic
is developed in the further part of this section), scientic scrutiny related to
a possibility of control (observation by double-side mirror), structure that refers
to following a language and a logical ow and depth of topics resulting from
discussion among participants. Among the strong points there is also speed as
the research process involving FGIs is usually faster than IDIs (quicker eldwork,
fewer transcripts), and a broader view on results with lower costs by a participant
but with less individual data (the unit of analysis is a group, not a participant).
Negative aspects include misjudgment related with susceptibility of moderator
bias and misinterpretation of ndings, moderation (see next paragraph),
messiness meaning the difculty in coding, analysis and interpretation due to
a exible ow of discussion, misrepresentation as the group of respondents
is not representative and purposively selected (see also next chapter about
sampling), and nally some problems related with participation in the meeting
at the same time. The last problem may occur especially in the management and
economic sciences eld of study when a sample includes managers, experts or
other specialists who are very busy. Even if they get incentives to get involved
(the common practice in commercial research, useful also in academic research),
getting them together at the same time may turn out difcult. Anyhow, the

54
 3.10. Focus group interviews

choice of the right time or place (e.g., conference) or usage of e-FGI (described
later) may be a solution. In organizational setting people may also be afraid to
talk openly in the presence of others.
Moderating the group requires a more experienced and skilled researcher who
deals not only with a more exible course of interview but also with a group
dynamic processes and has to understand properly the role of a group both in
the course of planning, interviewing, analyzing and interpreting data. However,
moderation is also a challenge as the quality of results highly depends on
moderators skills. Nevertheless, it is worth underlining that it would be a mistake
to accept the thesis that an interviewer of IDIs may be not qualied: his task
is even more demanding because he or she attracts the participants attention
even more, may reveal his or her emotions and opinions more easily and have
more fundamental inuence on the ow of the interview. What is more, IDIs with
professionals require specic skills to deal with professional knowledge. Thus, any
qualitative interviewing requires unique skills (Alvesson & Ashcraft, 2012; Maison,
2010; Malhotra & Birks, 2007; Stewart et al., 2007; Yin, 2003). Summary of the
interviewers role in IDIs and FGIs is presented in Table 3.7.

Table 3.7. Comparison of the role of interviewer of IDI and moderator of FGI

Researcher/Interviewer of IDI Moderator of FGI

Less advanced skills in qualitative
interviewing usually required
(unfortunately)
More exposed to participants attention
Real feelings more easy to be revealed
Stronger inuence on the course of the
interview
More easiness in following topic guide
More advanced skills, rarely beginning
researchers
Necessity to control the group
Possible failures as less vivid for
participants
More indirect inuence on a course of
interview
More exibility in applying topic guide

Source: own elaboration.

At the end of this section, the short summary of applications will be

presented. Taking into account all of the group interviews features, advantages
and disadvantages, group methods are best tted whenever social context is
important characteristic of a given phenomena or juxtaposition of opinions
may be helpful to understand better the phenomena under consideration.
Involving a group that at the same place at the same time may express a variety
of opinions helps also to gain a wide picture of the phenomena, thus
focus groups interviews in management and information systems are used in
exploratory research or in the mixed method approaches (Thorpe & Holt,
2008; Venkatesh et al., 2013). From practical point of view, this method is best

55
 Method choice

applied when participants are easy to recruit (may easily meet at a given
time at a given place) and when one has less time for fieldwork and analysis
(compared with conducting IDIs, but systematic analysis is time consuming and
difcult anyway, (Malhotra & Birks, 2007)). However, if the researcher is not an
experienced moderator, if one cant hire a professional moderator, when the
social context is not a key issue of a research problem, when fast picture of
results is not of key interest or when participants are difcult to recruit, it may
be more effective to switch to individual interviews. An example of application
one may nd in Frame 3.4.

Frame 3.4. Example of focus group interviews application in management

Rodney Runyan, Patricia Huddleeston, and Jane Swinney (2007)
conducted four focus group interviews with downtown small business
owners within four communities in the USA. Their theoretical aim was to
test the resource-based view to the small enterprises. The exploratory
research was designed to reveal perception of small rms resources
which may constitute competitive advantage and develop actions.

Given limitations related with need to control over group and group inuence,
group interviews are less accepted in academic research than individual interviews.
The context (professional facility, experienced moderator, recruitment of many
persons, incentives) also hinders the broad scope of applications.

KEY POINTS
Focus group interviewing characteristics together with advantages (summarized
as 5S + 5S) and disadvantages (5M + 4I) predispose this method to be
used successfully whenever social context is an important characteristic of the
given phenomena or juxtaposition of opinions may be helpful to understand
better the phenomena under consideration, in exploratory research or in the
mixed method approaches to gain a wide picture of the phenomena, when
participants are easy to recruit and when one has less time for eldwork and
analysis. Relative difculty of organization (professional facility, experienced
moderator, recruitment of many persons, incentives) and risk of low control
over group limit the breadth of applications in academic setting.

For further readings about focus group interviews in social science
one may read the books by Rosaline Barbour (2007) and David
Stewart et al. (2007), and in organization setting the text of Binna
Kandola (2012).

56
 3.11. e-Interviews

3.11. e-Interviews
Technological improvement and increasing access and usage of Internet
communication inuenced the development of new solutions also in qualitative
interviewing (Boush & Kahle, 2005; Malhotra & Birks, 2007; Morgan & Symon,
2004). In literature and in market research practice one may meet at least four
types of interviewing that involve Internet as a mean of communication: e-mail
study (Morgan & Symon, 2004), Bulletin Board Discussion (Boush & Kahle, 2005),
and e-IDIs and e-FGIs (www.iibr.pl). The main features of all four methods are
shortly described in Table 3.8. As one may see, two of them are conducted not in
the real time. In these types of interviews, the time from one session to another
may vary and the participant(s) may choose time of responding, without or within
some time constraints. Thus, the participants have more time for reection, what
may be perceived both as an advantage and as a disadvantage depending on
research goals. Also, excellent typing skills of both participants and researcher
exert less inuence upon their involvement in non-real time methods.

Table 3.8. Types of e-interviews and their main features

Individual Group
Non-real e-mail study/electronic interview: a series of e-mail exchanges between the
time researcher and participant or group of participants; researcher asks questions but
also claries answers of participants; answers are delayed; the communication
may not have any time constraints; closer relationship may develop
Bulletin Board Discussion/non-real time
focus groups: type of forum, modera-
tor presents instructions, tasks and asks
questions on a common board dedi-
cated for this aim, one issue in a given
time, e.g., once a day to be done at
a given time, participants see all answers
of others and exchange opinions within
given time constraints (e.g., one day for
answers, two weeks for the whole study;
if necessary, the moderator asks addition-
al questions or helps if necessary; inter-
action is minimal; a relatively large group
of participants (up to even 40) is earlier
recruited
Real e-IDI Individual in-Depth e-FGI focus group discussion in a written
time Interview, but in a written form form, participants answers may be in
instead of face-to-face interaction part visible for others, partially hidden,
depending on the task

Source: own elaboration based on Boush & Kahle (2005), ww.iibr.pl; Malhotra & Birks
(2007), Morgan & Symon (2004), Thorpe & Holt (2008).

57
 Method choice

Two other methods: e-IDI and e-FGI share some characteristics of its face-to-
face versions. They are also a form of the Internet chat, in which moderator
asks questions and participant(s) answer it in a written form. The participant(s)
and moderator are meeting virtually at the same time. The moderator may
ask questions spontaneously but the core questions may also be paste from
a special panel. Thanks to it answers may be more spontaneous than reexive,
in particular when e-FGIs are implemented among fast typing participants. The
time constraints of the interviews are predened. In e-FGIs computer literacy
play a huge role in the active participation in the discussion.
Till now I approached only e-mail study in the eld of management and
economic sciences publications (see Frame 3.5. for two examples). E-mail study
has some advantages that are invaluable in student and any academic work:
it is convenient, rather available, cheap, and it enables to reach wide-spread
group of participants. Other e-interviews methods I have met as successfully
implemented in market, social or psychological research with eldwork done by
professional research agencies that used software applicable for such aims.

Frame 3.5. Examples of e-mail method of gathering data in management

and economic sciences
Stephanie Morgan and Gillian Symon (2004) implemented this method
to gather information from international staff spread around the
Europe and sometimes having difculty in spoken English.
Piotr Zaborek (2009b) applied this method to gather additional data
from informants after the in-depth interviewing in case study research.

Above some distinctive characteristics of each of these methods, they share

some characteristics, advantages and limitations (Boush & Kahle, 2005; Malhotra
& Birks, 2007; Morgan & Symon, 2004). Similarly as in face-to-face interviews,
in any of these methods the researcher uses a topic guide to establish the scope
of the study and may clarify answers and ask additional questions. The core of
analysis method is similar as in case of other qualitative methods.
Among advantages one may mention:
opportunities to broad application: both the substitutive and comple-
menting role for existing methods, access to broad scope of participants
including geographical spread and other participants difcult to recruit for
face-to-face methods (because of time-constraints or unwillingness to talk
face-to-face about some topics),
no need for transcripts: the transcripts are ready at once, thus nothing is
lost or biased in a transcription process,
lower financial and behavioral cost: the Internet connection eliminates
some costs (e.g., travelling expenses, costs of transcripts),
58
 3.11. e-Interviews

reduced some status differences. Some information about someones

race, religion, and also job position are not visible, what may reduce some
potential barriers in developing relationship,
wide range of techniques. Audio and visual stimuli materials may be
presented to the participants, as well as the participants may attach their
own materials.
However, there are still many challenges to implement e-interviews:
recruitment process. This concerns the access to personal data such as the
e-mail address as the authenticity of participants may evoke some doubts,
particularly in academic environment,
Internet access and quality of connections. Although the Internet access
is easier and the quality of connections is higher, there are still some groups
unavailable for this methodology,
literacy among potential participants. Some groups and individuals may
be more familiar with computer (younger, higher educated, ofce-workers),
while others may be less computer-skilled. The choice of e-interviews among
the latter ones may imply a huge bias in data due to the involvement of a
particular sub-group of participants,
lack of non-verbal communication. In face-to-face interviews non-verbal
signals play a huge role in building and enhancing trust and openness and
may be additional source of information. Thus, other methods of developing
trust, mostly explicit, have to be applied. The additional source of information
can be emoticons, if necessary,
special skills of moderators. Particularly real time e-interviews require not
only good computer literacy (from both researcher and participants; some
e-FGI are very involving and fast going) but also the familiarity with internet
etiquette and language.

KEY POINTS
E-Interviews (both individual and group methods) are still rarely described
in the literature despite many advantages for their usage by scholars: they
are convenient, rather available and cheap, they help reach a wide group of
participants. The biggest limitation in academic research is probably related
with low control over recruitment process. Limited access and low literacy of
participants, lack of verbal communication and special skills of moderator/
interviewer may also limit the scope of applications.

Persons who are interested in reading more about e-Interviews
and their procedures in organization research may read the text by
Stephanie Morgan and Gillian Symon (2004). About bulletin board
discussion see Boush and Kahle (2005).

59
 Method choice

3.12. Tele-interviewing
In case of some participants who are extremely difcult to be recruited
for face-to-face interviewing some researchers implement the telephone
interviewing. For instance, while conducting the research involving 45 in-depth
interviews with experts from four stakeholders groups, some British researchers
(Cassel et al., 2006) found difculties to reach some potential participants for
face-to-face interviewing in their workplace. To achieve a desirable number of
participants within each of stakeholders panels, they decided to complement
methodology with telephone interviewing as well as with interviews during
one of conferences in the eld. Interviews lasted 12 hours, they were audio-
recorded and considered condential.
A particular advantage of this method is greater easiness in getting access to
some participants. However, the researcher has low level of control over situation.
For instance, in my practice, the participant preferred talking while driving, thus
his focus on the interview was lowered. In tele-interviewing it is also impossible
to use some stimuli materials. In some research, mainly international, costs of
telephone connections may be high given that interviews last about one hour.
Moreover, good recording equipment is necessary.

KEY POINTS
Tele-interviewing is an opportunity in case of huge difculties to meet
face-to-face.

3.13. Rules of method choice

At the end of this section, a short summary of criteria for interviewing method
choice in student work will be presented:
the problem under study, guiding research question and research objectives
and theoretical background, implying the role of individual experiences and
social context among others,
pragmatic factors:
o acceptance by academic environment in a given eld of study or readiness
to challenge the dominating academics opinions, implying very high self-
reexitivity in each step of high reexitivity,
o preferences, beliefs and skills of the researcher,
o time constraints,
o potential participants characteristics including their time accessibility,
o additionally: budget constraints.
Whatever method the researcher chooses, the unique reasons of this choice
should be underlined, because the boundaries between methods are not clear

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 3.13. Rules of method choice

and the range of possible methods may be applied for the same problem and
guiding research question. Additionally, the researcher should reformulate the
research question to best match the chosen method (for similar reasoning see
Yin (2009).
The need for considering potential participants characteristics in the selection
of method implies that method choice should be reconsidered once again after the
denition of criteria for participation, what will be the topic of the next chapter.

KEY POINTS
Whenever the researcher chooses between the whole spectrum of qualitative
methods, two groups of criteria are worth being taken into account:
substantive (information needs) and pragmatic (including preferences of
researcher and recipients, potential participants characteristics, time and
cost constraints).

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 CHAPTER 4

Sampling and recruitment

In this chapter, some more general and detailed issues related
to sampling and recruitment will be presented. The first section
discusses the main idea of non-probability sampling and strategies for
selection. Next section presents the number of cases and participants
and is completed with some indications about case and participant
characteristics. The final section provides practical pieces of advice
regarding recruitment. At the end of the chapter one may find
recommendations of further references, common for all the sections
about selection.

The question about sampling and in particular about number of participants

is one of key issues that researchers are worried about in case of qualitative
interviewing. As one could have seen in previous chapters, the method of
sampling and number of cases/participants is one of differences between
qualitative and quantitative research. Many authors note that the rules of
sampling choice are poorly described in the literature due to their exibility and
dependence on research aim. However, in recent years, the general guidelines
based on practice have been set down.
A sample helps collect data appropriate for research objectives (Saunders,
2012). In case of unsuitable strategy and criteria denition and inappropriate
process of recruitment, the participants may have not enough or too much
knowledge about the topic, or may be not enough or too much active during
interviews (what is particularly important in focus group interviews). It may also
happen that they would generate data that are biased or limited by inappropriate
participants characteristics. Thus, the appropriate case and participants selection
is one of the key issues to achieve research goals, conduct interviews smoothly
and in general to make reliable research. An appropriate design may also save
time and money in researching a given problem.
No matter which strategy of case and participant selection would be
applied, the researcher is expected to have convincing rationale that accounts

63
 Sampling and recruitment

for participants selection. The justication should be convincing for scholars

in a given eld, who are mostly quantitative academics more familiar with big
representative samples. Thus, they may tend to criticize the small number of
interviews or have difculty to understand sampling different than in quantitative
research.

4.1. The strategies of sampling and selection

In quantitative methods, the researcher uses probability sampling that
is based on the assumption of representativeness of a sample for a given
population. The statistical analyses enable inference about the probability
of phenomena occurrence in this population with an assumed level of error
(statistical generalization). In turn, in qualitative research involving interviews the
non-probability sampling is employed (Saunders, 2012) and to say it explicit:
probability sampling (representative, random) is not an appropriate
method of case and participants selection for qualitative research (Perry, 1998;
Yin, 2003).
The main recommended strategy for qualitative research is the purposive
sampling: cases or participants8 are selected to serve a very specic need or
purpose and they do not constitute a subset of some larger population (sometimes
it is even not possible to specify the population). The researcher chooses
participants based on own judgment, knowledge about research phenomena
and practical experiences, which cases and particular individuals may deliver
best insight for an issue of interest and provide as much information as
possible to achieve the research objectives, both in terms of relevance and
depth (Patton (1990), in Perry (1998) calls it information rich cases). The research
problem, key aims and objectives are a starting point (Saunders, 2012), although
saying that sampling strategy and number of participant results directly from
them would be too simplied (Alvesson & Ashcraft, 2012). Illustrative example
of the relationships between research aims and criteria of participant selection
one may nd in Frame 4.1. (other examples one may also nd within this and
other chapters).

8
Depending on a method, different terms are used to name individuals taking part in a research
project: participants in the literature on qualitative interviews (Saunders, 2012), participants or in-
formants (to name experts who deliver information about the eld during repeated interviews) to
name in the literature on case studies (Alvesson & Ashcraft, 2012; Yin, 2003), respondents in the
literature on surveys (Noga-Bogomilski, 2007) and subjects in the literature on experiments (www.
apastyle.org). For all type of research, psychological academic publication standards (www.apastyle.
org) recommend to use terms that are consistent with the traditions of the given eld with emphasis
on terms that acknowledge participation (e.g., participants, individuals, respondents or more con-
cise terms as managers, employees).

64
 4.1. The strategies of sampling and selection

Frame 4.1. Example of purposive sampling for interviewing in finances

field
Calum Middleton, Suzanne Field and David Power (2007) investigated
the perception of opportunities to undertake investments in Central
and Eastern Europe (CEE) among institutional investors. Their objectives
included investigation of the practitioners opinion on three main
issues regarding investments in CEE: reasons, structure of the process
and barriers, completed by the prediction of the CEE development.
They conducted semi-structured individual interviews with two types
of participants in the USA and UK. Seven interviews involved managers
and analysts from two types of CEE funds (emerging and GEM), each
having extensive knowledge and experience in investing in the CEE
region and across the globe. Three interviews were attended by private
equity fund managers. The interviews took place in the workplace
of interviewees and lasted approx. 40 minutes. They were audio-
recorded.

However, the purposive sampling based on assumed criteria is not always

possible. As Saunders (2012) noticed, some compromises are required and the
access is constraint by what is applicable (p. 35), particularly in organization
setting. Thus, additional circumstances such as gaining access to organizations
and participants, being granted permission to collect data, resources that may
limit the amount of data (time, budget, number of researchers), willingness and
capacity of individuals to take part in the research, may inuence the decision.
Table 4.1 presents the list of sampling strategies for participant choice for
qualitative interviewing. The list of strategies and their characteristics is based
on reections of many authors. The distinction of purposive and non-purposive
strategies of sampling is derived from the work by Mark Saunders (2012). As
one may see, various strategies serve different aims.
In practice of management and economy sciences, most useful are
strategies such as typical, critical, extreme, heterogeneous and homogenous.
These strategies may co-occur, which means that for instance for criterion
effectiveness of organization the extreme cases are chosen, but they represent
different branches (heterogeneity) and participants represents similar job positions
(homogeneity). Additionally, the selection based on most accessible cases (with
an easy access to a large number of rich data sources) or opportunistic approach
via acquaintances in organizations (Saunders, 2012; Yin, 2003; Zaborek, 2009b)
and convenience sampling for focus group interviews are applied (Stewart et
al., 2007). The convenience sampling may carry some risk if it was without any
control (Saunders, 2012), but may be also benecial when one remembers that
even the convenient sample needs to match criteria which result from research
objectives (Stewart et al., 2007).
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 Sampling and recruitment

Table 4.1. Strategies of non-probability sampling for qualitative interviewing

Strategy Description Appropriateness of application
Purposive sampling strategies
Typical case Participants considered  For illustrative purpose, to deliver
to be average representative picture of the
representatives of phenomena
a given group, the  To capture the circumstances and
most characteristic of conditions of ordinary phenomena
phenomena of interest
Critical case Having strategic importance  To test (conrm, challenge, or
in relation to general extend) an existing theory, to
problem (Flyvbjerg, 2006, determine the relevance of theorys
p. 425) propositions and of alternative set
of explanations (Yin, 2003)
 To verify or falsify the proposition
(to obtain information to validate
the reasoning that if this occurs
(does not occur) in this particular
case, then this is valid for all or
many cases (any or only a few)
cases) (Flyvbjerg, 2006, p. 425)
Extreme case Participants having unusual  To enlighten unusual
characteristics  To achieve information on
particularly problematic or good
examples of a given phenomena,
getting a point across in an
especially dramatic way (Flyvbjerg,
2006, p. 425)
Heterogeneous Participants representing  Providing maximum variation in the
(maximizing diversity of characteristics data Revealing of key themes and
differences) (different departments or patterns of common understanding
levels of hierarchy) shared by the majority of the
members of the wider population.
(Szabo, 2006 , p. 279)
Homogeneous Participant sharing similar  Going in-depth
characteristics (e.g. same
occupation, level of hierarchy)
A rare/unique The case is very rare but  To document or analyze rare
case reveals important /new phenomena
aspects of the issue  Mostly in a single case design
Revelatory case The case that was not  To investigate a phenomenon
examined previously previously inaccessible to scientic
although was visible for examination even though the
other researchers problems were widespread
Other non-probability sampling strategies
Self-selection Participants who are willing  When access is difcult
sampling, vol- to take part in a research  When criteria of choice are difcult
unteers, snow Participants who give access to identify
balling proce- to next participants
dures

66
 4.2. Number of cases and participants

Convenient The choice is haphazard,  When the researcher is ready

samples based on convenience to have limited control over
participants selection
Opportunistic Friends working in
approach organization
Theoretical Participants are selected  Useful in developing grounded
sampling based on ideas relevant for theory
the story line in a grounded
theory approach
Choice is based on what we
should focus our attention
in order to develop our
understanding of this
phenomena (Buchanan,
2012, p. 361)
Other types of case selection
Paradigmatic The case that draw  To develop a school for the eld
case attention to the most that the case concerns
prominent features of the
phenomena
Longitudinal The case that would be  To examine the same single case at
case examined in different points different points of time (the points
of time of time were selected on a base of
theory
Pilot interviews Characteristics depending  To test method
on goals, mainly similar to  To prepare the design for
those employed in a main a multiple case study
study

Source: own elaboration, based on: Buchanan (2012), Flyvbjerg (2006), Miles & Huberman
(1994), Perry (1998), Yin (2003), Zaborek (2009b).

