SPE

Society of Petroleum Engineers

SPE 14248

Shale Stabilization Principles

by L.E. Nesbitt, G.P. King, and N.E. Thurber, Amoco Production Co.
SPE Members

Copyright 1985, Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was prepared for presentation at the 60th Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition of the Society of Petroleum Engineers held in Las
Vegas, NV September 22-25, 1985.

This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE Program Committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the
author(s). Contents of the paper, as presented, have not been reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to correction by the
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and by whom the paper is presented. Write Publications Manager, SPE, P.O. Box 833836, Richardson, TX 75083-3836. Telex, 730989 SPEDAL.

ABSTRACT
Problems vary from the very soft gumbo of the
Drilling troublesome shales successfully Gulf Coast which forms mud balls and mud rings to
requires description and analytical tests of the the hard, indurated, close-to-slate shales found at
shales, drilling fluid formulation, and field con- depth in the Rockies which may splinter and form
firmation. This paper will point out strengths and non-dispersible bridges.
weaknesses of our current approach and the need for
better procedures. Specific solutions to some of the problems are
known; Weighting a mud can handle overpressure.
INTRODUCTION Soft bitumens can mend microfractures. Natural and
synthetic polymers can coat shales and/or impede
Shale instability causes some of the worst fluid loss into the sensitive formation.
problems in drilling. Reasons for instability are
both mechanical and chemical. Mechanical problems Other problems are nearly insoluble. An
include plastic flow or deformation of very soft overpressured formation directly under one with low
shales, fracture and slippage along glide planes of fracture gradient defies solution by weighting.
hard or brittle shales, slip and collapse of frac-
tured shales above deviated hole, spalling and rock In this paper we will describe current lab
bursts due to over pressuring, and unbalanced tec- tests used to classify shales, evaluate their
tonic stresses. Unconsolidated sediments are par- strengths and weaknesses, suggest methods for fluid
ticularly bad. selection, and describe a field example of an appli-
cation of this procedure.
Chemical problems include hydration, solvation,
and dispersion. Each of these processes destroys This paper is concerned with water-based muds
rock formations and complicates fluid behavior. and with chemical aspects of shale stabilization.

These problems are aggravated by stresses and Finally, the conclusion is drawn that the shale
erosion due to drillstring movement, and by stabilization problem is unresolved and that an
hydraulic stresses due to mud circulation or surges industry effort is needed to organize this very
and swabbing on trips. disorderly problem.