KEY POINTS
In qualitative research non-probability sampling with domination of purposive
sampling is employed. The researcher has various possibilities of strategies
for sampling and selection with typical, critical, extreme, heterogeneous and
homogenous, the selection based on most accessible cases (with an easy
access to a large number of rich data sources), opportunistic approach via
acquaintances in organizations and convenience sampling.

4.2. Number of cases and participants

In case study research in academic practice a multiple-case study is
recommended (Yin, 2003; Zaborek, 2009b), compared to a single case study.
In multiple-case study designs the researcher gather evidences for the same
objectives and variables for each individual case. Having more than one case,

67
 Sampling and recruitment

the analytical conclusions are more robust and external generalizability of

conclusions arises, and it is easier to deal with criticism (Yin, 2003).
Any strict rules for sample size are dened in the literature. The number
depends on the research problem, goals and target group specicity, sampling
technique (typical case, critical case, etc.,), expected credibility and available
resources including participants availability most of all and researchers time
and budget constraints additionally (Saunders, 2012). However, some general
guidelines are accessible.
More cases the researcher should include in a study, when (particular topics
will be developed in further paragraphs):
the greater certainty the researcher demands to conrm the theory and to
reject alternative explanations (Yin, 2003),
the more complex is the reality of interest and the more subtle differences
exist between rival theories (Yin, 2003),
the larger amount of information is needed to reach a point of redundancy
or saturation (Zaborek, 2009b),
the more between-cases/subgroups of participants criteria are involved
(Perry, 1998),
the less complex analysis and the fewer data sources are planned (Zaborek,
2009b),
the larger time and budget constraints (King, 2004; Yin, 2003; Zaborek,
2009b),
the more accessible are cases and participants, and the easier it is to obtain
access to sources (Zaborek, 2009b).
Most often, the main cue is to continue gathering data till saturation is
achieved which means the point at which no new information or themes are
observed in the data (Saunders, 2012). The cumulative researchers experience
within both organization and marketing research area deliver useful concrete
guidelines when saturation in interviewing is being achieved. Saunders (2012)
based on own experience and review of literature recommends 412 interviews
in case of homogenous samples, and 1230 participants when samples are very
heterogeneous and when the eld of research is diffuse or vague (see Saunders,
2012 for more details). Marketing research practice (Maison, 2010) suggests
46 individual interviews and 23 group interviews as sufcient in the simplest
designs, however to assure more credible data the design of minimum
8 individual interviews, 6 dyads or 4 group interviews is rather applied (Maison,
2010). For academic purposes of postgraduate students in marketing, Perry
(2003) used samples of 4 participants per each subgroup with total number
of 12 participants in the design with three variables (country, the company
size, company effectiveness). For Ph. D. students, he recommends conducting
between 24 and 1015 interviews. If interviews are the main method or the
only method of generating data, more interviews may be required, compared to

68
 4.2. Number of cases and participants

multi-method case study, when many different sources of data are involved. In
multi-method designs, saturation is easier to be obtained due to completing
pattern resulting from different sources, but also more time for gathering data
and their analysis is required. Thus, for instance Zaborek (2009b) proposes
48 cases for Ph.D. student thesis, when mostly only one person conducts all
the research stages. Frame 4.2. presents an example how a researcher established
the saturation point and number of participants.

Frame 4.2. Example of participants selection

In the study (mentioned in Chapter 3 of Advantages of interviewing

as a qualitative method), Erna Szabo (2006) conducted qualitative
individual interviews with middle managers in ve European countries
to understand the meaning, performance and context of participation
in managerial decision making. Interviews lasted between one and
two hours. They were audio-recorded and transcribed for purpose of
analysis.
During pilot test in one of the countries, Szabo established that
interviews with ve managers deliver enough rich, stable and country
specic patterns of results, but in the main study she decided to conduct
6 interviews per each of 5 countries to follow more rigid guidelines.
Anticipating that some participants may dismiss the meeting, more
persons were recruited to the study. As a result of good response from
invited persons, she conducted from 6 till 8 interviews per country.
Szabo (2006) used maximizing difference strategy within a given
subgroup (e.g., a country). The differences included age, gender and
functional area. In preliminary steps of recruitment, contact persons
(mostly colleagues from other academic institutions) facilitated access
to potential participants.

The research objectives regarding the comparison between subgroups

(e.g., small and medium enterprises) are an important cue to establish the
number of interviews. If a researcher is interested in comparisons between cases
or subgroups of participants (e.g., small and medium enterprises; employees
with longer and shorter job seniority), the design should involve enough interviews
to make such comparisons in each segment. The practice shows that replication
46 in-depth interviews and 2 focus group interviews in each segment helps
establish the key pattern of results for a given subgroup (Maison, 2010; Perry,
1998; Szabo, 2006). It means that the next interviews reply similar pattern of
key results. However, this assumption holds only if subgroups under study are
homogenous on key criteria (see Frame 4.2. and Table 4.1. in previous section).
Homogeneity may refer to diverse characteristics of enterprises and individuals

69
 Sampling and recruitment

(or industry, etc.), including hard, tangible criteria (e.g., small vs. medium
enterprises, presidents vs. accountants, longer vs. shorter seniority, managers vs.
subordinates, women vs. men, age of participants) and softer even intangible
criteria such as the type of level of expertise in the topic, experiences (e.g., usage
of some services or not) or preferences (e.g., positive vs. negative opinion about
the idea of CSR practices). However, some heterogeneity meaning diversity of
participants is important to observe a wide range of opinions and establish a key
pattern of results. In marketing research it may include variety of occupations
of participants, unfamiliarity of participants and diversity of locations, in
management research diversity of departments, gender, seniority. In some
research, to understand the phenomena, a researcher may include all parties
participating in events under study (Douglas, 2006); however, mostly it is enough
to choose some subgroups that may deliver the most insightful information to
establish the dominant pattern within phenomena or to deliver complementary
perspectives. Altogether, homogeneity of the subgroup complemented with
diversity of participants and replication of interviews lead to a more reliable
analysis. In case of focus group interviews, the homogeneity on particular
dimensions may play important role in group dynamic and obtained
results (Maison, 2010; Stewart et al., 2007). For instance, while talking about
some topics in one group, men may be dominated by women (or vice versa) or
subordinates may tend to express opinions that are desirable (in their opinion) by
supervisors or supervisors may withdraw from discussion to give more space
to subordinates. However, some differences expire when homogeneity on more
important shared characteristics is achieved (Maison, 2010). For instance, while
talking about gender role neutral topic. Every time, the researcher role is to
consider diversity of possibilities, advantages and disadvantages of each solution
and choose the least evil or even to switch to individual interviews. Otherwise,
the research design would be unmanageable.
Additional perspective on strategies of selection is presented by Robert Yin
(2005) who proposes two procedures of replication which logic is similar to
planning a series of experiments, for multi-method multi-case studies. A few cases
would be planned as literal replications with an assumption that they meet criteria
under which a given phenomenon is likely to be found. Further a few cases (4 to
6) would be developed as theoretical replications to verify if a pattern of results
continues revealing despite of changes in some conditions, or whether it disappears
in conditions when it is not likely to be found. Similar reasoning is underlined in
the maximum variation case strategy of selection (see Table 4.2.) aimed to
understand the importance of some factors for outcomes. Yin suggests that the
number of replications of each type may start with 2 and nish with 6, rarely
more (e.g., 26 literal replications and 26 theoretical replications in a project).
He recommends having two individual cases for any particular condition. For
example, if a researcher wants to check if a phenomenon that was established for

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 4.2. Number of cases and participants

big enterprises holds for small enterprises, at least two cases of small and two cases
of big organizations should be included in a project. Cases that constitute literal
replication may establish a separate project or rst step of a project that would be
followed by theoretical replication. The preceding theoretical proposition is crucial
to dene the conditions of occurring and not occurring of the phenomena. If a set
of cases gives contradictory results, the initial theory should be revised and again
retested with a new research design in the same or next project. The replication
logic was applied by Piotr Zaborek (2009a) in the doctoral thesis.

Table 4.2. Types of replication for multiple-case design

Research goal
Type of replication
or appropriateness of application
To obtain similar ndings (Yin,  Similar conditions with expectation of
2003; Zaborek, 2009a) literal replication (duplication of results)
To reveal contrasting ndings for  Different conditions with expectation
reasons predicted by theory (Yin, of theoretical replication (contrasting
2003; Zaborek, 2009a) results)
To understand the importance  Maximum variation cases (a few cases
of some factors for outcomes that are extremely different on one
(Flyvbjerg, 2006), when one may pre- dimension or more dimensions)
dene the major causes of variability

Source: own elaboration based on Flyvbjerg (2006), Yin (2003), Zaborek (2009b).

The number of interviews may be also related to a researcher intention to

triangulate data. Some researchers propose to establish facts regarding
one organization by interviews with more than one interviewee from the same
organization, with individuals from the context (e.g., consultants, government
advisors, industry organization people (Perry, 1998) or even all parties participating
in the event under study (Woodside, 2010).
Last but not least, the pragmatic constraints also inuence the number
of participants. The important limitations are cognitive, time and financial
resources required conducting a large number of case studies (Yin, 2003; Zaborek,
2009b). Beginning researchers often underestimate the time needed for the whole
qualitative project, in particular the process of analysis (King, 2004). Researcher
may also encounter a problem with accessibility of data in organizations of interest
(Perry, 1998; Zaborek, 2009b). To have reliable outcomes for research objectives,
all the planned data sources (e.g., employees, documents, artifacts) should be
analyzed for each individual case. However, some managers may be not willing to
share all the information, e.g., because of fear of disclosing sensitive information
(Zaborek, 2009b), what may inuence the nal number of cases or participants.
Thus, the nal decision should take into account also these constraints.
Finally, it is worth adding that although the most recommended for student
work is the multiple case design, in recent literature one may nd examples

71
 Sampling and recruitment

of one case designs, mainly involving at least several interviews completed

with analysis of other sources (an example can be found in research of
Douglas 2006, mentioned in the section 3.2. and presented by Frame 6.2 in
Chapter 6). Believers of the single case study approach, such as Bent Flyvbjerg
(2006), emphasize that crucial ideas are often based on single cases with
Freuds Wolf-Man, Foucaults Panopticon and even Galileos rejection of
Aristotles law of gravity as some of examples. He highlights a unique role of
atypical or extreme cases compared to typical or average cases. According
to him the atypical or the extreme case activates more actors and more
basic mechanisms in the phenomena under consideration and clarify deeper
causes behind a given problem and its consequences. Thus it may deliver the
greatest possible amount of information on a given phenomenon and may
give a deeper insight into a problem. To understand better the role of atypical
cases, some authors including Flyvbjerg (2006) mention Black Swan example
of Karl Popper that claimed that just one black swan is enough to falsify the
proposition that all swans are white. Nevertheless, the single case design
has the strongest opponents among followers of the quantitative and
positivist approach. As one could see, the choice of cases in multiple case
designs is not easy, thus to answer how to choose a single case is even more
difcult. Bent Flyvbjerg (2006) underlines the role of intuition and experience.
Robert Yin (5) recommends the careful examination of any potential case to
ensure the relevance for issues and questions under considerations, and to
beginners he suggests to use rather multiple-cases designs.

KEY POINTS
There are no strict rules of the number of cases or participants. This number
depends on many circumstances including informational needs, complexity
of phenomena and participants characteristics, and time, budget and person
constraints. The number of cases/participants depends also on the design
and number of sources. In multi-method case study for Ph.D. student
research 48 cases is recommended with two replications per case sharing
joint characteristics. In research involving only interviews 46 IDIs and 23
FGIs per subgroup sharing common characteristics is recommended, thus if
one differentiating criterion is applied the number should be twice like that.

4.3. The particular criteria for selection

The researcher may apply at least four types of criteria to choose participants:
the type of the target to whom characteristics are applied, a centrality of
features (key features vs. additional features), types of features, location. They
may be used simultaneously or singly, depending on the research needs.

72
 4.3. The particular criteria for selection

The target to which characteristics are applied. In the case study method
including interviews, researcher considers features of cases, saying about
interviews says about participant. For instance, he or she may say that in the design
involved four cases, two represented small enterprises (effective enterprises,
developed countries, organizations with management change experience, etc.)
and two represented medium enterprises, (non-effective enterprises, developing
countries, organizations without management change experience, etc.), which
represented different branches and in each organization six interviews were
organized. If only interviews are conducted sometimes researchers says about
cases or only about participants.
Most often three targets are worth of consideration: organization (e.g.,
application of some solutions of information system), individual (e.g., seniority),
external circumstances (e.g., location, time period). Usually it is a level outside
the particular participant it is organizational level or external one.
The centrality of features (key features vs. additional features). The key
features are related directly with the main research question and with
research objectives, e.g., a researcher interested in how decision processes look
like in SME, establishes SME characteristics as crucial for selection, a researcher
interested in between country comparisons in decision processes in SME,
establishes SME and country as key features. If for research aim it is crucial
to compare results between participants who experienced organization change
and who did not, experience of organization change would be the key feature.
Additional characteristics may maximize the probability that participant deliver
enough insight for a particular phenomena or to minimize the biases. This group
of features may include characteristics dependent on research aims e.g., that
guarantee heterogeneity of participants (e.g., various industries, departments,
occupations, but also in some research size of the organization or country of
origin or of seat), enough level of knowledge (e.g., particular level of hierarchy
or job position, department, involvement in some organization process, years
of experience) as far as characteristics which are less dependent on research
aims. In case of focus group interviews the last type of criteria includes the
participants features that may inuence group dynamic and thus inuence the
results. Their choice depends on research topic (see previous chapter). Examples
are socio-demography (sex, age, socio-economical status), job position, level of
expertise (see also the previous section). In marketing and social research three
additional independent criteria are taken into account. First, participants should
not be related with some industries or occupations because their knowledge
may bias results, with exception of situation when these characteristics are of
key importance for research aim. It includes (1) individuals who are related with
some industries or occupations as they may have more professional knowledge
and untypical experience, (2) persons who work in social and market research,
marketing, advertising, sociologists, psychologist, because they may not involve

73
 Sampling and recruitment

enough in a process of interviewing due to familiarity of methodology, they may

have competitive aims or they may want to reveal some results (e.g., publication).
Depending on the research it may include own occupation or include also anyone
of their close family or friends. Second, individuals with some experiences in
participations in group or individual interviews are excluded from the research,
because of the risk of untypical involvement in the current research (e.g., trial
of replication of the ow of the previous interviews, preparation for a topic,
etc.). The time limit and scope of exclusion may differ depending on a project.
It may be 6 or 3 months, and any topic or only a given topic with more liberal
criteria in case of more complex recruitment (e.g., experts). Finally, to guarantee
the variety of opinions and in case of focus group interviews unfamiliarity of
participants is desired. In organization research, the additional criteria similar to
those applied in marketing research are not always relevant. Additionally, when
access to participants may be difcult anyway, a researcher should thoroughly
consider how many additional criteria of exclusion to include. An example of the
usage of the key and additional criteria can be found in Frame 4.3.

Frame 4.3. Example of the usage of key and additional criteria

Melanie Bryant implemented constructivist framework to explore the
dynamics of organizational change. She conducted qualitative interviews
with 14 Australian employees. All of them experienced organizational
change. Additionally, they represented variety of industries (working
experience of at least 5 years in one of the specied industries and working
there in the past ve years) and represented diverse job positions.

Types of features, e.g., (in)tangibility, simplicity/complexity, overt/implicit. The

criteria may include both hard, tangible features (such as size of organization)
and soft, intangible ones (e.g., knowledge of the issue, experiencing a change
in organization), both simple and overt variables (e.g., industry) and complex
and hidden (such as efciency of organization as measured by a complex index of
size, number of products and number of countries exported to (Perry, 1998).
Location. Following marketing research guidelines (Maison, 2010) the
researcher may use one of three main strategies to decide about location:
(1) one location when participants from one town seems to appropriately
represent the segment beyond potential location differences; (2) two locations
to rule out the location bias (e.g., the role of some experiences specic for
one town or country); (3) two or more locations when differences related to
different locations are expected and when the target group is dispersed, e.g.,
different consumption styles in big and small towns are expected or different
attitudes toward a topic are predicted due to different political inclinations
in different regions of Poland, etc. Any time the researcher should consider
thoroughly a rationale for the choice. This decision may also be helpful for better
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 4.3. The particular criteria for selection

understanding of research problem as a researcher may nd out whether one

location (e.g., Poland) is treated as an example for a broader class of locations
(e.g., EU members, CEE country, developing country) or it is a specic case with
some particular characteristics.
Whatever criteria are chosen, the researcher is obliged to be as much specic
as possible in dening criteria, what enables to avoid problems in further
phases of research project (e.g., during recruitment), what enlarge reliability
of a study and help to make analytical generalizations and transferability of
results. Features should be dened at both theoretical and operational level.
A researcher may start with a theoretical denition that is relevant to research
objectives. An example is presented by Frame 4.4. In a more simplistic example,
a researcher may use only the number of employees criterion to dene small and
medium organization. But even then, the denition differs between countries
(e.g., according to denition in Germany SME has a limit of 255 employees,
while in Belgium 100). In case of international research it may be worth
deciding if local denition, denition of a researchers country or a unied
denition should be used. Going further with this example, if the researcher is
interested in processes related to corporate banking, a researcher should also
establish the minimal number of employees as some SME denitions include also
microenterprises (that has no access to corporate banking). For some research
objectives, however, the denition of SME in terms of employees number may
be not enough and the criterion of income may be added what is followed by
further questions such as what type of income should be taken into account.

Frame 4.4. An example of criteria definition

Temi Abimbola and Akin Kocak (2007) conducted an exploratory
qualitative research involving ten interviews with entrepreneurs
or managing directors within three types of rms in UK: founder/
entrepreneurs (4), small business (4) and medium-sized rms (2),
following denition of SME of Storey (1994) and Stokes and Wilson
(2006) and denition of entrepreneur of Penrose (1995). Additionally,
participants have had more than three years of business experience and
represented various elds: component manufactures, management
consultancy, communication, specialty software inventory, auto-
repair, paper rm, forensic-science rms. Interviews were conducted
on the premises of the company, were recorded and then transcribed.
The theoretical research aim was to develop a resource-based view
model by determining a key role of some factors (brand, organization
identity and reputation) in small and medium-sized enterprises.
The research objective was to identify non-sector-specic brand,
organization identity and reputation-based resources that are specic
for successful entrepreneurs and small to medium-sized companies.

75
 Sampling and recruitment

All the mentioned groups of criteria led to the decision how many interviews
should be conducted in a project. The problem is that if the researcher applied
all the differentiating criteria planned at the beginning, the cost would exceed
benets of the study and the amount of data would be unmanageable to analysis.
Moreover, if the criteria are over dened, it may be difcult to nd participants
(Mariampolski, 2006). Thus, after an ideal plan, the researcher should prepare an
optimal plan driven by the decision what criteria are of key importance and what is
possible with given cognitive, time and nancial resources, however, without lost
in methodological correctness. The changes in the list of criteria of participants
selection may lead to changes in research objectives. As a simple example, imagine
that the researcher planned to nd support for hypotheses about differences
among individuals with shorter and longer seniority among other more important
hypotheses regarding the size of enterprise and type of responsibility related
with bank services (decision maker vs. service personnel). Taking into account
the budget constraints and theoretical importance for a research problem, this
researcher planned the research scheme without the criterion of seniority. Thus,
this researcher should give up verifying the hypotheses about differences of
seniority. It is because it may happen that the spread of seniority will be unequal
in other segments and it will be impossible to conclude about differences.
Last but not least, as in case of the whole research project, one perfect
solution doesnt exist. The researcher should avoid gross failures and know
how to justify the choices. If the researcher discovers that something went
wrong, the research design may be modied with enough explanation or the
next research should be conducted (Yin, 2003).

KEY POINTS
While dening selection criteria, the researcher may consider at least criteria
belonging to the following groups: the type of the target to whom characteristics
are applied (case or participants; organization, individual, external circumstances),
a centrality of features (key features vs. additional features), types of features
((in)tangibility, simplicity/complexity, overt/implicit), location (one, two or more)
and use the simultaneously or singly, depending on the research needs. The
criteria should be dened theoretically (e.g., a developing country, SME) and
then in operational terms (e.g., Ukraine, 5255 employees).

4.4. From criteria to recruitment how to find

a participant?
Up to now, I presented that the researcher task it to dene many criteria
including organization and individual characteristics on a theoretical and
operational level, depending of what is appropriate for particular problem. Some
76
 4.4. From criteria to recruitment how to find a participant?

procedures of recruitment were also presented such as a strategy of self-selection

including recruitment of volunteers and snow-balling, convenient samples
and opportunistic approach (Saunders, 2012, see also Table 4.1. in section The
strategies of non-probability sampling).
The further question arises how to nd participants who meet the criteria
and how to check if they meet the criteria. In opinion and research agencies,
professional recruiters are employed to nd individuals who meet the criteria,
although in recruitment of some groups of experts also researchers themselves
are involved. In academic practice, the researcher or assistants may conduct this
process. This process is rarely presented in academic books in details, with partial
exception of Yins (2003) book on case studies research and Saunders (2012)
publication on recruitment in organizational setting, thus this section is completed
by knowledge and experience from marketing and opinion research practice.
To facilitate the process of recruitment and assure its appropriateness, some
procedures may be employed: (1) Negotiation with management in case of
organization research (2) Screening questionnaire at the beginning of recruitment
(2) Control and reminder (3) Second (shorter) screening questionnaire (4)
Control during interview. The easier is access to participants, the more thorough
control is reasonable. When access is difcult, the researcher should be more
exible and ready for compromises, employing the opportunistic approach
(Saunders, 2012, see also Table 4.1.).
In case of organization research, the decision about the involvement in a study
is mostly taken by a management and is related with internal politics or personal
opinion of management about sharing information. Thus, the recruitment
process should be preceded by (1) thorough examination of organization politics
regarding condentiality and information sensitiveness via publicly accessible
sources (e.g., website), (2) preliminary talks. To gain an access to organization
and obtain the permission, it is worth preparing a letter containing key pieces
of information about a study, its methodology and requirements (see Frame
4.5., an example one may find also in a book by Robert Yin (2003; 2009).

Frame 4.5. Information in consent letter for organization

The main information in a consent letter:
the introduction (name of a researcher and institution),
the aim of the study (enough specic to obtain informed consent, but
in general terms not to bias the way of answering),
the requirements including type of sources, characteristics of participants,
the information about the type of required information,
the information about the level of condentiality,
other information following ethical guidelines in a given eld of studies
or institution,
the way of usage (e.g., academic purpose).

77
 Sampling and recruitment

Sometimes some negotiations may be necessary to establish the cooperation

(Saunders, 2012). The written consent form may be useful to obtain informed
consent to participate. Sometimes it is also required by ethical guidelines. The
letter or e-mail from management or HR about the research may sometimes be
helpful to facilitate contact with potential participants.
The screening questionnaires (screener in short) consist of a list of
questions that checks if a person (a case) meets the criteria. To some extent it is
similar in construction to typical questionnaires used in personal interviews in
quantitative research. The main parts of the screener are presented in Frame 4.6.

Frame 4.6. Topics in screening questionnaire

The screener consists of following parts:
the introduction (name of a researcher and institution, the overall aim
of the study condence of results),
question being major disqualiers (Mariampolski, 1996, p. 93), e.g.,
questions about attributes for all participants beginning with the
simplest about facts (characteristics of enterprise, then characteristics
of individuals such as participation in opinion and market research,
occupation),
questions about attributes qualifying to segments,
sensitive questions (e.g., income) closer to the end of questionnaire,
questions about additional attributes such as talkativeness, behaviors
in a group,
invitation to a proper interview (question about possibility to participate
in the interview at a given time, explanation of the aim and process of
interviewing with information about condence, recording, incentives
if applicable, the time and place of interviewing),
questions about contact data (the contact phone and sometimes
e-mail address).

Two rules of screening questionnaire development are crucial: to build a trust

and to avoid a bias. The trust building encourages a potential participant to
a further participation. Thats why the proper introduction and order of questions
are important. Second, the questions should not reveal which answer is correct.
If a participant knows which criteria should be met, he/she may answer in
a biased way (if a researcher wants a participant to prepare himself or herself for
a topic, it is better to prepare an assignment identical for each respondent). For
this reason, the question should be open (not yes/no answers), cafeteria should
include not only issues of interest, but also control questions, and the order of
qualifying and disqualifying response categories should be differentiated (in
one question in the beginning, another in the middle or in the end of cafeteria)
(Mariampolski, 2006). Third, the clear instruction for a recruiter should be given
78
 4.4. From criteria to recruitment how to find a participant?

when to continue and when to end screening. Thats why the respondent should
not self-complete the screener (to self-completion the questionnaire should be
reconstructed). The screener should end with information about the study what
enables participant to make informed choice. The good screener is as brief as
possible (without any nice to have), it consists of short, simple questions that
ask about only one thing at a time, in natural language, not in scientic terms,
otherwise it may be discouraging participant from further participation in the
study (Mariampolski, 2006; Stewart et al., 2007).
Good practice is to give or send a written invitation with information
about the institution, the overall aim of the study, the procedure (e.g., group
discussion, condentiality), time and place of interviewing, incentive if applicable
and contact data (telephone, e-mail) to the recruiter or researcher. It may help
to build trust (some respondents may check if the institution really employs
someone or conducts such a study) and it works as a reminder when and where
the interview takes place. Sometimes two types of materials may be required:
one for a decision maker and another for potential participants. Finally, it may
be helpful in negotiations about the scope of the study with some organizations
and to respect the established rules of cooperation on both sides.
Before the meeting (two or one day before or even in the morning the same
day or even twice with the last one about 24 hours before the meeting) good
marketing research practice is to call the respondent (Mariampolski, 2006).
This telephone contact may have two functions. First, to remind about the
interview, its time and place. Second, the researcher may check once again the
key criteria with a new set of questions about the same criteria as previously.
It may seem strange, but it happens that this control reveals new or replaces
proceeding answers. For example, an individual could have checked some
information about the enterprise size and discovered that it is not as big as he
or she thought. In organizational studies, the researcher may ask the participant
to check some pieces of information in the end of the recruitment (e.g., what is
the exact size of a given organization). Third control may be done just before
interviewing. Once again the invited person is asked to answer some questions
in a shorter form than previously. It can be a self-completing questionnaire or
a set of questions asked by an assistant or a researcher (the same for each
potential participant). However, this practice is not always necessary. Next, to
follow ethical guidelines of some academic eld or institution, participants
may be obliged to sign a written consent form. Saunders (2012) emphasizes
the increasing role of such materials in achieving an acceptance and trust of
participants working in organizations. This three step procedure decreases the
risk that the potential participant does not meet the appropriate criteria. However,
the key control has a place during interviewing when the atmosphere of
trust and focus on a topic may reveal new thoughts and facts. In case of group
interviewing it is particularly difcult to deal with such a situation, thus it is

79
 Sampling and recruitment

better to prevent any misunderstandings before the group. One way to prevent
cancelling of the interview is to invite more potential participants. For instance, if
a researcher plans to conduct an interview with 8 persons, 10 or even 12 may be
invited. Before starting the group in the waiting room participants complete
questionnaire (third control described above) and then the researcher invites
to the group only those who meet the criteria or invite all (it rarely happens
that all the invited participants come to the group anyway due to a variety of
unexpected circumstances). If an incentive was promised, each person should
get an incentive even if he or she does not participate in a meeting. In case of
IDIs with professionals the better solution is to plan more meetings and cancel
them in advance, or just conduct more interviews. In case of a bulletin board
discussion (see section 3.11. in Chapter 3) it is recommended not only to invite
but also to start with a larger group, as some persons may give up during this
long-standing research (Englis, Solomon, & Danskin, 2005).
As a nal remark, it is worth adding that the researcher should be exible and
open to redene the tactic for the selection as during gathering data the type
of case may turn out different than it was thought to be. For example, a critical
case may appear an extreme case (Flyvbjerg, 2006; Yin, 2003), or research
questions change during the course of the study (Yin, 2003). Whenever any
shift is justiable, the researcher should consider what change is indispensable:
change of case, change of type of selection or change in theoretical proposition
and research objectives. Next, researcher should explicitly redene the design
and start over with a new tactic for design selection (Yin, 2003).

KEY POINTS
To make successful recruitment, the researcher has several tasks:
to dene the strategy of recruitment,
to dene criteria at a theoretical and operational level,
to decide which criteria are key for obtaining research aims apply to all
participants and which criteria will apply to differentiate subgroups of
participants, given into account objectives, methodology and pragmatic
(time and budget) constraints, to determine additional criteria of selection,
to establish the number of cases/subgroups and participants,
to prepare materials to obtain consent from organization and participants,
to develop a screening questionnaire,
to nd participants,
to control the recruitment process.
All of the decisions should follow the research objectives and constraints of
a chosen method.
The researcher should know how to justify any decision.

80
 4.5. Additional remarks: What about anonymity?

4.5. Additional remarks: What about anonymity?

In the literature one may nd two different suggestions about the identication
of a case and participants in qualitative research. Academic publications prefer
the tendency to make cases and participants anonymous, while Robert Yin
(2003), the author of the book on case studies, recommends the identication
of cases. However, there are some compromises the researcher may consider. For
instance, organization may be identied and the participants remain anonymous
(for some compromises see Yin, 2003).
Each procedure has some advantages and disadvantages that are presented
in Table 4.3. As one may see, advantages of non-anonymous research include
mostly benefits for readers and the writer of the report; however, they may
have some serious negative outcomes (Yin, 2005). Advantages of anonymity
regard mostly issues of validity as the condentiality may decrease the risk of
rejection and encourage openness during interviewing process, thus facilitating
uncovering the reality as it is. Assuring anonymity follows the marketing
and psychological research tradition and ethics. If anonymity or at least
condentiality is guaranteed, the researcher task is to assure it and predict any
difficulties. If pictures are taken, the researcher should avoid any signs that may
enable identication of the organization (Vince & Warren, 2012). If participants
are employees, the researcher has to ascertain that individual results will not be
available for other staff members (Morgan & Symon, 2004).

Table 4.3. Advantages and disadvantages of identification and anonymity

of case and participants in qualitative research

Anonymity Identification by real name

Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages
 Developing trust  Elimination of  Possibility of in-  Not always rel-
at the stage of background infor- tegration of cur- evant for research
recruitment and mation rent and previous aim
interviewing  Difculty in sys- knowledge about  Risk for organiza-
 Participants and tematic disguising the case tion and person
organization the real identity in  Results and inter- reputation in case
protection, par- a nal report pretation of case of some topics
ticularly in case study is more eas-  Risk of inuence
of controversial ily reviewed due on subsequent
topics to references to actions
 In accordance direct sources
with marketing  Easier to name
and psychological the organiza-
research tradition tion and person
and ethics by name in the
report

Source: own elaboration, based on Yin (2003).

81
 Sampling and recruitment

Nevertheless, the participant should be informed in advance about the

way of dealing with organization and participants real identity in a final
report and the level of confidentiality. In case of organization identication,
it is worth obtaining a written consent.

KEY POINTS
Although both anonymity and identication of cases have some advantages
and disadvantages, one may nd more pros concerning anonymity as it
serves the protection of participants.

Persons who are interested in reading more about the selection
of cases and participants may read the text of Mark Saunders
(2012) pertaining to an organizational research with detailed
examples of selection strategies, selected chapters in the book
by Robert Yin (2003) and the text by Chad Perry (1998). About
ethical issues related to organizational research one may read the
text by Holt (2012). Some issues regarding the development of
screener and selection focus group interviews can be found in the
book by David Stewart et al. (2007).

82
 CHAPTER 5

How to develop a topic guide

This chapter focuses on issues related to the development of
a research tool for interviews. It starts with general characteristics and
then presents three main rules of topic guide development: transfer
of research objectives and researcher approach, the relationship
between group dynamic and information revealing, and rules of
questioning and application of supporting techniques to gain more
insight into the phenomena under consideration. The final section
discusses the role of topic guide implementation during fieldwork.

5.1. The main characteristics of topic guide

In the literature and in practice one may nd a variety of notions to name
a qualitative research instrument. In the literature on a qualitative interviewing
and marketing research practice, one may meet such notions as topic/discussion
guide, interview schedule or interview outline, while in the Polish market
research tradition a notion of a scenario of an interview is usually used. In
the case study literature, a notion of a protocol is used; however, this notion
refers to the instrument for a whole case study including a variety of sources
and enables to complete information (Yin, 2003). To emphasize the qualitative
exible formula of the tool for interviewing the notion of a topic guide will be
used in this handbook.
In research practice one may meet two approaches to topic guide development.
Some researchers prefer the general topic guide while others the detailed
topic guide. The general topic guide is very short and includes only general
issues to be discussed during the interview. It may look like an example on the
left side of Table 5.1. with a market research example of advertising test. It
assumes much exibility during interviewing and following the participant(s)
perspective. In turn, the detailed topic guide includes many specic questions
and may have even several pages. It may have content more like the one on the
right side of Table 5.1. that presents part of topic guide.

83
 How to develop a topic guide

Table 5.1. Examples of general and detailed topic guide

General topic guide
(1) Introduction
(2) Warm-up. The familiarity of
advertising in the area under
consideration
(3) The advertising test:
a. Presentation of the initial
version of the advertising
b. The general reaction
c. Likes and dislikes
d. The reaction toward the main
message
e. The reaction toward the main
character
f. The category and brand image
g. The directions of modications
(4) The same procedure for two
other advertisings
(5) The nal ranking
Source: own elaboration.
Detailed topic guide
(1) Introduction (10 minutes)
The aim of this section: To build the
psychological safety and establish rules
The introduction of the researcher and
the institution. The general aim: to
identify opinions about usage, attitudes
and experiences
Organizing information: condentiality,
recording, no good and wrong answers,
all commentaries are important, time
frames
Introduction of the participant (name
without surname to make it condential,
the job, etc.)
The specic aim: The experiences and
opinions about some ideas
(2) Warm-up. The familiarity of advertising in
the area under consideration (10 minutes)
The aims of this section: To increase the
psychological safety. To understand the
background for the reaction toward the
tested advertising (the bank experience,
familiarity and general opinions, main
remembered elements and messages, the
role of the characters)
When do you think about bank
advertising, what are your rst
associations?
Which bank advertising do you like?
Why?
Which bank advertising do you dislike?
Why?
What in bank advertisings is the most
convincing for you?
o Probe: Which characters are the most
convincing for you?
Etc.

Both solutions have the advantages and disadvantages. The general approach
to the topic guide building enables the more unstructured interviewing thus
it opens the possibility to reveal more unexpected answers. It is benecial
particularly whenever one intends to explore new and unknown fields. It may
be advantageous in case of an experienced interviewer, who knows how to
direct the interview to achieve desirable information. However, there is some risk
of this approach, too. First, gathering answers in unstructured way may be time
consuming: the interview and the following process of analysis including making
transcripts and separating important from unimportant information may be much

84
 5.1. The main characteristics of topic guide

longer. Also the interview may go in the undesired direction a participant may
unintentionally or intentionally talk about issues not related with a main topic or
talk about known processes without discovering any new aspects.
In turn, the detailed topic guide may bear the risk of excessive rigidity
during conducting the interview as the interviewer may try to ask all the
questions in the topic guide in a similar way as during quantitative research (what
was the original intention of the positivist American approach to qualitative
interviewing). As a result, spontaneity of the interviewee will be blocked and
nothing new will be discovered. However, this approach to the topic guide
development may reduce some threats of the general topic guide. The detailed
topic guide facilitates achieving all the objectives, discussion about all the
important issues and it enables doing it under planned time constraints. In
practice, the detailed topic guide and more structured interviewing is particularly
useful not only for a beginning researcher, but also whenever other person(s)
than researcher or two or more interviewers are going to conduct interviews,
in international research or in any research which assume the detailed
comparisons between segments or individuals (Maison, 2010).

Table 5.2. The main characteristics of a topic guide (research tool for
interviewing)
The aim Main functions
To show the possible To reach all the objectives
direction of the discussion To discuss all the important issues to a sufcient extent
To gather information that are: relevant to the problem,
spontaneous and in-depth
To nish on time

Content Main attributes of the content

Topics to be discussed It assumes exibility in answering
Aims of a given part of It is clear and simple
interview It should help to conduct an interview, not to disturb
Examples of questions
Probes (what to ask if not
arisen spontaneously by a
participant)
Instructions for an
interviewer
An order of topics
Time for each topic

Source: own elaboration.

In my personal opinion (both as an experienced qualitative researcher and as a

teacher of beginning researchers), it is the best to develop general topic guide
first and then develop it as the detailed topic guide in such a way that it has
85
 How to develop a topic guide

all the advantages of general topic guide as well. The main characteristics of
such a topic guide are presented in Table 5.2. As one may see, the topic guide
should show the possible way of the interview, enable the researcher gathering
all the important information and to do it under time constraints.
Such a topic guide facilitates achieving all the objectives and reaching answers
about all the important issues, facilitates a smooth interview and enables
achieving later more spontaneous and less biased answers. During the topic guide
development, the researcher has the unique opportunity to think thoroughly about
the way of questioning and the order of the questioning. In this way, the
researcher have a good training how to formulate and reformulate questions in
a proper qualitative open and non suggesting way. It is especially important
in case of beginning qualitative researchers, because in common talks rather
closed questions are used (King, 2004) (more about questioning in the section
5.3). In case of academic student or doctoral research such a detailed topic guide
may also help the supervisor to control the content, similarly as in practice of
marketing research it is helpful in communication with a client who ordered the
research. In all those cases the detailed questions help to understand the main
intention of the researcher, to complete or correct it. Moreover, planning specic
questions is helpful in a time management (what is discussed in Frame 5.1.).

Frame 5.1. Time Management during Interviewing

Such a practical issue as the proper time management both during
planning and interviewing is very important both for ethic and
substantive reasons. First, if a researcher established an appointment
for the duration of one hour, it would be non-fair to break this rule.
Second, after the xed time, both the interviewee and interviewer may
start being nervous and less concentrated, some topics may be less
discussed or even the interview may end suddenly because of other
tasks, meetings, etc. As a result, time pressure may cause that the
researcher will not gather sufcient information.
To counteract such a pitfall, the researcher should predict (realistically!)
and write down in a topic guide the time predicted for each topic and
for the whole interview. However, such a time plan is only a cue
during the process of interviewing and the researcher is not obliged
to follow it strictly. The interviewer should be exible to some extent
and devote more or less time to the topic depending on research goals
and discussion ow. Therefore, the researcher should remember that
longer time devoted to one issue means less time and less detailed
discussion of other issues.
If the researcher notices during topic guide development that the
whole interview takes longer than time requirements (e.g., one hour
of interviewing), the researcher may apply one of the solutions:
86
 5.2. From research guiding questions and objectives

SOLUTION 1. Change the ow in a topic guide: To rethink whether the

given topic should be discussed with so many details (some topics are
more while others are less important depending on research questions)
and reconsider whether the appropriate technique of gathering data
was chosen (for more info about techniques in further sections).
SOLUTION 2. Change a research design. To plan longer interviews,
or reduce research objectives.

In the development of the topic guide, three main rules may be especially
helpful. They are presented in Table 5.3. Following these rules, the controlled
exibility during interviewing is necessary.

Table 5.2. Three main rules of topic guide development

(1) From research guiding questions and objectives, theoretical

and epistemological approach into eldwork
(2) Facilitation of natural process
(3) Better insight into the phenomena

Source: own elaboration.

KEY POINTS
Two types of topic guides for interviewing can be found in research practice.
For beginning researchers more advantages are offered by a detailed interview.
It should expose the main issues to be discussed (visible without reading
details), the aims of each section, specic questions and time devoted for
each issue.

Some issues regarding the two types of topic guides can be found
in the book by Malhotra & Birks (2007) and in the Polish book by
Maison (2010).

5.2. From research guiding questions and objectives,

theoretical and epistemological approach to the
fieldwork
Although it may happen that researcher conducts interview without any
problem and plans formulation (Buchanan, 2012), the majority of research
is planned to gather data that solve a particular problem, to answer guiding
research question and to achieve some objectives or even to test particular
hypothesis. These issues are also a starting point for the topic guide development

87
 How to develop a topic guide

as they establish the substantive frame of interview implying the main issues to
be covered during interviewing. Figure 5.1. presents this process.