The manifestations of these problems are vari-
ously described; "sloughing, heaving, spalling, mud
balls and mud rings" are such descriptive words.
Results to the driller are fill on trips, high
torque and drag, loss of circulation, stuck pipe,
and fine solids buildup, leading to poor hole devel-
opment, difficult casing jobs, poor primary cement
jobs, and possibly the loss of the hole.
References and illustrations at end of paper.
WHAT ARE TROUBLESOME SHALES?
The first step in solving a problem is proper
definition; what then are the characteristics of
shales which make them sensitive to contact by par-
ticular drilling fluids? One characteristic would
be the presence of significant amounts of water-
dispersible components. Another characteristic
would be the spatial disposition of the water-
dispersible component. Being either the primary
cementing agent or a continuous layer would cer-
tainly be a worse instability than the same amount
of the component dispersed evenly in isolated
2 SHALE STABILI~ATlON
domains in the rock. Water and chemical disper~ants
would certainly destroy the rock faster in the con-
tinuous case compared to the isolated case.
Definition of the rock by some classification
scheme is thus the first step in the 4 part proce-
dure of dealing with troublesome shales. These
parts are 1) classification, 2) laboratory tests,
3) fluid formulation, and 4) field verification.
CLASSIFICATION
Some classification scheme is very desirable.
While many schemes have been proposed, none is
really adequate; that is, adequate in that it leads
directly to the choice of the optimum drilling
fluid. If someone described a shale as "young and
soft", we would probably guess at some of its prop-
erties; but would that describe it enough to select
a drilling fluid for it? Or "hard and indurated?"
Hardly. Those who have tried to prescribe a
drilling fluid for a particular shale will bave used
a complex (at least not simple) series of analytical
and performance tests, based on measured properties
of the shale. 1 ' 2 ' 3
COMPLEX DESCRIPTION OF A SHALE NARROWED
Potter's lists of classification schemes
{1) emphasize the descriptive tests used primarily
by geologists. In addition to those, we would add a
set of performance tests developed primarily for our
drilling business. Both the descriptive and per-
formance tests will be listed here and referenced as
appropriate. But instead of trying to encompass
ALL the various shale components, we will focus
attention on just a limited set. Also, we will
focus attention on just a few physical and chemical
properties. These components are the clay fraction;
their significant properties will be obvious as each
test is listed.
WHY FOCUS ON THE CLAY MINERALS?
Most of the drilling problems which can be
solved by the choice of a drilling fluid are due to
the presence of clay minerals. By properly applied
tests to evaluate the extent of the clay problem in
a shale, the appropriate choice can be made. A
fluid which counteracts its tendency to damage a
given shale formation is called an "inhibitive"
fluid. 4
SHALE CLASSIFICATION TESTS
A. Descriptive Tests
Descriptive tests include: Geological classi-
fication of age, depositional environment, fabric,
and paleontology; ultraviolet light inspection; pho-
tography; gamma scan; bulk and grain density;
thermal analysis; elemental analysis; X-ray minera-
logical analysis; vapor pressure and water adsorp-
tion; cation exchange capacity (CEC) associated with
atomic absorption analysis (AA); electrophoresis;
surface area; light and electron microscopy (SEM)
accompanied by KEVEX analysis; methylene blue test
(MBT); and compressive and tensile strength
tests. 5 ' 6
PRINCIPLES srE-14248
B. Static and Dynamic Performance Tests
Performance tests include: Immersion and
soaking in flu1d; water sorption; strain gauge meas-
urement of swelling; tumbling in fluid in a rolling
cell; capillary filtration time; triaxial flow
8 9 10
through shaped core; microbit drilling. 7 ' ' '
Table 1 lists tests with their major strengths
and weakness and references where appropriate.
HOW ARE CLAYS RANKED?
In order of decreasing INstability, the clays
are: smectite, mixed-layer, illite, chlorite, kao-
linite.
WHY CLAY MINERALS CAUSE INSTABILITY
In order to understand the reasons for inst-
ability and remedial fluid properties for stabiliza-
tion, the structure of the clay minerals must be
understood.
When clay minerals are exposed to water, the
water is absorbed, the mineral may swell and eventu-
ally it will disperse into the fluid as a colloidal
gel or dispersion. Smectite furnishes the best
example of the most extreme behavior of this type.
This behavior has been described in numerous
works. 11 Two- or three-layered platelets, nega-
tively charged, of metal silicates exist in equili-
brium with positively charged counterions which are
held loosely to the platelets by static attraction;
the counterions are hydrated. The degree of hydra-
tion of the counterions determines the distance
between the platelets. This is a function of the
particular identity of the counterion. Sodium ions
become very strongly hydrated when enough water is
available for hydration, and can indefinitely add
water so there will be no limit to the platelet sep-
aration (swelling). Potassium ions on the other
hand exactly fit sizewise into hexagonal holes of
adjacent silicate platelets and bond in a crown
ether type of coordination to the two adjacent pla-
telets. The potassium thus forms a bond which
limits the swelling or separation of the adjacent
silicate platelets. In fact, silicate chemists
refer to the effect of potassium ions as the "potas-
sium contraction." Any ion isomorphous with potas-
sium (this includes ammonium, and many simple metal
ions) will also serve this "contraction" function.
Unfortunately, these are almost all expensive or
environmentally unacceptable in drilling fluids.
But potassium at least gives us one form of
STABILIZATION. 11
OTHER STABILIZATION MECHANISMS AND AGENTS
Some polymers adsorb onto the clay platelets,
either flowing onto their surface like paint, or
entangling the platelet in long strands of the
polymer. (The polymers' dimensions are to be con-
siderably longer than the platelets). In either
mode, the platelets are immobilized; if in the rock
formation, platelets remain in place or if already
dispersed they may be aggregated or flocculated.
SPE .14248 3

Since dispersion of the particles of rock is a

cretaceous shales, was inadequate for achieving
direct function of size, the particle aggregation
wellbore stability in the dipping shale sections.
due to polymer will generally add stability, unlesq
Hole size when using this mud system commonly aver-
added electric charge overbalances the size effect.
~ aged 16 in. (drilled 12 1/4 in.) with several hun-
dred feet of hole washed-out off-gauge of a 20 in.
Many simpler organic substances behave si"i
caliper log. Steeply dipping formations and
larly to the polymers. Depending on the dimensions
faulting greatly exacerbated wellbore conditions,
and net electric charge of the clay~organic complex,
often resulting in extensive fishing operations and
aggregation OR dispersion will result. Rock sur-
occasionally, abandonment of drilling operations.
faces coated with organics can behave as semi-
permeable membranes, inducing osmosis of solvent and
Difficulty in stabilizing the 12 1/4 in. hole
cause osmotic swelling. Known stabilizing
t 4,10,11,12 1nc
. 1ude; polyacrylamtdes,
. drilled through the cretaceous sections prompted
a~en s poly-
investigation of a more stabilizing drilling fluid.
vtn!l alcohol, flaxseed gum, hydroxypropyl guar,
var1ous copolyme~s, potassium and ammonium com-
Large Cretaceous shale samples (5 in. - 8 in.
pounds, and various bitumens such as gilsonite. New
diameter) were obtained from an overshot during
and exciting areas of research exist in the area of
fishing operations. These samples were analyzed and
"strong adsorbents" now under investigation. 13
the clay fraction mineralogy determined. The sam-
Results of tests using a pair of such strong absor-
ples were then exposed to various inhibitive fluids
bents are in Table 2; these two substances are envi-
through triaxial and hot-rolling tests.
ronmentally unacceptable and will not be used in
drilling fluids. But their structures are almost
One of the crucial sets of tests is shown in
certain to lead to other materials which can be
Table 3; these are rolling test results following a
used.
procedure similar to that outlined in Appendix I,
except for parameter changes noted in the Table.
Anything which denies access of water to the
The most relevant note was that while both saturated
rock.also serves as a stabilizing function; just by
KCl and KCl-NaCl brines showed excellent recovery,
cutt1ng the vapor pressure of water, many substances
the KCl-NaCl brines retained substantially more of
such as the simple salts can function as stabi-
lizers.14 the samples' initial dimensions. The information
vividly suggested that a KCl-NaCl fluid with poly-
acrylamide provided greatly improved rock stability.
COMPATIBILITY
The result was of some surprise to researchers who
expected a much greater difference between potassium
Stabilizing agents, those substances which lead
and sodium, both in these tests and in the field
to aggregation rather than dispersion, must also be
drilling results which followed.
compatible with other components in a mud. Since
Wyoming bentonite is sodium-loaded montmorillonite
This fluid was then developed into a drilling
or sodium smectite, ALL stabilizers will be to some
mud and utilized on Well A, Uinta County, Wyoming.
extent incompatible with bentonite. Bentonite can
This well was offset to Well B also in Uinta Co.,
still be used in the presence of stabilizers if it
Wyoming. Well B had severe hole problems in the 12
is pre- hydrated; continual additions to the mud
1/4 in. hole (2-arm caliper log went off scale,
system make up for the continual losses due to
20 in. from 4350 ft - 9200 ft) requiring 19 days of
ag~regation. Also, hot brines hydrolyze organics;
br1nes also tend to force polymers into tighter reaming.
coils so that the polymer's use as viscosifiers or
The application of the KCl-NaCl drilling fluid
f~u~d. loss control may be limited. Other incompati-
to Well A resulted in only 2 hours of reaming while
btltttes may occur, and any new combination of addi-
drilling the same Cretaceous shale section, even
tives should be subjected to compatibility testing.
though this section had steeper dipB, 45-70. A
2-arm caliper survey showed an average hole size of
FLUID SELECTION AND A FIELD EXAMPLE
13.3 in.
From Table 1, many test combinations may be
Over twenty wells were ultimately successfully
chosen; in this example, a particular sequence of
drilled using the mixed brine fluid.
observations led to selection of a fluid which was
field tested and demonstrated the ability to drill
It is important to note that the tests' ability
troublesome shale in the Overthrust Belt near Evan-
to yield valuable data depended on having large
ston, Wyoming.
diameter samples. Cuttings would not have revealed
the advantage shown by the mixed brine. X-ray and
While developing Jurassic Nugget Sandstone pro-
SEM had ~hown a continuous-webbing fracture system
duction in the Utah-Wyoming Overthrust Belt a thick
with up to 85% Na-smectite filling the continuous
overlaying Cretaceous shale section (5,000,ft) was
fractures; lower vapor pressure NaCl/KCl fluid
penetrated. The actual drilled thickness of this
denied water to this fracture system and a balance
Cretaceous section varied as overthrusting and sub-
of sodium ions in and outside the clay was achieved.
sequent deformation produced formation dips from
Cuttings would not have shown this because the frac-
0-90, and in some instances, overfolding. Ini-
ture system would have disappeared during decrepita-
ti~lly, this deeper Nugget Sandstone was explored
tion of the rock. Nor would re-constituted rock
ustng a LSND mud system. This mud system while
show this unless the re-constitution were carefully
occasionally successful when drilling horizontal
carried out.
SPE 14248 SHALE STABILIZATION PRINCIPLES 4