Figure 5.1. The process of topic guide development

Research Topic guide developement Topic guide

Reserarch objectives/ Topics to be discussed application
Problem main specic during interviews during
question research Techniques of gathering interviewing
quesitons data

In the literature one may nd two main approaches to the theory

development: inductive and deductive. In short, pure induction means lack of
any theory and hypothesis and generating theory only from data (what is
emphasized in the grounded theory approach as the most prominent example),
whereas deduction means systematic test of existing theory or theories
(what is the most visible in positivist approach). The merging of both these
strategies in qualitative research (both academic and applied) is widely applied
and even preferred in the literature (Malhotra & Birks, 2007; Zaborek, 2007)
due to some reasons. First, in practice it is almost impossible to separate
processes of induction and deduction (Zaborek, 2009a). Second, it is useful
to use theory and prior knowledge at every stage of research process. The
theory and the knowledge about the current state of empirical ndings in
a eld may help to narrow research problem, to dene research objectives
and research design with focus on the most important issues. The prior theory
gives a frame of interviewing by showing which issues should be discussed,
to choose the most appropriate techniques and next enables analyzing data
(see Chapter 6), what helps to avoid useless data and time wasting (both
of the researcher and interviewee). For instance, theoretical assumptions
about the role of individuals (in)consciousness as behaviors drivers may help
to choose the proper technique to uncover the motives of behaviors (direct
questions vs. supporting techniques, see in one of further sections). Third, the
rigid employment of one approach may pose some threats. The induction
make more difficult comparisons between cases due to different ow of
interviews and the risk of discovering existing theories (Perry, 1998, p. 790),
while deduction may result in biases toward existing theory and hypothesis.
Thus, the good topic guide and interviews should enable both induction and
deduction and enable discovering unexpected outcomes and checking
presuppositions derived from existing theories. However, depending on the
research question, the level of deduction and induction may vary. Interviews
focused on theory development based on data will have more open structure,
while interviews directed to theory testing will be more structured and will
include more probes.
88
 5.2. From research guiding questions and objectives

How to use a theory for topic guide development? Lets see a simple example
of marketing research on brand image of FMCG products presented by Matt
Wjcik (2007). According to Noel Kapferers model, brand identity have six
components brand presence, brand personality, brand culture, brand user image,
brand self-image and brand relationship. It means that the interviewee should
deliver information about each of these issues to determine how the brand is
perceived by him. So, during an interview the interviewer should get answers
about the brand product features, the unique brand product characteristics as
compared with category, what is their real meaning for consumer. The researcher
should also gather information about brand personality, brand user image,
emotional benets. Because all of them refer to a symbolic level, one may use
projective techniques that help to better reach this implicit level of beliefs (see
one of next sections about supporting techniques). Finally, the researcher should
establish the type of relationship with the brand (positive-negative, what type
of emotions the brand evokes, formal-informal, active-responsive, functional-
value laden, always asked in an open way, e.g., via an associations test). It may
happen that some participants mention the given issue spontaneously and then
the researcher may pull the topic. But it may happen that the participant (or
none in a group of participants) does not mention them at all. The researcher
may presume at least three reasons why a participant does not say something
spontaneously. First, it is not important for the participant personally. Second,
the issue is so obvious that nobody says about it spontaneously. Third, the
process is implicit and inaccessible consciously. Thus, the role of the researcher
is to probe about a given issue. In this way, the researcher may reach the main
objective to a sufcient extent, having all the important and spontaneous data
from all the participants.
Some authors have noticed also the relationship between the structure of
an interview (including the style of topic guide and the style of interviewing)
and epistemological approach. As mentioned earlier, in the literature one
may nd two main approaches: positivist and non-positivist. The philosophical
approach underlying the positivist position is quite clear. Although some may
argue that qualitative research is not positivist at all (see Chapter 3), some
authors notice the inuence of this distinction on style of interviewing (Malhotra
& Birks, 2007). In particular, the general topic guide (described in the previous
section) follows non-positivist interpretative approach to qualitative research,
mostly represented in the UK. It assumes much exibility during interviewing.
Flow of interview is mostly based on participants words. The researchers aim
is exploring, understanding and gaining insight into the phenomena. Thus, the
topic guide and interview ow are less structured. In turn, the detailed topic
arises from positivist North American style of interviewing. In this tradition, the
style of qualitative interviewing arises from quantitative research and is directed
on gathering information necessary to develop a questionnaire. This instrument

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has its origin in quantitative questionnaires. However, as one may see in Table
5.4. the areas of application, advantages and threats of each approach toward
the topic go beyond these differences.

Table 5.4. The circumstances of different styles of interviewing

Less structure More structure
More inductive approach (theory building, More deductive approach (theory testing,
generating theory based on data) conrmation, challenging, or extending of
an existing theory)
Non-positivist approach (including More positivist approach or non-positivist
phenomenological, interpretative, critical, realism
constructivist, grounded theory)
Origin in psychology, sociology and Origin in quantitative research
anthropology
British tradition of qualitative research USA tradition of qualitative research
Exploration and going in-depth Looking for objective truth, establishing
Emphasis on understanding facts, preliminary to quantitative
Need to recognize the holistic research
participants perspective Emphasis on external validation
Need for some detailed information while
the key issues within phenomena are
already understood
Advantages Advantages
More likelihood to reveal unexpected Focus on issues which are the most
important for research objectives
Better performance and comfort
of interviewer in interviews with
uncommunicative interviewees
Threats: Threats:
More difcult comparisons between The risk of biases toward existing theory
cases due to different ow of interviews and hypothesis
The risk of discovering existing theories The risk of constraints in interviewee(s)
Perry, 1998, p. 790) spontaneity
The risk of not intended researcher bias
Flexibility enables obtaining better research questions

Source: Own elaboration.

However, as presented in Chapter 3, the non-positivist approach is not

a uniform one. It includes a wide range of epistemological approaches:
phenomenological, interpretative, critical, constructivist, realist, grounded theory
with different characteristics, e.g., realism, critical theory, constructivism. In the
research practice the distinctions between these approaches are not always clear
cut. The specic approach implies different approaches to interviewing and
mainly to data analysis. For the issue of structure of interviewing the differences
between realism and other approaches seems to be of key importance. Nigel
King (2004) has noticed slight differences in the level of structure between
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 5.3. Facilitation of natural process through group dynamic management

interviews conducted in the realism (more structure) and phenomenological

approach (less structure). Less structure and involving interpretation into
interviewing process is also ascribed to the interpretative approach (Malhotra
& Birks, 2007) and phenomenology (Kvale, 1996), but mainly as compared with
positivist approach.

KEY POINTS
While planning issues to be discussed during interview, the researcher should
obtain answers of key importance for the theoretical model. The answers
should be gathered in an open way to enable spontaneous reactions. If some
issues are not covered spontaneously by the participant, the topic guide should
indicate what to probe. The level of structure depends on many circumstances
including the approach of the researcher and the level of knowledge in
a given matter, the respondent type. One may recognize the pros and cons in
case of both unstructured and structured interviews. The interviewer may be
rigorous in the approach (e.g., more structure in the positivist approach) or
may react exibly to obtain answers for all objectives.

More about relation between the philosophical and epistemological

approach and structure of interviewing can be found in the text by
Alvesson & Ashcraft (2012) and in the book by Malhotra & Birks
(2007).

5.3. Facilitation of natural process through group

dynamic management
To develop topic guide and then to conduct the interview smoothly it is very
important to understand the cognitive, emotional and social processes that may
took place in a interviewees mind. Both in the literature on group processes,
on qualitative interviewing and in research practice, one may observe that the
process of revealing information is related with group dynamic (Goodyear,
1998; Schneider-Corey & Corey, 1997; Stewart et al., 2007; Styko-Kunkowska
& Grzesiak-Feldman, 2012) and that the ow of interviewing should t to the stage
of group development (Goodyear, 1998). Although the issue of group processes
is mostly arisen in the literature on focus group interviewing one may observe
similar processes in practice of one-on-one interviewing (according to some group
theories even two persons constitute a group if they meet additional criteria as
common aim, norms, structure and feeling of individuality (Mika, 1984).
To understand the participants perspective, imagine that it was you who was
invited to participate in the interview on the participation in decision processes

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in the organization you work at. Among other things, the recruiter said
something about the condentiality and recording, but you dont remember
exactly what. It is a new situation for you. You are wondering how to behave in
these new circumstances, what type of questions will be asked and what type of
information you may reveal. You are entering the research room. You feel a little
tense and nervous, but you try to behave as a self-condent person. You listen
to the words of the researcher very carefully to understand what is going on and
how the best you may present yourself and your company. Your rst statements
are very concrete or in contrary you try to say as much as possible to show
yourself as a cooperative person. You are ready to reveal information that is easy
and publicly accessible.
Such a state of mind is typical for the beginning stage of group dynamic.
People feel tense and uncertain because of new circumstances. Participants
may express these feelings by many different ways: some of them dont talk
too much, while others are very talkative and willing to ask many questions to
the interviewer, some may try to emphasize their superiority in a topic. Mostly,
participant(s) do not show externally the tension (although the attentive observer
may notice signs of it). At this stage the interviewer seems to participant(s)
someone in a better position, who has control and knows more about the
ow of the talk and similarly as a teacher at school who will ask questions.
But they also need to understand the rules of this new situation. Thats why one
of group dynamic models calls this stage as orientation and dependability
stage (Jedliski et al., 2008). To conduct the interview uently, the interviewer
should lower the level of uncertainty, focus on building the atmosphere of
security, to accustom participant with a new situation and to equalize the
positions. The good interviewer also understands that at this stage people will
not share their in-depth feelings or beliefs, and they need some time to build up
a rapport. For this reasons, a typical approach to start is a short introduction
of the rules of interviewing: who is conducting a study, what for, how data
are going to be used, about condentiality (or the level of condentiality)
and recording, the unstructured ow of the talk and appreciating all types of
comments (no good and bad answers). Even if the interviewer repeats the same
information as during the recruitment stage, it is worth building up a good
relationship. Additional benet of this procedure is that it helps participant to
take root in a new situation and stop thinking about other everyday tasks. Then,
a typical approach is to gather narrowly dened factual individual information
with direct questioning a name, current position, main tasks on this position
or tasks related to the topic (relevant to the research aims). Saying something
easy and unthreatening about themselves may help to conquer ones fears
and focus on own experiences in the given eld. Additionally, the interviewer has
an opportunity to ensure the appropriateness of recruitment and understands
better the background of further participants statements.

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 5.3. Facilitation of natural process through group dynamic management

After these narrowly dened questions in the introductory part of the

interview, the interviewer starts the main part of interviewing with direct broad
and open-ended questions about experiences referring to issues under
consideration (Perry, 1998). The topic should be easy for participant and the
best if it refers to experiences, e.g., what is the story of your experiences in
management or aspects of knowledge that are easy to retrieve, e.g., what
are your rst associations when I say European Union funds? Most people feel
safe and positive with their experiences, thus it should be the comfortable base
to facilitate their openness. Focus on experiences may also help participant to
refresh the memory about the issues related to a topic. The open and rather
broad question may also enhance the safety giving the participant a feeling of
control over the information being revealed. In the same time the interviewer
has not only important data but also win a very good starting point for further
questioning: during further talk the researcher may refer to what was already
said. As some participants experience may be more important for the research
objectives, whereas other topics may be not important, the research should
include in a topic guide which issues should be explored more and what exact
information about each of them are being looked for. Topic guide also should
include instruction which issues should be explored even if they did not reveal
spontaneously. Anyway, referring to the previous words of the participants is
one of the techniques of active listening and of building up the rapport, as
it makes the participant have a feeling of being truly listened to. As a whole,
the presented order of issues should shorten the time that participants need
to open themselves. If again you identify with the interviewee, imagine this
further part of the interview. If the group dynamic was managed properly, in
the beginning part of the interview the researcher dispelled your doubts about
the idea of interview, he or she enables you to feel more comfortable than at
the beginning and seemed really interested in your professional tasks and your
experiences. Thanks to that you may feel comfortable to talk openly about your
personal attitudes.
According to the group dynamic literature, when participants feel relatively
comfortable with a situation of the interview and with a topic, they go to the
middle stage of group dynamic people start to be ready to express their
deeper thoughts without much caring about psychological and social risk,
they are ready to reveal their true self. Thats why this phase of group
process is being called differentiation (Jedliski et al., 2008). This is time
for more demanding tasks and more expansive aspects of interviewing
(Goodyear, 1998), for instance for supporting techniques (see next section)
or questions that go deeper into experiences of the participant. It is good
to remember that improper management in the rst and second stage of
the process may close the participant in a psychological sense, may cause his
anger, impatience and even the rebellion against the interviewer. As research

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 How to develop a topic guide

on dynamic group process shows this type of conict reaction is normal if

group process is unstructured and may be fruitful for some psychoeducational
aims (e.g., self-development) (Jedliski et al., 2008; Schneider-Corey & Corey,
1997). But during the interview such a reaction is totally useless and rarely
happens because good researchers focus the energy of participants on the
intensive work and deepening of their experiences. Thus, during the topic
guide development, to avoid negative aspects of group dynamic the researcher
should predict that in the middle phase more demanding and more expansive
tasks should be proposed to the participants.
How would you feel as a participant after that? You would probably be very
involved with an interview; you would talk willingly and with a true understanding
of your own points of view. In case of interviewing, the specicity of the third
stage is best descript by a notion stage of intensive work or working
stage (similarly as in case of psychoeducational trainings, Styko-Kunkowska
& Grzesiak-Feldman, 2012). Participants are really involved in the interview,
they fully understand their role and at the same time after refreshing and
deepening of their experiences in the previous stages of the interview they are
able to integrate the rational and emotional, overt and covert level of their
experiences and opinions and they are ready to make truly constructive
evaluation of issues under consideration. Thus, it is time for evaluation of
existing and new ideas and processes (the opinions will be more insightful
than at previous stages) and if needed ideas of new proposition. Both
second and third stages of the process give the best opportunity to gather
the most important data. At the end of interviews, participants may be too
tired to reveal key information, so some time may be devoted for gathering
information of less importance, e.g., contextual data (Maison, 2010). Finally
to end the interview smoothly the researcher may ask for conclusions with
overall evaluative comments, summary and if necessary reconciliation of
inconsistencies (Goodyear, 1998).
One may ask how much time one should plan for each stage. In my experience,
during one hour individual interviews with professionals, the introductory
section together with warm-up section takes about 15 minutes. The proportions
may vary depending on the topic and objectives, and on individual differences.
However, the most insightful opinions and the greatest involvement one may
observe after 3040 minutes with a properly designed topic guide.
The whole process of parallel ow of group dynamic process and information
is summarized in Table 5.5.

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 5.3. Facilitation of natural process through group dynamic management

Table 5.5. Coexistence of group and informational level during flow of the
interview

Group dynamic
Issues to be discussed
stage
Introduction (aims and rules)
Narrow factual information
Orientation
Broad questions about experiences or easy to retrieve
knowledge
More demanding tasks and more expansive aspects of
Differentiation
interviewing
Evaluation of existing and new ideas and processes and
Intensive work
if needed ideas of new proposition.
Gathering information of less importance, e.g.,
Final stage contextual data overall evaluative comments, summary
and if necessary reconciliation of inconsistencies

Source: own elaboration.

KEY POINTS
During the development of the topic guide the researcher should remember
not only about substantive goals but also about psychological goals related
to group dynamic. The time for individual and group interviews is very short,
so the researcher has to perfectly manage the group process by facilitating
natural processes. On the psychological level, the researchers task is to
accelerate the transition from one group dynamic phase to another.
The plan of the interview should start with an introductory section, then
go to narrowly-dened factual information and continue with warm up
section about real but easy to talk experiences of the participant.
In the middle stage of the interview the researcher should plan more
demanding tasks and more expansive aspects of interviewing.
In the intensive work stage the topics such as the evaluation of the
existing and new ideas and processes, creation of new ideas.
Finally, it is time for gathering less important information and for overall
summary and comments.
When these general guidelines are replaced with concrete substantive
issues, the general topic guide is ready. However, as mentioned before, such
a general outline should be completed with specic questions for which the
researcher wants to nd answers and techniques.

Some issues related to group dynamics in an interviewing process
can be found in the book by David Stewart et al. (2007).

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 How to develop a topic guide

5.4. Better insight into the phenomena via questioning

and supporting techniques
To obtain better insight into the phenomena under consideration, to limit
the risks of biased answers and to facilitate spontaneous answering with the
usage of own language and concept, a good interviewer in IDIs and a good
moderator of FGIs apply some rules regarding the order of questioning and type
of questions, and use supporting techniques which should be anticipated in the
topic guide.
Next to the rule of facilitation of natural processes, the issues and questions
should have logical order (Maison, 2010). In practice it means that after one
topic, the participant naturally goes to another topic, even without questioning,
or at least each issue is a logical continuation of the previous issue. Very helpful for
implementing the appropriate order of questioning is a funnel metaphor (see
Figure 5.2.). In case of interviewing it means starting with general questions
and going to detailed and supporting questions and finally to probing.

Figure 5.2. Funnel rule of questioning during interview

Types of main questions, their role in qualitative interviews and examples

are presented in Table 5.6. General questions should be broad enough to
encourage openness and spontaneity and free talk, but also enough focused
on the issue under consideration to avoid excessive answers about issues not
important for the topic of interview. Detailed, supporting questions serve
most of all to better understanding issues under consideration and participants
perspective. Probing enables the interviewer to ask about issues not mentioned
what helps to test ideas driven from theory and about possible explanations
of participants statements. Open questioning is one of key features and
advantages of qualitative interviewing and without any doubt should dominate
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 5.4. Better insight into the phenomena via questioning and supporting techniques

the process of interviewing, whatever other type of question is asked (general,

supporting or probing). Open questions encourage interviewee to talk freely
with the usage of own concepts and facilitate answers relatively unbiased by
the interviewer perspective. Seemingly easy, in practice open questioning may
appear difcult because in the real life talks this type of questions is rarely applied
compared to closed questions. Closed questions during interviewing carry the
risk of very short, simplied answers or unintentional bias. Thats why some
training via preparing questions for the topic guide is so important. The training
may also help formulate questions in neutral way, what is an additional key for
obtaining unbiased answers. Again, it may seem easy, but in practice avoidance
of suggestive questions (that in content or intonation carry the message about
the attitude of an interviewer) or threatening questions (e.g., why you havent
done this? despite of less threatening please tell me more details about your
decision) may appear quite difcult.

Table 5.6. Types of questions dominating in qualitative interview

Type of
Function Examples
question
General/ What are your experiences with .?
basic Facilitating an openness of
questions participant, a spontaneous
Open conceptualization of the How the process of looks like in
questions issues under consideration your company?

Detailed/ Why this process looks like this?

supporting/
follow up Gaining better insight into
questions issue under consideration
and participant perspective
Probing Gaining answers about
issues not mentioned
spontaneously by a
participant; testing
hypothesis derived
from theory and checking
explanations and
interpretation of some
statements or data (e.g., for
triangulation)
Neutral Facilitate unbiased answers
Who else was involved in this
process?
Tell me more details about this part of
the process
What example of this issue would you
present?
What was the role of HR department
in this decision process?
I can imagine one more reason of
this situation: lack of employees
motivation. What do you think about
this explanation?
What do you think about this issue

Source: Own elaboration, based on Maison (2010), Stewart et al. (2007).

Beside the main types of questions, the researcher has a wide range of
supporting techniques of interviewing. They may be applied as a small or

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 How to develop a topic guide

large part of interview or with some exceptions as a technique for the whole
interview. In general, supporting techniques are shortcuts to achieve some goals
in shorter time than via direct questioning or/and to facilitate an access to
information difficult or impossible to obtain via direct questioning as they
may help refresh memory or open access to implicit level of thinking. Moreover,
in case of group interviewing, applying individual techniques may reduce some
biases related with group influence.
The taken for granted assumption that participant include all the most
important information in their words may be misleading. The situation of
interview itself may limit the amount of verbalized information (e.g., due to
individual differences, time constraints, beliefs about interviewers expectations,
presence of others). Moreover, current psychology ndings reveal that people
are only partially conscious of their attitudes, needs and behaviors, some of them
are implicit (Bargh, 2002; Maison, 2010; Woodside, 2010). The participants
answers depend on accessibility of information from long-term memory and
skills to verbalize it. Some answers may seem to participants so obvious or
even irrelevant that they are not verbalized during interviews (e.g., that there is
very hierarchical managerial structure in their organization) or may be outside
their focal attention (the topic of the interview is one of many different tasks
that they have during a day). Some of attitudes and processes may be difficult
to explicate (e.g., corporate values, informal ways of communication in a team)
or may refer to intuitions and emotions, not to rationality (e.g., reasons why
subordinates do not accept new informatics solutions). Finally, people may not
be willing to verbalize some beliefs explicitly or directly, because of the risk of
social approval. The assumption about implicit level of people functioning has at
least two consequences for qualitative research. First, direct questioning is not
always the most effective way of gathering data (what is extremely important
particularly in interviews with very busy individuals). Second, indirect techniques
may help to triangulate data, however they may also reveal information
complementary or discrepant with the conscious level of interview (this issue
will be discussed more thoroughly in Chapter 6). Assumptions about a hidden
nature of some phenomena differ depending on the theoretical approach, but it
is worth at least considering this level of peoples functioning during qualitative
interviews and understand that it is possible to deal with them by application of
supporting techniques.
Table 5.7. presents some techniques of questioning that has been applied in
academic research regarding the management, organizational and consumer
behavior eld, the exemplar function and generic procedure. This list does not
exhaust the procedures applied in qualitative interviews; however, it illustrates
the variety of techniques of gathering data.

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 5.4. Better insight into the phenomena via questioning and supporting techniques

Table 5.7. Supporting techniques

Type of Example of Generic procedure
question function
Sorting/ Insight into causal Participant sorts cards with e.g., notions,
mapping relationships names, logo, photos according to spontaneous
Identifying or/and aided criteria, describes and explains
key criteria of relationships
perception
Recognition of
perception of
some objects
(brands, products,
notions) as
compared with
others
Critical To gain better Participant reconstructs an incident or set of
incident understanding incidents (events, processes, issues) of particular
analysis (CIT) of peoples meaning for him and delivers information
perspective about the personal meaning, beliefs, emotions,
behaviors, context and outcomes
Repertory To identify the Participant rst selects the evoked set of
grid key features elements within a given phenomena. Next to
in peoples elicit a list of important features (constructs)
perception of participant describes similarities and differences
some phenomena within this set of elements. As a result, a matrix
of elements and constructs is generated
Laddering To identify the Participant describes reasons of some behavior,
values underlying then explains reasons why these features/issues
consumer choices are important and again explains importance of
the identied features and so on till end values
are identied (or from values go to features)
Projective To understand Participants project their beliefs and feelings
techniques implicit beliefs and to stimuli material (e.g.,. imagine that a brand
emotions is a person, animal, car; use photos) or answer
To facilitate talking indirectly (e.g., via associations, nishing
or discussion uncompleted sentences)
To omit
rationalizations
Scaled closed To summarize the Participant answers a closed question with
question overall perceptions a numeric scale, e.g., semantic differential Likert
of a given issue type, hierarchy of importance, etc.
To facilitate talking
To facilitate
analysis

Source: Own elaboration.

Sorting. One of multifunctional techniques is sorting (McDonald, Daniels

& Harris, 2004; Rugg & McGeorge, 2005), called also mapping, perceptual map,
segmentation, grouping. This technique, as many other ones, has a variety of

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 How to develop a topic guide

versions and many underlying conceptualizations. In its generic idea participants

sort something and identify reasons of sorting. Depending on the particular
aim, they may sort a wide range of materials both created during interview and
earlier prepared. They may sort cards with their own main statements or in
market research names of brands that they know or they use or used. They may
sort written materials (names of concepts of many kinds, of categories, of brand
names), visual materials (photos, logos, labels) or objects (e.g., products or mock
ups). The researcher may ask a participant to use own criteria of sorting, to sort
according the aided criteria or both, then starting with spontaneous sorting. The
variety of aided criteria is huge; an example of sorting in organizational setting
to recognize the perception of causality is presented in Frame 5.2. In market
research, the technique of sorting is typically applied for identifying criteria of
brand perception, the brand and users image of particular brands as compared
with competitive brands, and participants sort cards with brand names, logos,
real products, or in photo sorting pictures of persons (Maison, 2010).

Frame 5.2. An example of sorting in organizational research

For instance, McDonald et al. (2004) applied a card sorting technique to
elicit mental model of issues under consideration during interview with
resultant maps that show causal reasoning. After each part of interview,
the researcher noted on post-it cards the main concepts driven from
participants statements, asked to check them for accuracy, to sort them
according to causal relationships and explain the nature of connection.

This technique may be implemented both during IDIs and FGIs (Maison, 2010).
The results of sorting may be analyzed by hand or with using the statistical
software (Hodgkins et al., 2012).

Critical incident technique (CIT). As most qualitative supporting technique,

CIT also has many variations. It may be interpreted in both the positivist and
phenomenological or interpretative approach (Chell, 2004). In Chells (2004)
phenomenological development of this method, during an interview the
researcher gathers information about the personal meaning, beliefs, emotions,
behaviors, context and outcomes, related with an incident or set of incidents
(events, processes, issues) of particular meaning for a participant. As such, CIT
enables achieving better understanding of peoples (entrepreneurs, managers,
employees) perspective and is dedicated for emotionally laden critical events
(Chell, 2004, p. 45). For the concept, procedures and example of research in
organization, one may read the text by Elizabeth Chell (2004) and the text by
Binna Kandola (2012) on its application during focus group interviews.
Repertory grid. This technique may be applied both in the positivist and
non-positivist (e.g., interpretative) approaches and, as many other techniques,
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 5.4. Better insight into the phenomena via questioning and supporting techniques

this interviewing procedure has many variations including a mixed-method

procedure and analysis (Cassell & Walsh, 2004; Malhotra & Birks, 2007). Its aim
is to identify the key features in peoples perception of some phenomena. In
generic approach, participants rst task is to select the evoked set of elements
within a given phenomena. Next, to elicit list of important features (constructs),
a participant describes similarities and differences within this set of elements. As
a result, a matrix of elements and constructs is generated. This technique is exible
to many areas of applications, also within organizational context including job
analysis, employment selection, introduction of new manufacturing practices
(Cassell & Walsh, 2004) and during focus group interviews (Kandola, 2012).
Laddering. The main aim of this technique is to identify the values behind
consumers choices, starting with the description of the phenomena through
its consequences or to identify attributes of the phenomena driven from
values. In generic form of this technique, a researcher may start with questions
about reasons of some behaviors (e.g., of choosing a given product), then he
or she asks why these features/issues are important and again asks about the
importance of the identied features. The aim is to establish the chain: attribute
consequences values. This technique is based on means-end chain theory
developed by Gutman (Bagozzi, Grhan-Canli & Priester, 2002; Malhotra & Birks,
2007). Seemingly easy, this technique carries some threats, e.g., it requires much
comfort of a participant, it is less appropriate for group interviewing, although
some elements of laddering may be used to understand better the meaning of
some issues and perception of its consequences or values.
Projective techniques. The term projective techniques is derived from
psychology; however, it was popularized in market research with meaning of any
type of indirect questioning or form of questioning that encourages participants
to project their beliefs to stimuli material (Maison, 2010). For instance, in
the technique of associations, the researcher asks about first or the key
associations with something (e.g., with organization, brand, category such
as bank, notions such as corporate values) with an assumption that the rst
associations are the top of mind notions, or that the key associations constitute
the core of notion (e.g., positive vs. negative, rich or poor, their content). This
technique is also useful as a starting point to any topic as it liberates broad scope
of spontaneous beliefs. The wide range of applications has also collage. In this
technique a participant chooses pictures (non-standardized or standardized) to
t to some concept. Then the pictures and meaning for a concept are described
and completed with reasons of choice. In turn, in the uncompleted sentences
technique, participants are asked to complete one to several (not too many)
sentences, that are earlier prepared by the researcher. In techniques such as
personification, animalization or Chinese portrait, the participants task
is to imagine and describe a brand, product, etc. as a person, animal or any
other object (e.g., car, doors, town, planet), respectively. The aim of revealing

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 How to develop a topic guide

relationships between objects is served by projective techniques such as brand

party (participants task is to imagine some objects as people who joined
a (private or business) party and to describe these persons in terms of their
group role and their attitudes toward others), family game (objects become
family members and a participant describes their family roles and relationships),
or photo sorting (a participant matches pre-chosen photos (of persons, objects,
symbols, etc.) with some categories (e.g., to 24 brands or concepts).
In the consumer behavior research, projective techniques serve mainly to
investigate participants beliefs, emotions, motives and meaning of some
phenomena, and to reveal implicit attitudes including brand image and category
image (Maison, 2010). However, the value of projective techniques including
metaphors and the usage of visual data is appreciated also by researchers of
organization. As a eld for their application, one may nd the picturesque
metaphorical presentation of beliefs as a support for more insightful
discussion and insight in the situation of limited data and difculty in generating
ideas and topics such as organizational culture, reactions to changes and spread
of informational technology (Thorpe & Holt, 2008). Frame 5.3. presents two
examples of academic research involving projective, e-techniques one from
marketing research eld and one from the study of organization.

Frame 5.4. Two examples of usage of projective techniques in academic

research
Marzena Feldy (2012) conducted 20 individual in-depth interviews to
identify the image of the Internet shop. Interviews involved users
of Internet shops (buying in an Internet shop at least twice during
last 12 months), inhabitants of the capital of Poland differing in sex
and age (1824 years old and 2534 years old). To have insight into
content, benets and emotions regarding Internet shopping, the
author applied three projective techniques: spontaneous associations,
animalization, technique Planet (creative description of the world
of the Internet shop).
Oswick and Montgomery (1999) conducted a case study research to
understand the perception of organizational change and corporate
strategy. The study involved employees drawn from the four main
manufacturing sites of a UK subsidiary of a large USA multinational
including managers, supervisors and team leaders. Researchers
applied two techniques to gain insight into participants beliefs
about organization: animalization and Chinese portrait (comparison
of organization to the part of the car). To obtain answers they used
paper-and-pencil technique including questions about a metaphor
and reasons.

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 5.4. Better insight into the phenomena via questioning and supporting techniques

The description of projective techniques sounds fascinating and rather

simple, but their application during interview (not even saying about analysis
and interpretation) requires much skills. To obtain the desirable effect of gaining
implicit attitudes, an interviewer has to be convinced about the chosen technique,
introduces it, conducts and discusses it appropriately to enable in-depth insight
(Maison, 2010). Simple questioning without mentioned background may serve
rather as a metaphor than deep insight into attitudes. Despite the undoubted
value, the application of projective techniques evokes some doubts among
academics also in consumer research eld (Perkins, Forehand, Greenwald,
& Maison, 2008).
Scaled questions. Some researchers use also scaled questions during
qualitative interviewing. This type of questions may serve to summarize the
overall perceptions of a given issue (Perry, 1998; Yin, 2003) or to facilitate further
discussion about the topic. They may include concepts spontaneously used by
a participant as well as added ones. For instance, the researcher may ask how
the employees evaluation process is carried out with a scale anchoring from
1 that means informal to 5 meaning formal. It is worth supplementing the
Likert scaled closed question with the question about the way of understanding
of each anchor, e.g., and what do you mean by formal/informal employees
evaluation process?, what may be very helpful to understand differences
between participants.

As a concluding point, it is worth emphasizing that the success of the projective

and supportive techniques depends on some factors, such as the proper choice
for a given research goals, comfort of participants and interviewers with the
application of the given technique, the skills of the interviewer/moderator in
introducing a technique to participants.

KEY POINTS
During the development of topic guide and interviewing the researcher
should remember to put questions in the logical order, start from general
questions and then go to more detailed supporting issues, questions and
to probing (funnel rule), use mainly open questions and ask them neutrally.
To have a better insight into the phenomena, particularly in participants
perspective, the researcher may choose among wide range of supporting
techniques, which may facilitate access to implicit reasoning.

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 How to develop a topic guide

More about sorting techniques can be read in the publications by
Seonaidh McDonald et al. (2004) and Rugg & McGeorge (2005).
More about supporting and projective techniques applied in
market research context can be found in Malhotra & Birks (2007)
or in Polish literature such as the book by Dominika Maison
(2010), texts by Iwona Wyrzykowska (2007) and Matt Wjcik
(2007). More about projective techniques in management setting
including references can be found in the dictionary by Richard
Thorpe and Robin Holt (2008).
Persons who are interested in concept, procedures and examples
of critical incident technique may read the text by Elisabeth
Chell (2004) and the text by Binna Kandola (2012) pertaining to
its application during focus group interviews.
Catherine Cassell and Suzanne Walsh (2004) describe the qualitative
approach to data generating and analysis of repertory grid
technique together with examples from organizational research;
Binna Kandola (2012) presents its application during focus group
interviews, while Naresh Malhotra and David Birks (2007) describe
a mixed-method procedure from marketing research eld.

5.5. From topic guide to interviewing

As mentioned earlier in this chapter, a researcher dealing with positivist and
realist approaches may tend to implement more structured interviewing with
more emphasis put on obtaining concrete answers, while researchers of other
non-positivist approaches may accentuate understanding rather than structured
interviewing. Nevertheless, based on the literature on interviewing three main
rules of conducting interviews seem appropriate. They are presented in Table
5.8., and discussed in this chapter, followed by some additional issues related to
recordings and dealing with difcult interviewees.

Table 5.8. Main rules of conducting of interviews

The main rules of topic guide application during interviewing

Controlled exibility during interviewing
Gaining answers without reading questions
Usage of psychological skills of active listening through verbal and non-verbal
communication

Source: Own elaboration.

Controlled flexibility during interviewing. During the interview a good inter-

viewer or moderator goes through the process of intensive data analysis (Yin, 2003).

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 5.5. From topic guide to interviewing

His or her task is to obtain answers to research questions but also to follow topics
that are involving for a participant or for a group (but only to the moment it helps
to achieve research objectives) and if necessary begin a new issue. The topic
guide may remind the interviewer to keep in line with research objectives.
Gaining answers without reading questions. A good interviewer
understands that his or her role is not to focus on asking questions, but to
gather answers (Yin, 2003). In practice it means that the researcher should NOT
read questions from a topic guide. The interviewer understands the aim of each
question in a topic guide and its role for the research objectives and he or she
asks question in a way tted to a given situation, listens carefully and reacts
relevantly to the words uttered by participants and treats participants words
as a starting point for further questioning. The topic guide may remind the
interviewer if all key answers were obtained.
Active listening. For uent and effective interviewing, a good interviewer
should have cognitive skills that enable dealing with a large amount of
information such as penetrating (detective role), exibility, good memory, fast
learning, concentration on a task, global perspective, lack of bias (Maison,
2010; Yin, 2003) and skills to listen objectively and openly. In qualitative
research, objectivity does not mean controlling the variables. Rather it means
the openness, a willingness to listen and to give voice to participants, be they
individuals and organizations. Though this may seem odd, listening is not
necessarily a quality that some researchers possess (Malhotra & Birks, 2007, p. 168).

Table 5.9a. Examples of verbal techniques of active listening during interviewing

Technique Role Example
Clarification: gaining To understand unclear Indirect: Asking follow-up
the main massage of parts of participant questions and probing
participant statement statement Direct: Could you tell me about
To explain inconsistencies this once again/using other
To gather more words?
information or details
Checking if the statement
was understood properly
Focus on particular issues
Paraphrase: Signal of attentive As far as I understood, you said
short repetition listening and of interest that
of participants Basis for the further talk So it seems to me that the
statement in own main message is that
words What I heard you say, was
Short paraphrase: Basis for the further talk Interviewee: Employees
repetition of chosen Focus on particular issues refused to participate in
words of a participant, training.
relevant to the topic Interviewer: Employees? (or
that the interviewer Refused?)
wants to be elaborated

Source: own elaboration.

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 How to develop a topic guide

Table 5.9.b Examples of non-verbal techniques of active listening during

interviewing

Technique Role
Sitting in open position
Looking at the eyes
Showing interest and positive attitude
Nodding a head positively
toward the participant or specic parts
Raising eyebrows of his/her statements, if are applied
Saying Uhm, Yep adequately to the situation and not
excessive.
Smiling
Proper intonation
Clothing appropriate for situation (e.g., Building the sense of similarity
more or less formal) Signal of respect

Source: own elaboration, based on Maison (2010).

Psychological skills of active listening, meaning listening openly with interest

and understanding, turn out very helpful in interviewing. These skills enable
enhancing good relationship with the interviewee, encourage talking (if properly
applied) and help interviewer to better understand the participants statements.
The term of active listening is driven from psychology and includes many
techniques of verbal and non-verbal communication. Tables 5.9.a and 5.9.b
present some of them. A good interviewer understands that an excessive, scant
or inadequate usage of techniques may have contrary results than intended.
For instance, too many uhms repeated too often may irritate the interviewee
instead of encouraging him to talk (Maison, 2010).
During interviewing, the important role is played by not only verbal
communication but also non-verbal communication. The good interviewers have
skills not only to read non-verbal signals sent by the participant and use them for
further talk and analysis (more about it in the next chapter), but also to control
own non-verbal communication, including intonation, nodding a head, mimics,
looking, way of sitting and paralinguistics (mum, yep) and even the proper choice
of clothing. All of them may signal either interest or lack of interest, and may
inuence the ow of the interview and introduce interviewer bias on the implicit
level. Thus, the interviewer who nods afrmatively the head, raise eyebrows,
look in the eyes of an interviewee, sits in open position and says mum may
encourage further talk (till this behaviors are non excessive or inadequate), while
behaviors such as nodding negatively the head, avoiding looking in the eyes of
an interviewee, sitting with crossed hands may be interpreted as signals of lack
of interest. Looking in the eyes may encourage talking, but constant looking in
the participants eyes may be tiring for both sides and hinder self-concentration
during individual interviews. Another aspect of non-verbal communication that

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 5.5. From topic guide to interviewing

is of key importance for interviewing is intonation. A general tone of questions

and accent on chosen words may carry the message about interviewers attitude
or point of interest, thus encouraging or discouraging the interviewee, being
neutral or biasing the answers. All this shows the important role of self-awareness
and control of both verbal and non-verbal aspects of communication to avoid
unintentional biases.
Active listening is important during both individual and group interviews.
During the latter ones, however, the moderator should also facilitate group
dynamic and control that all (or at least most) of participants are active during
discussion (Maison, 2010; Stewart et al., 2007). The control may be obtained via
both non-verbal and verbal communication including such techniques as:
reaction to non-verbal signals of participants (e.g., when someone is looking
at the moderator and opens his/her mouth but does not speak, it may mean
that this person wants to say something),
the use of names and asking questions directly to particular persons,
eye- contact to encourage to talk,
the use of statements of one person to encourage others to talk (e.g., Tom
said Does anyone have similar (different) perspective?,
limiting talks in subgroups (e.g., please, say your comments aloud) and at
the same time (please, repeat what you said once again separately).
Recordings. Some literature on interviews recommends eld-notes as the
main basis of analysis and if recording is done it is treated only as a part
of triangulation process (Perry, 1998) or not used at all (Kenealy, 2012).
For many others recordings are common procedure, notes serves mainly as
a support for a talk while substantive notes are done after the eldwork
to gain the key observations. For example, an interviewer may note the
main issues in interviewees statements, because he or she intends to ask
about them or use them in further part of the interview (e.g., in the sorting
technique described in one of previous sections). Besides the benets and
limitations related to the analysis process (that will be presented in the next
chapter in section 6.4.), the decision about recording has some advantages
and limitations for interviewing process. Some of them will be presented in
the next paragraph.
The main advantage of recordings for the ow of interview is that the
interviewee may focus the whole attention on the process of interviewing,
not on the remembering or making thorough notes. Thus, the researcher has
the eld to listen actively (e.g., look in the eyes) what results in the smoother
flow of interviewing and higher level of involvement on both sides. Thanks
to that, the interview may go more in-depth of participants statements and
results in better understanding of the phenomena. During making notes there
is also a risk of biased processing a researcher may choose the most colorful
statements, the information that conrm but not disconrm hypotheses or

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beliefs of the researcher or omit the irrelevant information that may appear
important later on.
Although in some countries, e.g., in Asia, recordings may be rarely approved
(Perry, 1998), the limitations are mostly related to some negative beliefs of
the interviewer toward this procedure. Beginning researchers may be afraid of
refusal of participation when recording is mentioned or of intensified control
on the part of a participant. They may also be afraid of having a tangible
evidence of possible errors. To deal with this limitation, it is worth knowing
some issues based on experience. With some exceptions (mostly among kids),
the interview with recordings becomes so involving for the participant(s) that
they seem to forget about the equipment. In most cases, the researcher who
really appreciates the recording at the stage of interviewing and analyzing data is
capable to introduce the idea of recording convincingly. Preceding information
about this procedure, its aims and ways of dealing with recordings in the future
may prepare participants for recording, and the interviewer may cope with
potential objections before the interview itself. The researcher may include this
information in the inviting letter, during the recruitment or/and in the consent
form. Last but not least, listening and analyzing own (and other experienced
researchers) recordings is good for training in interviewing.
Dealing with difficult participants. Average participants are cooperative,
nice, answer exhaustively and not deviate from the topic, react adequately
to verbal and non-verbal behaviors of an interviewer, know what they are
talking about, are truthful and consistent. Most interviews go smoothly,
are nice and involving for both sides. Nevertheless, while conducting many
interviews one may also meet a wide variety of behaviors: aggressive, non-
attentive, undecided, passive, impatient, prudent, self-condent, etc. Most
typically two types of interviewees are mentioned as difcult: persons who are
not enough talkative or too much talkative. Some researchers may also nd some
problems while interviewing the high-status interviewees, with the would-be
interviewees or conducting interviews on emotionally charged topics (Alvesson
& Ashcraft, 2012). To nd the proper technique to deal with difcult situation,
the researcher should start with identication of underlying reasons. For
instance, the uncommunicative person may be shy, may just need more time
for consideration, may be defensive about the topic, may try to go to the end
of the interview very fast, may think that an interviewer expects short answers,
or may have laconic style of communication. In the rst situation (shyness),
more time for building trust and active listening may encourage to talk, while
in the second case (need for more time), giving more air to the participant
may be more effective. Sometimes emphasis on anonymity and explanation of
expectations (e.g., understanding the perspective) may be helpful. In case of
over-talkative persons reasons of their behaviors may include lack of comfort
(then building more safety may be satisfactory) or individual inclination to

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digressions (then the interviewer may use clarication and ask about the direct
relationship of some statements with an issue under consideration or come back
to earlier statements and ask about them).

To conclude issues related with interviewing. As one may notice, conducting

interviews is much more demanding than it may seem at the rst sight. In case of
group interviewing, the skills of group dynamic management are also necessary.
Even the best research design may turn out a failure by poor interviewing.
Omitting the fact of poor interviewing in a process of analysis, some may
consider unethical. Thus, if one doesnt feel comfortable with interviewing or
see lack of desirable skills, one may have three solutions: (a) if some nancial
resources are available, one may involve the professional interviewer (via research
agency or free-lancer), (b) check own skills and develop them, (c) if a is not
realistic and b reveal negative outcomes, it may be better to give up the idea
of involving qualitative interviews as a research method for Ph.D. thesis. How
to check and develop skills before the research? The best idea is to experience
(Maison, 2010) through formal and informal trainings. For instance, one may
prepare (to choose any problem, identify research goals, develop a topic guide
and conduct and record an interview with a colleague or a friend, then to listen
to it and identify own advantages and disadvantages. Next, one may observe
own behaviors during everyday talks the way of asking questions, the non-
verbal communication and even train skills of active listening (anyway, it is also
a very useful tool for developing interpersonal relationships both in private and
professional life).

KEY POINTS
The topic guide should be implemented exibly. The interviewer should not
read questions, but ask them in the way tted to the ow and language of
the participant with focus on obtaining answers, not on asking questions.
The appropriate implementation of psychological techniques of active
listening, which include both verbal and non-verbal signals of interest, and
understanding are important part of interviewing process.