SUMMARY 10. Anderson, D. B. and Edwards, C. D.: "Fluid

Development for Drilling, Sloughing and Heaving
Current test proced 'E'S can be used to design
1
Shales," Petroleum Engine~!_, Sept. 1977, 105.
mud systems capable of dt-Jlling shales with a min-
imum of problems. An example has been given to 11. Steiger, R. P.: "Fundamentals and Use of
illustrate the application of such a procedure. Potassium/Polymer Drilling Fluids to Minimize
Drilling Problems," Journal. of Petroleum Tech-
But there are still many unresolved drilling
nology, Aug. 1982, 1661-1670.
problems caused by troublesome shales with the
implication that tests or test interpretations are
12. Clark, R. K., Scheurman, R. F., Rath, H. and
inadequate or not properly applied. There are a VanLaar, H. G.: "Polyacrylamide/Potassium-
large number of tests many of which are more quali-
Chloride Mude for Drilling Water Sensitive
tative than quantitative. There is not any general
Shales," Journal of Petroleum Technology, June
agreement on the relative value of many of the
1976, 719 727.
tests. Some of these tests may be superfluous,
giving information similar to other tests. At this
13. Theng, B. K. G., Formation and Properties of
time, all the tests appear to have some useful Clay-Polymer Complexes, Elsevier Scientific
value; however, close inspection of each reveals Pub. Co., (1979) Amsterdam.
some flaw which prevents that test being the only
test used. 14. Goring, C. A. I. and Hamaker, J. w.: Organic
Chemicals in the Environment, Vol. 2, (1972)
No study appears to exist where all the tests
Marcel Dekker, New York, 691-729.
are applied to a single shale, a fluid specified,
and field tests run for verification. 15 Lauzon, R. V.: "Colloid Science Resolves Shale
Formation-Damage Problems," Oil & Gas Journal,
Industry must move to resolve this area; a task
July 30, 1984, 175-179.
force is needed to standardize sampling, tests, and
test interpretation. This area ought to be brought
APPENDIX I
into a format which will yield real engineering
information of a quantitative nature. Procedure for Rolling Test
REFERENCES 1. Dry shale sample, grind, and screen through -4,
+10 mesh screens.
1. Potter, P. E., Maynard, J. B. and Pryor, D. A.:
Sedimentology of Shale, Springer-Verlag, New
2. To 350 ml of drilling fluid in a rolling cell,
York (1980) 12-17. add 50 g of the -4, +10 mesh sample.
2. Smalling, D. A.: "Mud Strategy Slows Sensitive
3. Roll above sample for 16 hours in a roller oven
Shale Sloughing," Oil & Gas J., June 10, 1985,
(1S0F)
152-57.
4. Remove sample after 16 hours and pour fluid and
3. Picard, M. D." "Classification of Fine Grained
shale through a 30 mesh screen.
Sedimentary Rocks", J. Sed. Pet. 41, 1971,
179-95. - 5. Dry and weigh the shale that remained on the
screen after separation and report the 16-hour
4. Gray, G. R. and Darley, H. C. H.: Composition
recovery in weight percent.
and Properties of Oil Well Drilling Fluids,
Gulf Pub. Co., Houston, (1980), 338 et seq.
6. To 350 ml of tap water, add the dried shale
from (5) and roll 2 hours.
5. Busenberg, E. and Clemency, C. v.: "Determina-
tion of the Cation Exchange Capacity of Clays
7. Remove sample after 2 hours and pour through a
and Soils Using an Ammonia Electrode," Clays
30 mesh screen.
and Clay Minerals,~' (1973) 213-217. ----
8. Dry and weigh the shale that remained on the
6. Hang, P. T. and Brindley, G. W.: "Methylene
screen and report the 2-hour fresh water
Blue Absorption by Clay Minerals," Clays and
recovery as weight percent of initial weight.
Clay Minerals, 18, (1970), 203-212.

7. Wilcox, R. and Fisk, J.: "Tests Show Shale

Behavior, Aid Well Planning," Oil .and Gas J.,
September 12, 1983.

8 . Chenevert, M. E.: "Shale Alteration by Water

Adsorption," Journal of Petroleum Technology,
September 1970, 1141-1148.