About the interviewing process including examples of techniques
of interviewing read more in the texts by Alvesson & Aschcraft
(2012), King (2004), and about moderation of focus group
interviews in Stewart at al. (2007), Barbour (2007), or in Polish
literature: in the book by Maison (2010).

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 CHAPTER 6

How to analyze qualitative data

This chapter presents the process of analysis. It begins with a review
of main analytical strategies and puts particular emphasis on
the systematic approach to analysis. Further on advantages and
disadvantages of various sources of data (transcripts, recordings
and field-notes) are discussed followed by procedures of coding and
displaying data. Then the topic of the establishment of the shared
vision of reality/facts is discussed, and so are the issues related to the
interpretation of differences between participants. The final section
discusses issues of data verification.

6.1. General assumptions of qualitative approach to data

analysis
For some academics, including beginning researchers, it may seem that there
is nothing easier than describing the results of some talks with people and
that it could be done by any person without any training (as compared with
professional skills in analyzing statistics). In turn, in handbooks on qualitative
research, the authors underline the role of experience and skills, and exceptional
difculty in analyzing and reporting qualitative data (Malhotra & Birks, 2007;
Yin, 2003). They emphasize the specic type of data, applying general rules with
lack of rigid procedures and inadequacy of application of the same method of
analysis to different qualitative research. First, qualitative analysis involves the
process of making sense of data that are not expressed in numbers (Malhotra
& Birks, 2007, p. 235). Thus, statistical analysis and statistical generalization is
not applied.9 Second, although one may describe general rules and the generic
process of data analysis, different analysis strategies and highly differentiated
data in each project, make the process of analysis not recurrent and time

9
Although it happens that researchers conduct some simple statistics for nominal data to con-
rm differences between participants/cases, these statistics have only a supporting role and do not
constitute the major line of analysis.

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 How to analyze qualitative data

consuming even in case of experienced researchers. Moreover, time of analysis

is usually longer than expected (Yin, 2009); particularly complex and difcult in
multi-method approaches such as case studies (Buchanan, 2012). The computer
software to qualitative data analysis may be support for researchers (if they have
enough advanced knowledge about its proper application) but it cant replace
a contribution of the researcher as it does not analyze data itself. Additionally,
experienced qualitative researchers, in particular those representing the non-
positivist approach, emphasize that analysis and interpretation of qualitative
data is more an issue of a way of thinking than an appropriate application
of procedures. Third, the process of qualitative analysis is perceived as more
subjective what some researchers underline as an advantage (valuable input of
experienced researchers), neutral characteristics or as a limitation (this issue was
discussed in Chapter 3). All these features cause that qualitative data analysis
is highly different than the analysis of quantitative data, what is summarized
in Figure 6.1.

Figure 6.1. Qualitative analysis characteristics compared to quantitative

analysis

Source: Own elaboration, based on Malhotra & Birks (2007); Kvale (2004); Maison (2010).

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 6.2. Main strategies of analysis

KEY POINTS
The qualitative analysis is extremely different from the quantitative one
including the basis, methods of analysis, type of generalization, level of
objectivity, recurrence, role of computer software assistance and time
requirements.

6.2. Main strategies of analysis

Before starting the analysis process and even at the stage of planning, the
researcher should consider not only the epistemological approach (compare
Chapters 3 and 5) but also which particular strategy of analysis to choose.
This decision inuence the way of planning and conducting interviews (e.g.,
more or less structure, techniques), enables avoiding gathering unnecessary
data or lack of data.10 However, it is the most important for the process of
analysis itself.
In the literature one may nd a diversity of analytical strategies. For instance,
Larry Dooley (2002) distinguishes reective and structural analysis. A researcher
who apply reective analysis, intentionally rely on his or her own intuition and
personal judgment to analyze the data rather than on technical procedures
involving explicit category classication systems (Gall et al., 1996) (Dooley, 2002,
p. 343). In turn, structural analysis involve the process of examining case study
data for the purpose of identifying patterns inherent in discourse, text, events,
or other phenomena (Dooley, 2002, p. 343). Although the researchers intuition
that is based on prior professional knowledge and experience is highly valuable,
the academic research requires also structural approach to appreciate the study
value by the academic environment.
Regarding particular strategies to structural analysis, Naresh Malhotra and
David Birks (2007) present three approaches as applied in marketing research
setting: grounded theory, content analysis and semiotics. Catherine Cassell
and Gillian Symon (2012) as editors of the recent book on core qualitative
methods in organizational setting (Symon & Cassell, 2012b) have decided
to choose grounded theory, template analysis, conversation analysis,
discourse analysis and narrative analysis, all of them representing the non-
positivist approach to data analysis. In turn, Robert Yin (2009) presents four
strategies of analysis of case studies: relying on theoretical proposition
(which is recommended by the author), developing a case description, using
both qualitative and quantitative data and examining rival explanations

10
It is worth noticing that preplanning of analytical strategy is also advisable in quantitative re-
search, although some beginning researchers seem not to remember about it. Otherwise it may have
serious consequences. For instance, if a researcher gathers only nominal data, he or she cant conduct
some advanced statistical analysis such as regression analysis or structural equation modeling.

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 How to analyze qualitative data

completed with ve techniques: pattern matching (recommended by the

author), time-series analysis, explanation building type of pattern matching,
logic model and cross-case synthesis. Below three groups of strategies will be
shortly described: the template analysis as an example of a common approach
to thematic analysis of qualitative data, pattern matching strategies and the
grounded theory strategy of data analysis as they represent various traditions to
theory development.
Template analysis. The term template analysis was rst used in the 1990s,
although coding based on thematic analysis involving similar principles has
much longer history (Thorpe & Holt, 2008). Nigel King (2012) uses this term to
name the set of structured procedures involving thematic coding and underlines
exibility of this approach to many different goals of study and epistemological
approaches. Doing the template analysis, a researcher develops a template which
includes main topics (topic coding), then within each topic a set of codes is
further developed (analytical coding). Next codes are grouped depending on
their similarity, and the hierarchical organization of codes is produced. The
template may be developed a priori or driven from data, or both. The a priori
template may be constructed on the basis of literature review, existing theory,
research objectives, research issues and questions in a topic guide. The data
driven template is a list of topics based on obtained data. For instance, all the
interviews may be coded and then integrated or the rst interview is elaborated
to obtain the list of topics, and this template is applied to next interviews and
completed with emerging themes. Therefore, the prepared template of codes is
implemented for all the interviews. The nal template consists of shared topics
and topics regarding individual specics. It is applied to all participants to check
its appropriateness in light of individual results. Each code is ascribed directly to
fragments of the text that exemplify it. Particular sections of the text may have
more than one code. Template may evolve with progress of data analysis. In
case of interviews, transcripts constitute the base of analysis although current
software for qualitative analysis enables also working similarly with recordings.
Template analysis with this particular name was applied in a wide range
of sub disciplines of business research including human resource management,
service management, accounting, marketing, although in some research may
be not applicable, e.g., in some constructivist research when the reduction of
data may be contrary to epistemological assumptions (Thorpe & Holt, 2008).
Template analysis as a type of data organization is an introductory phase to
producing analytical outcome and interpretation.
Analytic techniques used to build and verify theoretical propositions
via pattern matching. Robert Yin (2003; 2009) distinguishes ve analytic
techniques. They are shortly described in Frame 6.1. As one may see, analytic
techniques differ in at least three aspects. Each follows different theoretical
problem, proposition and strategy. They involve the deductive approach to

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 6.2. Main strategies of analysis

different extent. Finally, they differ in more or less open structure of analytic
process, and thus are more or less time consuming.

Frame 6.1. The analytic strategies of pattern matching described by Robert

Yin (2003; 2009)
The main idea of pattern matching analytical techniques is based
on comparing an obtained pattern(s) of results with a predicted
pattern. If the predicted values have been revealed and alternative
explanations have been excluded, the researcher may form strong
inference. Depending on hypothesis, the researcher may test one
pattern or more patterns derived from different theories or dependent
on different circumstances. Next, the exact overall pattern or the
degree of match or mismatch is being established. To use this analytic
strategy, the author should pre-establish one or more (rival) theoretical
propositions, articulated in operational terms. The most useful for the
analysis is to present this initial model as a gure.
The patterns of dependent variables, patterns of independent variables
or patterns of rival explanations may establish the predicted proposition.
For instance, the new motivational program causes an increase of
productivity and fewer conicts between coworkers (two nonequivalent
dependent variables). In any of these models, the researcher is expected
to determine the set of dependent or independent variables and the
levels of these variables, which allow determining whether the empirically
based pattern is matched or mismatched with the predicted one.
If more than one model is tested, they should be extremely distinctive.
Otherwise, the researcher may have difculties to determine to which
one the empirical results t better. This way of analysis strengthens the
internal validity of case study when predicted and obtained patterns are
matched. Yin considers it as most desirable.
In the explanation building type of pattern matching, which is
considered by Yin as much more difcult than generic strategy, the
theoretical proposition is developed from case to case. First, the initial
theoretical model is established. Next, the empirical based pattern of
results is compared with this initial model. Based on the outcomes of
this comparison, initial theoretical model is revised. Next, the developed
model is compared with empirical results of the same case and in the
next step with empirical results of next case(s). Again, a theoretical
model may be revised and tested till the nal explanation.
Another type of pattern matching technique of analysis is time-
series analysis. It is applied when the model is aimed to reveal or
check an existence of a sequence of events that preceded the given
phenomenon. For instance, in a spectacular research example cited by
(5), occurring all the three conditions were established as necessary for

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 How to analyze qualitative data

repeated marihuana use: initially smoking marihuana, next feeling its

effects and nally enjoying those effects. One or more time-series may
be postulated for one or more cases.
In turn, the logic model predicts existence of a pattern in which
one event caused an outcome that produced another outcome, etc.,
so complex sequence of events over time is under consideration. In
practice, trends of data points are compared.
In the cross-case synthesis the researcher integrates the data similarly
as if each case was a separate study. If many cases are included, the
quantitative techniques of synthesis and metanalysis may be applied.
If only a few are analyzed, researcher may use tables with common
framework, that is lled in with data from each case and the general
pattern is looked for via substantive, not quantitative examination, in
which the researcher develops strong, plausible, and fair arguments
that are supported by the data (Yin, 2009, p. 158).

The key advantage of Yins analytical strategies is relative simplifying of the

amount of data as only some outcomes are of main concern. This is because
the researcher establishes the main pattern of results through triangulation
procedure, only including those variables that are predicted by a theoretical
model. For easiness of analysis it is the best if the theoretical model is presented
as a gure that illustrates the presumed pattern and then obtained results are
also presented as a gure that illustrates an obtained pattern. However, some
researchers perceive this approach as too simplistic and loosing the opportunities
present in data (Buchanan, 2012). Undoubtedly, as any other analytical approach
some areas of its application are more and other less appropriate, with successful
application in testing theory while case study method is applied (Yin, 2009).
The grounded theory approach. The grounded theory approach assumes
that theory is driven from data, which are systematically gathered and analyzed
via replicable set of procedures. It has origin in the late 1950s in the theory of
Glaser and Strauss. It has arisen as contradiction to long narrative passages in
ethnography research to produce theoretical propositions that were testable
and veriable (Malhotra & Birks, 2007, p. 166). By now it is applied mainly to
generate new theory, to deliver new insight which supplements existing theories
or to challenge the existing theories (Malhotra & Birks, 2007).
In this analytical approach, researcher starts analyses during and just after the
rst interview. Based on that, he or she develops preliminary set of interpretations
which are the basis for further interviewing. It includes decisions on who will be
interviewed (theoretical sampling) and what themes will be further elaborated.
The next interview is followed by more analysis and subsequent decisions, more
interviews and analysis and so on. Thus, the theory evolves during the research

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 6.2. Main strategies of analysis

process itself and is the product of a continuous interplay between the analysis
and data collection (Kenealy, 2012). An example of the grounded theory strategy
can be found in Frame 6.2., and in the research of Bryant & Lasky (2007), which
is shortly mentioned in one of next sections as an example of difculties while
implementing the single analytical approach.

Frame 6.2. An example of the grounded theory strategy in a single case study
involving qualitative interviews in management
David Douglas (2006) examined decision processes of SME owner
manager in the UK. He used the grounded theory methodological
approach as a mean to investigate complexity of management
processes. The research involved all the employees: the manager
and managers colleagues. At the exploratory stage of the research,
recurrent structured and semi structured interviews and observation at
the premises of the rm were implemented. The researcher prepared
eld notes during a eldwork visit or soon after it. At the second
stage, individual in-depth and semi-structured extended interviews (of
36 hours duration) were conducted. These interviews were audio-
recorded and transcribed.

According to the assumptions, in pure version of the grounded theory

approach, the researcher starts as a carte blanche, and his or her starting point
are data, thus, the extensive literature review is not necessary (Kenealy, 2012).
At rst exploratory stages the unstructured interviews are conducted. While
some followers of this approach underline a risk of extensive control related
with recordings an what leads them to relying only on notes taken unobtrusively
during and after the interview (Kenealy, 2012), others apply mixture of notes
and audiotaping (Douglas, 2006, see also Frame 6.2.). After each interview
a set of coding is developed, starting with open coding related with decision
about the direction of gathering data. A researcher also uses memo-writing.
It may be informal or formal. In memos the researcher describes his or her
way of reasoning. Memos are next ordered to create an integrated theoretical
framework. Finally, this order of memos is compared with experiences of
particular participants.
Pure application of the grounded theory has been criticized at least in some
points (Malhotra & Birks, 2007). First, the mutual interaction of the data and
researcher may result in lower objectivity that is necessary to derive accurate
interpretation of data and sensitivity for slight differences in meanings of data
that in turn enable nding out the relationships between concepts. Second, the
idea of ignoring the researchers preconceptions may lead to acknowledgement
of implicit theories of the researcher. Third, overlooking the relevant theories may

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 How to analyze qualitative data

be counterproductive. Fourth, the process can degenerate into a fairly empty

building of categories, especially when aided by data analysis software (Malhotra
& Birks, 2007, p. 250). Nevertheless, some insightful studies in management were
published, with research on a topic of adoption of technologies among them.
One may also nd in the literature examples of mixed approach integrating the
grounded theory and other analytical strategies, with Yins approach among
them (Thorpe & Holt, 2008).
As a concluding point, it is worth emphasizing that the choice of strategy
similarly as the choice of epistemological position may result from many
circumstances including the nature of a research problem, acceptance in
the direct academic setting (e.g., supervisor, reviewers) and in the indirect
environment (consideration of publication in a more positivist or non-positivist
biased journal), time requirements (without any doubt the grounded theory
approach is more time consuming). For appropriateness of analysis and easiness
of discussion with criticism, in academic research a consistent application of
one strategy is advisable. Nevertheless, sometimes the complementary usage of
two strategies may appear fruitful for better understanding of the phenomena
under consideration (I will come back to this issue in the section on comparing
results between participants). However, the researcher should apply the hybrid
reexively and should know the rationale of this decision.
For students academic purpose in management and economics, when
a deductive approach or a hybrid of deductive and inductive approaches is
recommended (see previous chapters), the analytical strategies involving
partial deductive approaches (template analysis for separate interviews and
case studies and pattern matching in case of case-studies, depending on research
questions and epistemological approach) are the most appropriate.
Therefore, it is valuable to shortly justify why a given analytical strategy is
considered as the best in the particular study by references to other (prominent)
research in similar eld of study or other substantive explanation. In this way
a researcher underlines his or her methodological advancement and may reduce
the risk of extreme criticism. Nevertheless, the researcher should be ready for
discussion on other propositions, similarly as in case of any other research11
(Cornelissen, Gajewska-de Mattos, Piekkari, & Welch, 2012).

11
It may happen that other academics have different propositions how to analyze data. It is not
rare also in quantitative research (e.g., in quasi-experimental research to check the inuence of one
independent continuous variable some authors use median split (split into two groups with median
as a point of splitting), others split groups into three groups and use only extreme groups) and use
ANOVA statistics, while many others recommend the usage of regression analysis as most appropriate
for this kind of analysis. Although the general pattern of results does not change, each of these solu-
tions may give slightly different statistical signicance or the same outcome. To discuss with critics of
reviewers, some authors of manuscripts which they have sent to publication and some Ph.D. students
conduct additional analysis what may be very insightful or at least conrm their way of reasoning.

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 6.3. Main stages of generic process of analysis

KEY POINTS
The qualitative research has a wide variety of analytical strategies to
choose. This decision should be preliminary made at the stage of planning
the research, because it inuences the further stages including theoretical
model presentation, recruitment process, development of topic guide and
eldwork. For students academic purposes in management and economics,
the analytical strategies involving partial deductive approaches (template
analysis for separate interviews and case studies and pattern matching in
case of case-studies, depending on research questions and epistemological
approach) are recommended. The researchers task is to understand the
rationale of the choice and justify the choice for a given research.

More about strategies of analysis including the pattern match-
ing can be found in the book by Robert Yin (2003).
Persons interested in the template analysis strategy of data analysis
in organizational setting may read the text by Nigel King (2012), and
for more details about it: http://onlineqda.hud.ac.uk/_REQUALLO/
FR/Template_Analysis/. A good example of a short report from the
research involving type of template analysis one may nd in
the publication by Catherine Cassell et al. (2006).
The grounded theory approach is thoroughly described in
the book by Naresh Malhotra and David Birks (2007) about
marketing research, while its application to management eld
in Graham Kenealy (2012).
About wide range of other strategies of data analysis in
organizational setting one may read in selected chapters in the
books edited by Catherine Cassell and Gillian Symon (Cassell
& Symon, 2004; Symon & Cassell, 2012b), particularly about
the conversation analysis in the text by David Greatbatch and
Timothy Clark (2012), about the narrative analysis in the text
by Sally Maitilis (2012), and about the discourse analysis in the
text by Cliff Oswick (2012).
The content analysis as applied to marketing research analysis
and to focus group analysis was presented in the books by
Naresh Malhotra and David Birks (2007) and David Stewart et
al. (2007).

6.3. Main stages of generic process of analysis

Although different specic approaches to analysis may be used by a researcher
(such as template analysis, pattern matching and grounded theory), they have
some common base that will be called a generic approach (Malhotra & Birks,
2007). Figure 6.2. presents stages of such approach.
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 How to analyze qualitative data

Figure 6.2. Stages of qualitative analysis and result presentation

PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS:
research design development, topic guide development, interviewing

FORMAL ANALYSIS

Data assembly Data reduction Data display Data verication

REPORTING

As mentioned earlier, the process of analysis had already started at a stage

of research design development, then continued at a stage of topic guide
development and interviewing itself. Before eldwork also a tentative outline
of the report should be prepared, as it helps to decide how detailed should
be the data collection process (Yin, 2009). These preliminary stages of analysis
help avoid the panic question how to deal with 1000 pages of transcript that
could arise too late when all the eldwork is done (Kvale, 1996). But similarly as
in the whole qualitative research process, the researcher may (and should) react
exibly to incoming information (Yin, 2009).
In the formal analysis, the researchers rst task is to gather all the qualitative
data from a given research (data assembly stage). It may include: notes and
reections of the researcher, any documents from and about participants (as
recruitment questionnaires, homework, techniques outcomes such as collages,
drawings, etc.) and in case of interviews, the audio or video recording and
transcripts of entire interviews (more about the role of transcripts, recording
and eld notes in the next section). The essential role is also played by all the
information from preliminary stages including theoretical background and the
hypothesis. Next, the researcher goes to the second stage of data reduction when
the task is to organize and structure data in the way that will help understand the
patterns of results. The typical way of data reduction is to code them. After that
the researcher may prepare the different data displays such as matrices, cross-
tabulations, graphs, charts, networks that will present interrelations between
results, the differences and similarities between subgroups of participants.
However, one should remember that data display is not equal with the content
of the report. It is a tool to understand better the patterns of results. Next, at a
stage of data verification, the researcher task is to check if the given way of
reasoning and its interpretation is justied in the light of obtained data.
Most of research analysis steps may be conducted either by one researcher or
by a team including a research assistant. It depends on researchers preferences,
time constraints and budget (if applicable). If the main researcher wants to
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 6.4. Transcripts, recordings and field notes as bases of formal analysis

understand data completely, the best idea is to conduct most of analysis process
on its own or only with a minimal support (e.g., the most technical work as
gathering data from the research, transcripts,12 some types of table matrices
could be done by a well trained assistant or assistants). The advantage of sharing
the work is that too much focus on details may sometimes distract the attention
from the most important steps of analysis, particularly if many interviews were
conducted. However, the main researcher is the most knowledgeable about the
problem, research goals and theoretical background, so his or her involvement
in the analysis should be total. Since the students and Ph.D. students conduct
most steps themselves, the researcher should once again consider the cognitive
and time capacities, and even the design, to make this work manageable.

KEY POINTS
Qualitative analysis of interviews is not a simple description of what was
said by any participant or group of participants. This is a process of nding
the meaning and patterns of obtained information. To do that and be
reliable, a research analysis includes gathering all the sources of data (data
assembly), organizing and reduction of data, mostly via coding procedure
(data reduction), nding patterns within data via various matrixes, tables,
etc. (data display) and checking if the obtained patterns and interpretations
really exist in data (data verication).