9. Darley, H. C. H.: "A Laboratory Investigation

of Borehole Stability," Journal of Petroleum
Technology, July 1969, 883-892.
 TABLE 1

Part A

DESCRIPTIVE CLASSIFICATION TESTS RUN ON SHALE CORE SPECIMENS

ROCK INSTABILITY
TEST ADDRESSED OR FUNCTION FLAW(s)

Geological Correlates shale Not quantitative;

w/other shales (NQ)

Visual Review Reveals lamination NQ

Gamma Scan Preliminary to

sampling

Densities Correlation

Thermal Water-Organic Partly NQ; Requires

Analysis Content, Mineral some preliminary
Type sample preparation

X-Ray Fluor- Supplements X-ray Requires other data

escence diffraction
(Elemental)

X-ray Mineralogical analysis

Diffraction

Vapor Pressure Determines one of fluid Very slow to reach

balances required equilibrium.

CEC Determines one of fluid Requires very

balances required accurate mineral
analysis in rock

Surface Area Proportional to rock's EGME sensitive to

tendency to disperse test operator; BET
fails on smectite

SEM & KEVEX Shows rock fine Tiny fraction of

structure rock in sample

MBT Gives CEC and/or Question as to

surface area EXACTLY what is
measured.

Electrophoresis Finds point of zero Sample size is

charge a single particle

SPE 1 4 24:8
 TABLE 2

Chemica}, Shale Weight --

Cortcentration Shale Weight 16 hr 2 hours in water
EEb Before After % Before After %

0.35 50.57 44.01 87.0 44.01 42.81 84.7

3.50 50.22 48.71 97.0 48.71 47.18 94.0

3.50 50.15 39.96 79.7 39.96 39.24 78.2

35.0 32.41 31.36 96.8 31.36 30.27 93.3

SPE 1 4 24; 8
 TABLE 3

Hot Rolling Tests with Shale Stabilizing Fluids*

No. of Initial Final

Sample Pieces Fluid Weight Weight

1 2 Sat. KCL 124.5 gms 108.9 gms

2 2 ?i~/BBL Al Salt 127.2 gms no recovery

3 2 Sat. KCL + 1/2#/BBL 132.9 gms 132.6 gms

Polyacrylamide

4 2 7#/BBL Al Salt + 1/2 125.3 gms no recovery

#/BBL Polyacrylamide

5 2 10% KCl + 54!/BBL 135.1 gms 38.6 gms

Al Salt

6 2 10% KCl + 1/ 4/f/BBL 120.9 gms 53.9 gms

Polyether

7 2 12% KCl + 20% NaCl 127.6 gms 122.8 gms

8 3 12% KCl + 20% NaCl 113.0 gms 112.8 gms

+ 1/2/F/BBL Poly-
acrylamide

All samples were hot-rolled at 160F for 16 hours with

final weights being determined from sample remaining
on a #5 sieve, 4.00 MM opening.

*No viscosifiers or water loss additives were used in these tests in order
to observe only shale stabilizing performance.

LEN:lmw
85171ART0190

SPE 1 4 24; 8
 TABLE 1

Part B

FUNCTIONS AND WEAKNESSES OF FLUID-SHALE CONTACT TEST METHODS

METHOD FUNCTION WEAKNESS

Immersion and Demonstrates fluid No abrasion, flow and

Soaking damage directly. pressure effects

Water Sorption (7) Measures fluid Fluid manipulation is

uptake clumsy

Swelling Test with Direct measure of Sample may squeeze by

Strain Gauge (8) swelling on many containment clamps and
shapes and sizes lose measurement; some
of rocks operator input needed

Capillary Filtration Fine tunes dispersion May scramble inter-

Time ( 7, 15) as a function of pretation of polymer
electrolyte effects
concentration

Triaxial Testing Closest to downhole Brine used to

(12) conditions of direct reconstitute changes
fluid-contact methods rock properties

Rolling Cell Good direct contact Fails to show flow

(Tum b 1 in g ) ( 10 ) test effects, particularly
in viscous fluids

SPE 1 4 24:8
 ERRATA

SPE 14248 SHALE STABILIZATION PRINCIPLES

BY
L.E. Nesbitt, G.P. King and N.E. Thurber

TABLE 2

ROLLING TEST RESULTS ON COALPIT AND FRIO MONTROSE SHALES

(First two tests run on CoalPit Shale, a low MBT Shale; last two tests run
on Frio-Montrose, a high MBT Shale)

Chemical additive is Chemical A + Chemical B.

CHEMICAL SHALE WEIGHT 16 Hr. SHALE WEIGHT --2 hours 1n water

Cone.
ppb Before After % Before After %

0.35 50.57 44.01 87.0 44.01 42.81 84.7

3.50 50.22 48.71 97.0 48.71 47.18 94.0

3.50 50.15 39.96 79.7 39.96 39.24 78.2

35.0 32.41 31.36 96.8 31.36 30.27 93.3

SPE 1 4? 4 8