6.4. Transcripts, recordings and field notes as bases

of formal analysis
In case of interviews, the researcher has four main possible bases for further
analysis: transcripts (written form of interview), audio-recordings, video-recordings
and eld-notes. Although some researchers prefer working mainly with recordings
or mainly with eld notes, working with transcripts or complementary usage
of transcripts, recordings and eld notes seems to be the most advantageous
(Maison, 2010; Malhotra & Birks, 2007; Stewart et al., 2007; Thorpe & Holt, 2008).
Nevertheless, each of them has some strengths and weaknesses.
Lets start with advantages. Working with transcripts facilitates in-depth
understanding and comparisons as it is easier to return to specic parts of
interviews and to compare interviews and parts of interviews. Analyses based on
transcripts help to avoid common psychological heuristics in researcher thinking
such as heuristic of accessibility (colorful data are remembered better),
conrmation error/heuristic of representativeness (seeing more coherence than
in reality) or prejudice toward elite (too much attention given to opinions of

12
Transcripts may be done also by professional transcription services.

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 How to analyze qualitative data

eloquent participants). Finally, transcripts are a permanent record of the interview

that may be easily shared with others. Listening or watching recordings is
a good source of information about overall participants reactions thanks to non-
verbal aspects of communication (e.g., intonation, breaks for thinking, gestures
and other behavioral responses), and in case of FGIs about the authors of
statements. It also helps to understand better the inuence of an interviewer on
participants reactions. In turn, fieldwork notes are very comprehensive what
facilitates grasping the main direction of participants thinking.
However, each procedure, particularly as the solely basis of analysis, has also
weak points. In transcripts some cues (such as non-verbal communication, the
authors of statements in a group) are lost. Making transcripts is time consuming.
Some researchers argue that in academic case study research transcribing is too
time consuming and expensive and unnecessary when concern with every word
in not required and it is enough to check the notes afterwards (Perry, 1998), while
others underline that transcripts may change the sense of participants statements
(more about types, reliability and validity of transcribing one may nd in the book
by Steinar Kvale (1996)). Fieldwork notes are often not complete and they are
preliminary biased by researchers judgments and memory; they consist of answers
but omit questions; additionally, if an interviewer focuses on making notes, he
cant focus on active listening (compare section 5.5. in Chapter 5, so the overall
quality of interview is lower). In turn, the analysis based only on recordings would
be very time-consuming, because it is difcult to form the synthetic view of all the
results and difcult to return to particular parts of interviews.

KEY POINTS
One may recognize pros and cons in case of any basis of interviews analysis:
transcripts, audio- and video-recordings, and eld notes have some. Working
with transcripts or complementary usage of all of them is the most benecial.

6.5. The systematic data analysis via coding and displaying

data
After the rst step of data assembly, it is time for data reduction. Figure 6.3.
presents main detailed steps leading to data reduction. First, the researchers
task is to listen to (or watch) recordings, read transcripts and field notes
as complementary sources of information. At this beginning stage of the
research most often it is enough to familiarize with some of recordings and
some of the transcripts, particularly if the researcher was also the interviewer.
Such actions will help to form the global view on data and will deliver initial
overall answers to research objectives. Thanks to this preliminary analysis one
may reveal also the basic limitations of the eldwork such as inuence of the
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 6.5. The systematic data analysis via coding and displaying data

interviewer (and the group in case of FGIs) or the role of questions order (more
about it in a section Additional remarks).

Figure 6.3. Tasks at data reduction stage

Reading all (or at least some)

transcripts or listenning/watching recordings

Determining the list of main research issues

and their order (peparing report schedule)

Setting up a broad group of coding

categories for each topic

Organizing data in transcripts acc. to the

schedule and grouping categories

Together with research objectives, topic guide and preliminary outline of the
report (that was prepared before eldwork), the global view on data enables
preparing a template for further analysis (template analysis) or just the preliminary
model is used (pattern matching analysis). It wont be a nal version and a researcher
should be exible to make further changes. The report template is necessary to
make basic order in data by general research issues, e.g., it may include coding
category decision process with sections such as type of motivations, criteria
of college choice, then image of college with further subsections as rational
image and emotional image, etc. Such a basic structure also enables rejecting
data that are not related with research objectives.
Next task of the researcher within each main topic is to prepare a broad group
of coding categories. For instance, for the issue of motivation of psychological
studies choice one may imagine groups such as types of motivation: internal vs.
external, autothelic vs. instrumental value. Sometimes many different coding
categories are possible or data seem to be extremely individualized. First cue
which categories are most relevant are always theoretical propositions,
research objectives and hypothesis (if they were formulated). Second way to
nd out general patterns in data is going beyond obvious categories and
explain reasons of opinions and sometimes even cross coding categories.
See Frame 6.3. for example. As one may see, highly individualized direct answers
were ordered to obtain more general pattern, or with the usage of one group
(panel A) or two groups of codes (panel B). To nd the most appropriate,
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 How to analyze qualitative data

insightful and exhaustive coding categorization for the given data and research
topic, a researcher may look at the data many times and use many various
categorizations.

Frame 6.3. An example of coding categories when each answer was given by
12 participants: Motivation to study psychology among potential students

A. B.
Internal External
motivation motivation
Wanting to have nice Feeling of social
student life pressure to study
Autothelic Need for expanding Familys pressure
value the knowledge in Need for being
line with interests similar to class-
mates
Wanting to work in Studies as
a future: as a couple important to have
Instru- psychologist, in any work
mental advertising, as a HR Difculties to nd
value manager, as a coach, any job without
with people, as a studies
journalist

Source: own elaboration, based on data obtained during focus group interviews conducted
at the University of Warsaw in cooperation with students of Economic Psychology specialty.

When the list of research issues (report template) and groups of coding
categories are ready, it is time to organize data in transcripts, by breaking down
qualitative data into discrete chunks and attaching a reference to those chunks
of data (Malhotra & Birks, 2007). Thanks to this, the researcher may easily
retrieve the data, organize and reorganize the data and also interpret them.
In the literature and in practice one may nd at least four types of organizing
data procedures. The simplest way to categorize data is to indicate chunks
of data by color markers on a printed version of transcript or to underline
information with color and make comments in a word editor (Stewart et al.,
2007). The researcher may also use the cut and paste technique, what means
to copy some parts of interviews related to given topics and paste them in
another place to gather together all the parts that are related to a given topic (in
the past this technique was applied with scissors and glue (Stewart et al., 2007)
and sometimes it may be useful to come back to the traditional techniques).
One may use separate documents or a data table matrix as presented in
Table 6.1. Finally, one may use computer software that supports qualitative
analysis (the subsection of Additional remarks is devoted to this issue). To my
knowledge, each procedure has some supporters among practitioners and some
benets and limitations (Maison, 2010; Stewart et al., 2007). While deciding
which one to choose, it is worth considering which of them is going to be

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 6.5. The systematic data analysis via coding and displaying data

most benecial for the chosen analytical strategy and amount of data to deal
with. With a huge amount of data, many coding categories and dispersed data,
working directly with transcripts may be inconvenient. A table matrix hinders
usage of many codlings for a given part of text. In turn, the usage of computer
software requires good skills to appreciate the most useful features.

Table 6.1. A fictitious example of spreadsheet data display of 8 IDIs

IDI 1 IDI 2 IDI 3 IDI 4 IDI 5 IDI 6 IDI 7 IDI 8

Small Small Small Small Medium Medium Medium Medium
Service Service
Decision Decision Decision Decision Service Service
person- person-
maker maker maker maker personnel personnel
nel nel
interview that refers
Verbatim from the
Criteria of choice

to this topic
Types of rela-
tionships

Source: own elaboration.

Next, the researchers task is to review the descriptions given to the codes,
to examine differences between types of participants, develop models of
interconnectivity amongst the coded categories and nally iterate between the
code descriptions and the developing model. It is time for playing with data so
displaying data in a wide range of congurations to understand their meaning
the best. Anyhow, it is valuable to look for unintended patterns, which may not
be obvious from the beginning (Dooley, 2002).
Before one starts to examine differences between subgroups or participants
sharing particular characteristics, it is worth starting with comparing results
within a segment as a means to understand the general pattern of results
that could be specic for a segment. When one establishes repeated patterns
of results, it is time to compare different subgroups. To examine differences
between types of participants, the researcher may use a cross-tabulation. This
time in place of verbatim citations one may use the coding categories or number
of interviews in which a given coding category appeared; see Table 6.2. Also

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 How to analyze qualitative data

comparable matrices may be very useful. It should facilitate revealing similarities

and differences between cases or individuals.

Table 6.2. A fictitious example of cross-tabulation

Values expected in Values present in current

Code Coding category
organization culture (n = 6) organization culture (n = 6)
Male Female Male Female
1.1. Ofces aesthetics ++ ++
1.2. Social atmosphere +++ +++
1.3. Work-life balance ++ ++
1.4. Creativity ++ +
1.5. Quality ++ ++
1.6. Professionalism ++ ++

To understand relationships between coding categories, a researcher may

use many types of data charts (see Malhotra and Birks, 2007) or networks
(http://www.atlasti.com/features.html / Visualization). The richest in examples of
different ways of displaying data is the book by Matthew Miles and A. Michael
Huberman (1994). To understand better what does data visualization mean, one
may recollect lms in which the police investigator puts available information on
the big board and then re-organizes it when new issues are emerging or when
the new vision of what happened appears.

KEY POINTS
The systematic process of analysis includes coding and displaying data. The
coding serves to reduce a huge amount of data. The researcher may use
a variety of categorizations (including going beyond obvious categories) to
understand the hidden structure in the data. To establish this hidden structure
of interrelationships, the researcher may apply a variety of table matrices,
cross-tabulations, etc.

The most comprehensive handbook on issues related with
coding and displaying data in various types of tables and
matrices is the publication by Matthew Miles and A. Michael
Huberman (1994).
More about issues related with the organization of data can be
found in most handbooks on computer software devoted to
qualitative analysis (compare the last section references).

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 6.7. Understanding differences between participants

6.6. Establishing the shared vision of reality via

triangulation
Interviews themselves deliver information about subjective participants
perspective on some phenomena, events or processes. Taking for granted an
assumption about relationship between this subjective perception and reality
is too far going (King, 2004). The perspective may be biased by many factors
including personal characteristics (e.g., different access to long-term memory)
and professional characteristics (e.g., type of education, seniority, job position,
attitudes to revealing information about an organization). Thus, individual
participants may not have enough knowledge or may not deliver some
information to researcher. To make it even more complicated, the attitudes,
beliefs, etc., may be more or less internally consistent.
To establish facts, or rather the vision of reality which would be shared by
more than one person or more than one type of source, the researcher may adopt
at least three strategies, all going beyond the level of the formal analysis. They are
related with a method or participants choice. In all cases the researcher needs
to deliver additional evidence that helps establish the shared vision of reality.
First, the researcher may choose a case study method including many sources of
information. Second, the researcher may involve more than one participant from
a given organization. Third, the researcher may involve more than one technique
to establish the most valid pattern within a single interview. Nevertheless, it is
worth remembering that the researchers aim is not always establishing facts; for
some research aims the subjective perspective itself is a key issue in a study.
To describe the process of revealing the most valid pattern of results based on
different techniques of gathering data, in the literature on qualitative research
the term triangulation (Malhotra & Birks, 2007; Miles & Huberman, 1994)
was introduced. Triangulation means that the researcher compares results of
several techniques to establish the facts via systematic analysis.

KEY POINTS
If a researcher intends to establish facts or a shared vision of reality, he or
she may use triangulation, meaning comparing data from different sources,
different persons or different techniques to discover the most valid pattern.

6.7. Understanding differences between participants

As mentioned above, triangulation is a method of establishing the facts or the
shared vision of reality. Looking for coherent patterns is also a natural people
tendency (in psychology it is called heuristic of representativeness or conrmation
error (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Thus, also qualitative analysis is susceptible for
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 How to analyze qualitative data

this researcher bias: looking at the data the researcher spontaneously tends to
nd out the main pattern. However, the reality is often complex and difcult to
capture with simple rules. During such a spontaneous inferring process some data
may be lost. To reduce the biased interviewing, analyzing and reporting, the rst
step is to understand and then control it. But no less important is understanding
how to nd out the pattern via systematic analysis, how to deal with discrepancies
during analysis process, as omitting the evident discrepancies or seeing too much
consistency may lead to false or not complete vision of reality.
Three important issues are arising in this context. First, how to understand
differences which are related with shared characteristics of a subgroup. Second,
how to deal with a wide variety of data without a single pattern. Third, how to
deal with the outstanding data.
Characteristics of subgroup. Whenever the researcher reveals differences
between subgroups of participants, he or she should consider if these differences
are justiable for a given subgroup. It may happen that the differences result
from other interviewees feature than the differentiating variable. For instance,
a researcher may discover that most interviewees in a small organization said
that they are motivated to work by achievements (except one person who
appreciated social atmosphere), while most of interviewees in a medium
organization emphasized the social network experience as the main motivator
(again except one person). However, the thorough analysis revealed that persons
who appreciated social atmosphere were women, and those who underlined
the role of achievements were men. Thus, the analysis in terms of differences
among small and medium organizations would be misleading.
Lack of shared pattern. When the researcher discovers a huge variety of
opinions on a given topic, he or she has at least three possibilities. First, the
researcher may try to nd a hidden dimension of answers (compare previous
section and next subsection about dealing with outstanding data) or establish
reasons of differences (e.g., the subgroup of small enterprises included managers
working in different departments and thus could not possess enough knowledge
about the topic). Then, the researcher may describe the obtained variety (e.g.,
one subgroup/case is more heterogeneous and other is more homogenous). An
example of dealing with a situation of wide variety of opinions one may nd in
the publication by Catherine Cassell et al. (2006), who explicitly writes about
a variety of opinions and then presents examples of the most extreme answers.
Understanding the role of outstanding data. Some authors recommend
focusing only on repeated pattern of results because single outstanding data
may be accidental (Yin, 2009). Other authors suggest that this analytical
strategy may be too simplifying, misleading and may result in false vision of
reality. For instance, Buchanan (2012) emphasizes that different results may
point real contradictions, which are arising from different experiences, politics,
different targets of sources and are prepared to justify some decisions. He even

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 6.7. Understanding differences between participants

says that triangulation is a myth. He underlines that many voices are silenced
by prevailing power structures and relationships, and one role of the researcher
is to give those voices expression (p. 364). Similar perspective is offered by Sue
Llewellyn and Deryl Northcott (2007) who emphasize that while studying some
phenomena (e.g., organizational change) one voice may carry more insight for
understanding the issue than the most popular and dominant opinions.
Thus, before neglecting some data it is worth looking for other broader
and less obvious categories of coding. Some data may seem irrelevant
within one coding or relationship framework and may become interpretable
within another one (as in example of SME and gender in the subsection about
subgroup characteristics). The researcher may also try to nd out the reasons
of inconsistencies by formulating hypotheses and verifying them with the
existing data reading transcripts once again and again, and nd out evidences
supporting and contrasting with the hypothesis. For instance, it may happen
that a participant did not trust the researcher enough to reveal some data; that
researcher did not devote enough time for a given issue; that on the participants
job position some data are unavailable; or that in different documents different
data are presented. Bryant and Lasky (2007) provided another example of
dealing with a contradiction in data. Most of data they analyzed and reported
with ground theory framework in accordance with positivist paradigm of nding
repetitive patterns. In turn, outstanding data of one participant were analyzed
and presented within the narrative approach, which was chosen reexively
as best to visualize its insight into phenomena under consideration. It enabled
the authors to present more insightful and complete picture of the phenomena.
Additionally, it is worth checking the appropriateness of the recruitment process
as it may appear that a participant did not shared the required characteristics.
Finally, it is worth adding that similarly one may treat discrepancies within
participant statements via understanding their real meaning for the phenomena
under consideration rather than neglecting them or treating a participant as
a liar. For instance, the consistency between implicit and explicit attitudes may
help to predict the direction of behavior, while the discrepancy may hinder it
depending on the additional circumstances the implicit or explicit attitudes may
drive the action (Maison, 2004).

KEY POINTS
The researchers aim is to reveal the repeating patterns within data. While
looking for coherent patterns, the researcher should focus on the meaning
of data, not on counting particular answers. The meaning of variety of
opinions and of the outstanding opinions (both between a participant
and within a single interview) should not be neglected, but thoroughly
understood and presented if they carry new insight into the phenomena
under consideration.

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 How to analyze qualitative data

6.8. Data verification

When the process of data analysis is nished and patterns within data are
established, the researchers task is to demonstrate that the nal conclusions are
not only their subjective view on data, but that they represent a valid meaning
of collected data (Malhotra & Birks, 2007). Authors who writes about qualitative
research show a diversity of methods of data verication; however, one may
nd some similar issues which they underline (Malhotra & Birks, 2007; Miles
& Huberman, 1994; Silverman, 2001; Yin, 2009).
For instance, Malhotra and Birks (2007) underline the reference to the
theoretical model, to secondary data, intelligence and literature, similar
empirical ndings and explanations obtained in different contexts, time frames
and by other researchers. To validate data, they also recommend triangulation
and participants validation that means obtaining feedback from research
participants on the conclusions made by a researcher. During sampling, the
verication occurs via interviewing diversity of participants. During the eldwork,
he recommends seeking of validation by asking questions in a variety of ways.
During analysis, the researcher may check different explanations of the same
results and by looking for additional evidences that the conclusion is right.
They also add clear presentation of the obtained patterns via different forms
of display, the exposure to reviewing process and critique. Miles and Huberman
(1994) present thirteen techniques of data verication and conrmation
that include: control over representativeness, control over the researchers
inuence, triangulation, weighting of evidences, control over the meaning of
exceptions, usage of extreme cases, following unexpected outcomes, looking
for disconrming evidences, logical tests (ifthen), exclusion of ostensible
relationships, replication, checking for alternative explanations, feedback from
informants. According to Yin (2009), good research should apply four principles:
the researcher should present that he or she attended to all evidences (p. 158),
the analysis should address all major rival interpretations (p. 158), and the most
signicant aspects of the () study and the researcher should use the prior, expert
knowledge regarding not only the topic but also the knowledge about current
discourse about a given method (interviews, case studies, etc.).Simultaneously,
most issues arisen above this author recommends throughout his whole book,
e.g., triangulation (he uses case study as the multi-method inquiry) and feedback
from informants.
Taking into account opinions of other authors, one may distinguish ve
groups of techniques related to different stages of research process. They are
summarized in Figure 6.4.

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 6.8. Data verification

Figure 6.4. Techniques of data verification

Appropriate sampling Several techniques Asking all respondents (including

strategy and process of
recruitment
Replication of results
(two groups of similar
characteristic)
to conrm data
(triangulation), e.g.,
by different forms of
questionning about
the same issue
contrary opinions)
Control over subjectivity of researcher,
e.g., by being neutral
Testing of hypothesis which arisen
during research

Control Control Control

participants Topic guide Interview
over sample Case & over tools over eldwork

Validity of transcribing Access to raw data (recordings, transcripts)

Triangulation
Addressing rival explanations: seek for dif-
ferent possible explanations and evidences
to support categorising, naming and con-
necting views
Questionning the interpretations, looking
for additional evidences and negative evi-
dences
Rejection of ostensible relationships
Weighting of evidences, control over the
meaning of exceptions
Exclusion of ostensible relationships
Following unexpected outcomes
Are the results consistent? If not: is there
the explanation for differences?
Are there uncertain areas? Which ones?
The completness of description including second-
ary data
The ways of data display as a possibility to com-
municate to others
Conclusions supported by relevant data
Addressing rival explanations regarding present-
ed data
Going beyond obviousness
The exposure and critique of others
Participants validation
The reference to the theoretical model, to sec-
ondary data, to literature, to similar empirical
ndings and explanations obtained in different
ways
The knowledge about current discourse about
a given method (interviews, case studies, etc.)
contexts, time frames

Control over analysis Analysis Control over report Thesis

To verify the data analysis, the researcher should compare the different
results and find out the most valid pattern of results (that could be simple
and consistent or complex and internally inconsistent). Second, the researcher
should look for different possible explanations for established patterns of
results including inuence of the research context (role of interviewer, way of
questioning) and substantive justications, both theoretical and based on data.
One may ask also about the disconfirmation of revealed results again in the
light of theory and gathered data. It is worth also validating the revealed
results with participants.
Although in the literature one may nd the proposal to confront the report
with participants as the best solution (Malhotra & Birks, 2007; Yin, 2003), in
practice it may be limited to coming back to each interview separately to check
if the nal result is truly valid with particular cases. An important step of data
validation is also the choice of the data display as a means to communicate
the results to others. Eventually, the researcher should show the results to
others. Before public exposure, in case of Ph.D. thesis, it is worth starting with
other students (in formal and informal discussions) and present results to the
supervisor (Yin, 2003).
It happens that some reviewers may expect inter-rater reliability measure such
as Cohens kappa statistics for coding categorization. This phenomenon was
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 How to analyze qualitative data

observed in case of reviewers of manuscripts for publication in prestigious USA

journals (Cornelissen et al., 2012). Joep Cornelissen et al. (2012) revealed that
qualitative researchers disagree with these practices, although some of them
conform to reviewers requirements. They note that such demands will lead to
lost in phenomenological richness in favor of analytical reduction.

KEY POINTS
One of researchers nal tasks is to demonstrate convincing evidence that the
established patterns of results illustrate the data and not only a subjective
vision of the researcher. The verication refers to ve stages of the research
process starting with control over sampling, over the content of the topic
guide, via eldwork till the formal analysis and development of the report.

6.9. Additional remarks

Analysis of interviewer/moderator influence and social context. In the
literature on case study as qualitative research including the interviews (e.g.
Yin, 2009), one point of analysis is rarely analyzed, although in the literature on
qualitative interviewing in marketing research it is being one of important ones
(e.g. Malhotra & Birks, 2007; Maison, 2010). This difference may be explained
with different paradigms: realism in case study research and interpretative
approach in marketing research, and more weight ascribed to the moderator
of focus groups interviews. As mentioned in previous sections, the interviewer
plays a prominent role in the process of interviewing as he or she may facilitate
the openness and spontaneity of the participants or, in contrary, he or she may
limit the talkativeness of the participant. Also, greater inuence on the content
of an interview was emphasized for an interviewer in individual than group
interviews. At least three types of biases which are related to interviewers role
may be observed:
personal moderators bias toward own social and cultural values and
attitudes,
cognitive moderators biases such as heuristic of representativeness,
a need of the participant to satisfy the researcher.
All of them may be implicit or explicit. An implicit bias is mostly displayed in
non verbal communication (see the next subsection), whereas an explicit bias
may be observed in verbal communication, e.g., as a judgment if someones
opinion is good or bad, in the way of asking the question. Biases may be non-
intentional or intentional. In the latter case one may even say about unethical
behavior (compare the guidelines of European Society for Opinion and Market
Research and American Psychological Association) because the researcher
consciously gathers unreliable data.

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 6.9. Additional remarks

Even though during the analysis it is impossible to eliminate the biases, to

increase the reliability of the research, the researcher should identify how much
inuence the interviewer had on participants answers. It enables determining
how much trust one may have toward the participants statements. But
what often is being even more important the careful analysis of the interviewer
verbal and non-verbal behaviors may be very helpful to determine the reasons
underlying the differences between participants. For the aim of the analysis, it
may be worth comparing not only answers but also the questions. Two different
ways of questioning for the same issue may give partially various answers. Last
but not least, the careful analysis of the interviewers inuence may help to
reduce biases during further interviewing. While analyzing group interviews
one should consider also the influence of other opinions, of respondent
types and informational and normative influence of a group. More about
this topic one may nd in the handbook by Malhotra & Birks (2007).
To reduce the role of undesirable biases, it is worth analyzing the data within
its context, compare results of two or more interviews and take into account
repeated patterns of results (however without neglecting meaning of single
opinions if they carry insightful impact for the research objectives). However,
the best is to have high self-awareness; then the researcher may probe about
given issues to check the underlying reasons in this one or in further interviews.
Moreover, the increasing awareness of biases during the analysis stage may help
to develop further interviewing skills.
The role of non-verbal communication. In some research topics, non-verbal
communication may be an additional source of information. The intonation,
paralinguistic (mhm, aha), laughing, no immediate answers, gestures, mimic and
other behavioral responses may add new information or even radically modify
the sense of statements (Maison, 2010), in case of both the interviewer and the
participant. For instance, the question are you involved in this process? may
have at least two different meanings depending on the intonation neutrally
formulated it may serve as a simple ltering question, but with emphasis on you
it may sound as disapproval or doubts what may cause the defensive reactions
(including denying related with social risks of revealing some information). In
case of professionals as participants, three roles of non-verbal communication
are particularly worth of emphasis. First, the intonation and way of talking may
suggest that a participant is trying to avoid revealing some information. An
interviewer may deal with it during interviews by asking additional questions
and eventually explicit commenting on it. But if not, it is information worth
being registered because the pattern of results is not complete. Second, some
non-verbal signals may suggest less or more involvement in a topic. For instance,
a participant may talk about corporate values easily and with vivid engagement
or with difculty, weighting each word. The interpretation of these behaviors
in terms of employees familiarity and identication with corporate values may

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 How to analyze qualitative data

be worth of further investigation in participant other statements. Finally, some

words may be said as a joke or ironically, what may totally differ their meaning
as in case of the statement it is really a good solution.
These complimentary data about non-verbal communication may be
achieved via eld notes made during interviewing, listening to audio-recordings
and if available video recordings. Some pieces of this information may be
also included in the transcript (e.g., that a participant was laughing, was more
involved with a topic, did not answer immediately).
To interpret inconsistencies properly, it is worth remembering two rules. The
consistency of verbal with non-verbal results similarly as between implicit and
explicit attitudes is a stronger base to predict further actions. Inconsistencies that
may be interpreted as dual attitudes may implicate difculty in predicting the
direction of action. For instance, one may reveal the negative personal attitude
toward the existing process of suppliers choice in an organization (revealed
non-verbally), while evaluating it verbally in a positive way, but it may have
various consequences for implementing this process (implementing it, omitting
it, informally implementing other processes).
Quantitative component. In Chapter 5 quasi-quantitative techniques
such as closed questions with a scale or ranking and Likert scale questions were
mentioned. Sometimes the researcher may even conduct some statistics for
example because he or she wants to conrm if the differences really matter. In
all these cases the researcher should avoid trials of statistical generalizations
and should always remember not only about a small number of participants
but also about the unstructured nature of interviewing. Using such statements
as majority may be very misleading as for instance in case of 10 participants
it is very subjective to say that 6 answers are majority. However, this type of
answers may be very useful as a general frame for further analysis as it may help
to determine the dominant patterns of results for segments, or may help to sort
interviews and nd out further specic patterns.
Software-assisted analysis. In the literature one may nd two positions on
computer-aided qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS) applications. On
the one hand, researchers are critical or at least skeptical. On the other hand,
the development of opportunities in the software results in its popularization
and reduction of some risks. The dictionary of qualitative management research
(Thorpe & Holt, 2008) enumerates 7 advantages and 3 the most controversial
ones.
CAQDAS may be advantageous unless the researcher knows its possibilities
very well, knows its limitations and is able to think qualitatively. They may
help storing, organizing, managing and searching the data (including different
sources, stimuli materials, references, etc.). They may show relationships.
However, they do not perform any analysis (Thorpe & Holt, 2008; Yin, 2003);
they do not reveal the importance of relationships within data itself.

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 6.9. Additional remarks

Thus, to appreciate benets of the software for a successful research, the

qualitative researcher needs to develop the skills of qualitative thinking on the
one hand, and advanced skills of software application. Without advanced skills
in software service it is difcult to appreciate its benets.

KEY POINTS
During the analysis some weight should be given to understanding the inuence
of a moderator, social context and non-verbal communication (if possible
and justied). The results of quantitative techniques (e.g., questions with
scale) may be helpful to order data, but statistical generalization should be
avoided. Computer-aided qualitative data analysis software may be valuable
(if a researcher has enough skills), but it does not perform analysis and does
not replace the researcher.

More about sorting data in tables and matrices as well as the whole
process of data analysis complemented with examples can be found
in the book by Matthew Miles and A. Michel Huberman (1994).
Persons interested in the applying of computer software in
organizational qualitative research projects may read the text
by Lyn Richards (1999) and handbooks dedicated to particular
software, e.g., Suzanne Frieze (2012).

135
 CHAPTER 7

How to report qualitative data

The almost final chapter presents how to prepare a good report on
a qualitative research in the form of a student paper, MA or Ph.D.
thesis. It determines four main features of a good academic report.
Two styles of reporting are presented with information which one
may be better fitted to the academic work.

7.1. The role of the report

The key features of a good report from qualitative study are presented in
Figure 7.1., and shortly discussed below. Most of them apply to most academic
reports, not only regarding the presentation of qualitative researchs results.

Figure 7.1. Key features of good report

Enough convincing for a Exhaustively informative

recipient from a "target group"

Contributing to the current

Building "credible" impression
knowledge

Before the researcher starts writing the report, he or she should once again
define the expectations of recipients (the importance of this issue for the
whole research process was discussed in section 1 of Chapter 2). Even if he or
she intends to reach the broader public (e.g., business colleagues), the primary
recipients of the academic paper are academics (the supervisor, the reviewers,
etc.). To gain other groups, a separate description of the ndings should be
prepared that would t their needs, even slightly different than the expectations
of academics (Yin, 2003). While sending manuscript for publication, the authors
also conform to particular formal and informal requirements of the given journal
and its reviewers (Cornelissen et al., 2012).

137
 How to report qualitative data

The analytical style, traditional structure of the paper or thesis (see next
section), enough details to apply the procedure in different setting and to
draw own conclusions, and addressing the issues important for reviewers
who are mostly more familiar with the quantitative research, may help these
academics to follow the text and may reduce some resistance that could
hinder the understanding the key advantages of the researchers work. The
student paper, being a report from qualitative research, should show that
the researcher made credible, valuable and original contribution to the
knowledge development.
Last but not least, it is worth remembering that the report serves also to
impression management; it is a certicate of the researcher (Cassell et al.,
2006). Even if the whole process was conducted perfectly, but researcher does
not show it in the report convincingly, his or her skills and value of the research
may raise doubts.
To achieve the indicated aims, the researcher should follow some guidelines
regarding the style, structure and content of the report, which are described in
sections below.

KEY POINTS
The researcher should remember about four main functions of the student work
being a report on a qualitative research: convincing the supervisor and reviewers
about skills of the researcher in conducting the research, informativeness,
contribution to the current knowledge and building credible impression.

7.2. The style of results reporting

In literature one may nd at least two main styles of qualitative results
reporting:
reective reporting (Dooley, 2002),
analytic reporting (Dooley, 2002).
In case of academic reports in management and economy sciences, the
analytical style is recommended. In analytical reporting the researcher should
use objective style. In the reective reporting a writer will use literary devices to
bring the case alive for the reader and the strong presence of the researchers
voice is apparent (Dooley, 2002), it is more like a story-telling.
Whichever style the researcher chooses, the language should be concise, strict
to the point, unambiguous and neutral (meaning lack of subjective evaluation of
the participants statements or behaviors and institutions action, e.g., on moral
or normative dimensions) and what is also important written with a language
that is involving for a reader.

138
 7.3. Structure of the report

KEY POINTS
For the student work, the analytic reporting is recommended.

For persons interested in differences in style of writing a paper for
publication, depending on the philosophical and epistemological
approaches (positivist USA tradition vs. non-positivist pheno-
menological tradition): the text by Joen Cornellissen et al. (2012)
is recommended.

7.3. Structure of the report

Any academic report should present the background of the research,
methodology and results completed with conclusions and discussion in the light
of earlier theoretical frameworks and other empirical ndings. Although some
researchers claim that in the report on a qualitative research it may be difcult
to follow the traditional structure of empirical reporting (Cassell et al.,
2006), it is recommended to apply this structure in a Ph.D. thesis (Perry, 1998);
in a MA thesis and in any other student paper, similarly as in manuscripts
for publications, it is worth following the structure typical for a given
journal (Yin, 2009; this author uses the term linear analytic structure).13

Frame 7.1. Example of main sections headings in a student MA or Ph.D. thesis

Title page
Abstract with key words
Table of contents
List of tables
List of gures
Abbreviations
Statement of original authorship
Acknowledgments
I. Introduction
II. Literature review/Theoretical background
III. Methodology
IV. Results/Analysis of data
V. Discussion of results/Conclusions and implications
References
Appendixes

Source: own elaboration based on Perry (1998) and Dooley (2002) and own experience.

13
Yin (2009) mentions six alternative strategies of compositional structure: linear-analytic, com-
parative, chronological, theory-building, suspense and unsequenced structures with rst three as
being the most universal for different types of objectives (explanatory, descriptive or exploratory).

139
 How to report qualitative data

The report should serve the reader and present results in a way that the reader
can understand (Dooley, 2002, p. 343), so it may be easier for reviewers to
follow the content what may facilitate gaining their approval as they are more
familiar with this type of structure (Perry, 1998). An example of such a structure
of a Ph.D. thesis is presented in Frame 7.1. The structure and the content of
each chapter may vary depending on a eld, university and faculty tradition.
Some detailed information about the content of Introduction and methodology
chapters were presented in previous chapters about the problem denition and
methodology while some issues will be addressed further in this section.

KEY POINTS
The structure of a student paper or thesis should comply with formal
and informal requirements in a given academy. The researcher should go
toward the expectations of positivist and quantitative part of the academic
environment to facilitate the understanding of the qualitative research.

7.4. Content of the report and ways of presenting

results
Finally, some detailed issues regarding the content and way of presenting
qualitative ndings will be addressed. Similarly as in any other academic research
report, the researcher is expected to present as much details of procedure
and evidence confirming his or her conclusions as possible to help others
understand and if necessary repeat similar procedures (Dooley, 2002). Some
very detailed aspects of procedure or results may be presented in an appendix,
similarly as materials prepared and retrieved from participants, and any data
sources. The researcher may only list them, present all of them or demonstrate
some of examples or present them in aggregated forms of display.
Recordings, transcripts and eld notes (if they were the only recording of
data) should be available for others (following the same rules as in case of
storage of quantitative questionnaires, but with additional effort to make the
identity of persons or institutions condential if necessary). To enhance these
statements, it is worth emphasizing that European Society for Opinion and
Market Research (ESOMAR), which established the international ethical standards
in the market research eld, recommends similar guidelines: Researchers shall
always be prepared to make available the technical information necessary to
assess the validity of any published ndings. (Article 11 Research ndings of
ICC/ESOMAR international code on market and social research).
As mentioned in Chapter 2, the credibility of research is an important issue
in academic reception and the credibility of qualitative result may raise some

140
 7.4. Content of the report and ways of presenting results

doubts. Thus, although it is not clear how to estimate credibility of a qualitative

research, the report should address the issue of credibility directly and
present how the researcher has taken care of it (this issue was discussed in
the previous chapter), in method section or in results section.
To conform to positivist criteria of evaluation, in academic publications the
authors address also the issue of generalizability of findings (Cornelissen et
al., 2012). The published articles in the management eld offer two strategies
(Cornelissen et al., 2012):
statements saying that small samples do not allow for any broad generaliza-
tions,
expectations that revealed patterns may be transferable or generalizable to
some organizations that share similar characteristics and mention concrete
sectors or types of organizations (e.g., education hospitals), and identify the
shared features.
The report should clearly distinguish two levels: results description and
interpretation (Maison, 2010). Based on a research results section the reader should
have the possibility to draw similar conclusions but also to reach an independent
judgments regarding the merits of the analysis (Yin, 2003, p. 188) taking into
account own experiences and knowledge. Results mean the description what
was found in data, what participants said. They should be presented in a concise
form including repeated patterns, most extreme results, the variability of results,
the inconsistencies obtained from different sources or interviewees. That is why
the coding into broader categories was so important: it lets the researcher
recognize a general pattern going beyond any single piece of data. Neither in
quantitative studies, researcher does not present the data base with raw data,
although he or she should present enough details to justify conclusions and have
the data base available for other researchers. In turn, interpretation includes
all the explanations and comments regarding the meaning of what participants
said, information about conrmation or disconrmation of the theoretical
model, other empirical data, etc. The researcher should make it clear when the
level of interpretation starts (e.g., by saying this data may be interpreted as
following, this pattern of results only partially matches the prediction). The
key interpretation in the light of theoretical models should be shifted to the
discussion section. A similar guideline one may nd in the code of ESOMAR:
When reporting on the results of a market research project, researchers shall
make a clear distinction between the ndings, the researchers interpretation of
these ndings, and any recommendations based on them. (Article 11 Research
ndings of ICC/ESOMAR international code on market and social research).
The selection of results and the amount of details should be directed by
a guiding research question and specific objectives that are mostly related
with some theoretical assumptions. Enough results should be presented both
supporting and challenging the further interpretation to convince the reader of

141
 How to report qualitative data

conclusions. However, again it does not mean that all the gathered data should
be presented, including raw data. If the researcher cant resist to present data
irrelevant for key research questions, some extremely interesting and insightful
results but not related with main objectives one may include in the nal section
of the results chapter Other interesting results.
Regarding the ways of presenting ndings, it is important to determine the
compositional structure. Again, it depends on the research objectives. According
to Robert Yin (2009), the results of multiple case studies may be presented in
at least three ways: 1) a short description of each case separately followed by
cross-case presentation and attaching the description of each case in appendix,
2) separate sections about each case with similar template, followed by a cross-
case comparison, 3) the presentation of results by issues that reect steps of
analysis (question and answer to this question) without traditional narration,
4) only cross-case analysis without separate sections on individual cases.
In mixed-method approaches the way of presentation also depends on the
objectives of the research. If the qualitative research was devoted to the scale
or variables development, one may present this data within the relevant
section of the method chapter. If the qualitative research was designed to
support understanding of quantitative results, one may present its results within
appropriate sections of the results chapter (e.g., by saying that qualitative
results are in line with the obtained pattern, or give some insight into the
reasons of some results and relevant qualitative results should be presented).
If a qualitative research was relatively independent, the results together with
method and discussion section may be presented as a separate chapter (e.g.,
Study 1, Study 2), and all the studies should be followed by joint discussion.
In case of a qualitative research, the researcher may use some graphic
presentations of data schemes, gures, matrices. But not necessarily the
same as those used at the stage of analysis. This time graphics should visually
present the key aspects of the results. In case of cognitive maps or any other
comparisons presented in gures, it may be worth making a comment about
the qualitative nature of results. Otherwise, some quantitative researchers may
tend to analyze them quantitatively and evaluate their contribution falsely.
When the results of interviews are reported, it is worth exemplifying the
description with some verbatim citations of participants words (if they are
available). However, the researcher is never expected to present too many of
them or to exemplify each given statement; it is enough to emphasize that the
whole transcript or/and recording is available by the researcher. The presentation
of the citations may have a double role. First, to enhance the meaning of given
statements in a more picturesque way. Second, to underline the credibility
of given statements. In the main text, one may present all or only repeating
statements of participants in a categorized form, if they are very short and crucial
for the better understanding of a given pattern of the results. An example one

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 7.4. Content of the report and ways of presenting results

may nd in the book by Marzena Feldy (2012, p. 129). Another way is to use
only one citation for the exemplication of chosen key statements. An example
one may nd in the publication by Catherine Cassell et al. (2006, pp. 295299).
If more citations were presented or citations were very long, the researcher may
include them as a list, table or in other visual form in attachments. It may sound
trivial, but some young researchers forget about it; the citations should not
include spelling and punctuation errors (they may occur during transcribing),
and the grammar should be edited to make the statements understandable
in a written form (unless the researcher is going to emphasize something by
showing grammar errors). Nevertheless, the researcher is expected to clearly
distinguish the citations within a text. Similarly, as in citations of other authors,
italics and quotation marks are used in case of short texts, and indents and
smaller fonts in a separate paragraph in case of longer texts. The citations should
be supplemented with information from which interview they come from (e.g.,
manager from small enterprise) and if abbreviations are used (e.g. M/SE), the
researcher is expected to notice their meaning, e.g., M manager, S Subordinate,
SE means Small Enterprise, ME Medium Enterprise in abbreviation section or
in annotations.
In the nal chapter or chapters, the researches should discuss the results in
the light of existing theories and empirical findings and address the issue
of contribution to the knowledge, and original value of the research. The
tendency to link knowledge with practice in management and economic science
imply that researcher may also determine the potential implications for the
practice if it is relevant for the research problem. Additionally, the researcher
should devote some space for the issue of limitations of the study. Next to
real limitations including the issue of the generalization, among others,
the research may also discuss the objections that are likely to be raised by the
reviewers (thus, once again the topic of good recognition of the expectations
in the academic environment is coming back; see Chapter 2, section 1). Good
practice is also to consider the potential directions of further studies.
Before the nal ofcial version of the paper, the thesis or the manuscript,
comes to existence, the draft may be read by others (Dooley, 2002; Yin, 2009).
This procedure serves to construct validation (if participants or informants are
involved) but also to language renement (peer review).

KEY POINTS
While presenting a qualitative research in the student paper or thesis, the
researcher should follow good practices regarding the description of any
research. To go toward reviewers expectations, the researcher should discuss the
problematic issues, which are present in the current methodological discourse
including the issue of credibility, validity and generalizability of the results.

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 How to report qualitative data

Some detailed guidelines regarding the content of each chapter
of a student paper including Ph.D. thesis can be found in the
article by Chad Perry (1998) who describes experience with
postgraduate research in marketing in Australia and in the book
by Robert Yin (2009).

144
 CHAPTER 8

Brief conclusions
This chapter presents a brief comment on issues presented in the hand-
book with highlighting some issues regarding researchers choices.

This handbook was addressed mostly to students of different level of higher

education, both graduates and postgraduates. The role of this handbook was to
familiarize the reader with the process of designing, conducting and analyzing
a qualitative research in management and economic sciences. All the stages of
this process were discussed with some examples from the recent literature. And
the most important issues were discussed.
Additionally, the recent discourse on the role and status of qualitative methods
was presented. As one could have seen, part of the academic environment tends
toward positivist criteria of qualitative research evaluation, while others represent
non-positivist attitudes. Some of the latter conform to positivist criteria, while
others underline the uniqueness of a qualitative research and inappropriateness
of such criteria for qualitative research assessment. The handbook presents both
positions to leave the nal choice to a reader. However, it was also recommended
to follow the positivist requirements in at least some points in students work.
This position was applied in belief that it is more convenient to follow the
positivist criteria as they are thoroughly described in academic work and to deal
with potential criticism. The usage of some clear rules facilitates also preparing
the paper, thesis and diploma on time.
Nevertheless, researchers should have in mind the existing discourse,
particularly when considering a research for publication. As mentioned
throughout this handbook, the positivist bias prevails particularly in USA journals,
while European journals are more open for the non-positivist type of research
including idiographic approach.

145
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* The publication is available in Polish translation