COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF FLEXURAL STRENGTH PREDICTION MODELS

BETWEEN CENTER POINT AND THIRD POINT FLEXURAL TESTS IN

CONCRETE BEAMS USING ULTRASONIC PULSE VELOCITY

by

Belen, Jurell Rommel S.

Dizon, Anthonette Jean B.
Roa, Loraiza Nicole Ann Y.
Salinas Jr. , Robert P.

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

at

FEU Institute of Technology

June 2017

Thesis Adviser
Engr. Nolan C. Concha

2016 Belen, Dizon, Roa, Salinas.

All Rights Reserved

 2

The author/s grant FEU Institute of Technology permission to reproduce and distribute
the contents of this document in whole or in part.

APPROVAL AND ACCEPTANCE SHEET

The thesis entitled Comparative Analysis of Flexural Strength Prediction Models

Between Center Point and Third Point Flexural Tests in Concrete Beams Using
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity prepared and submitted by:

Bellen, Jurell Rommel S.

Dizon, Anthonette Jean B.
Roa, Loraiza Nicole Ann Y.
Salinas Jr., Robert P.

In partial fulfillment of the course of requirement for the Degree of Bachelor of Science
in Civil Engineering has been examined and is hereby recommended for approval.

___________________________
_____________________________
Engr. John Ray H. Benawe Engr. Precious B. Nuez
Panelist 1 Panelist 2

________________________
Engr. Gerardo D. Abestilla
Head Panelist
 3

Accepted as partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of Science
in Civil Engineering.

___________________________ __________________________
Engr. Nolan C. Concha Engr. Armi M. Cunanan - Yabut
Thesis Adviser Course Adviser

________________________
Engr. Orlando Lopez
Department Head

November 4, 2016
Date

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

First and foremost, we would like to thank our Heavenly Father for the knowledge

and guidance He gave us to finish this research paper in the right manner, and also for the

unlimited love, guidance, hope and grace we receive in every single day.

We would like to extend our gratitude to our department director, Engr. Orlando

Lopez in referring us to DPWH- BRS to be able to conduct our third-point flexural test in

their testing center, assisting us in using the equipment and in approving the use of

materials laboratory. To our adviser, Engr. Nolan Concha and our thesis coordinator,

Engr. Armi Cunanan-Yabut for their advices, and sharing their knowledge and support in

all time of research and writing. Both of them gave us the motivation and courage we

need to fulfill this research. Without them, this research will not be possible.
 4

To Department of Public Works and Highways Bureau of Research and

Standards, we would like to acknowledge their willingness to help in the gathering of

data in our study. We are sincerely thankful for granting us the privilege of using your

Universal Testing Machine for our Third- Point Flexural Test.

Our sincere thanks to our family and close friends for their unconditional love,

support, advices, and for uplifting our fighting spirits every time we are down and out of

ideas. We also acknowledge Ian Kendall Santiago for his eagerness in helping us from the

making of the samples up to its transportation to the testing center of DPWH BRS he

had been consistently assisting us. To Bianca Nepomuceno for helping us during testing

when we need additional people to record our data.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

THESIS
TITLE.i

APPROVAL AND ACCEPTANCE SHEET...

..iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.
.iv

TABLE OF
CONTENTS.v

LIST OF
TABLES.....vii
 5

LIST OF
FIGURES..viii

LIST OF
ABREVIATIONS...ix

APPROVAL AND ACCEPTANCE SHEET................................................................................................

ACKNOWLEDGMENT.............................................................................................................................

CHAPTER 1................................................................................................................................................

INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................................

1.1 Background of the Study...................................................................................................

1.2 Significance of the Study..................................................................................................

1.3 Objectives.......................................................................................................................

1.4 Scope and Limitations...............................................................................................................

1.5 Conceptual Framework..............................................................................................................

1.6 Definition of Terms...................................................................................................................

CHAPTER 2................................................................................................................................................

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE....................................................................................................

2.1 Testing of Concrete...................................................................................................................

2.1.1 Destructive Test..............................................................................................................

2.1.1.1 Universal Testing Machine............................................................................................
2.1.1.2 Center Point Loading Test.............................................................................................
2.1.1.3 Third Point Loading Test...............................................................................................
2.1.2 Non Destructive Test.......................................................................................................
2.1.2.1 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity...............................................................................................
2.2 Regression Analysis................................................................................................................
 6

2.2.1 Linear Regression Analysis............................................................................................

2.2.2 Linear Regression Models..............................................................................................
2.2.2.1 Simple Linear Regression............................................................................................
2.3 Studies about Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity.....................................................................................

2.3.1 Assessment of Concrete Strength at High Temperatures using UPV....................................

2.3.2 Relationship between Flexural Strength and Compressive Strength of Palm Kernel
Shell Concrete......................................................................................................................
2.3.3 Structural Health Monitoring Using Non Destructive Testing of Concrete............................
2.3.4 Combination of destructive and non-destructive methods for structures...............................
2.3.5 Correlation between Concrete Strength and Nondestructive Test for Concrete Using
High-Early Strength Cement..................................................................................................
2.3.6 Estimation of Flexural Strength of Plain Concrete from Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity................
2.3.7 Evaluation of Cement Mortars by Ultrasound...................................................................
2.3.8 Comparison of Destructive and Nondestructive methods of material properties testing
with focus to historical building materials masonry (ceramics and stone), mortars and
plasters................................................................................................................................
CHAPTER 3..............................................................................................................................................

METHODOLOGY....................................................................................................................................

3.1 Material Testing......................................................................................................................

3.1.1 Cement........................................................................................................................
3.1.1.1 Fineness of Portland Cement........................................................................................
3.1.1.2 Specific Gravity of Portland Cement.............................................................................
3.1.2.1 Specific Gravity and Absorption of Fine Aggregates.......................................................
3.1.2.2 Specific Gravity and Absorption of Coarse aggregates....................................................
3.2.1 Design Mix..................................................................................................................
3.2.2 Slump Test...................................................................................................................
3.2.3 Curing.........................................................................................................................
3.2.4 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity...............................................................................................
3.2.5 Universal Testing Machine.............................................................................................
 7

3.3 Regression Analysis.........................................................................................................

3.3.1 Plot of Flexural Strength and UPV at Center Point............................................................
3.3.2 Plot of Flexural Strength and UPV at Third Point..............................................................
3.3.3 Regression Models........................................................................................................
3.3.4 Testing of Accuracy of the Models..................................................................................
BIBLIOGRAPHY.....................................................................................................................................

APPENDICES...........................................................................................................................................

LIST OF TABL

Table 2. 1 Concrete Quality Grading ............................................................................................

 8

Table 3. 1 Concrete Quality Grading ............................................................................................

 9

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. 1 Conceptual Framework.................................................................................................

Figure 2. 1 Different Positions of Transducer Placement..............................................................

Figure 2. 2 Compressive Strength of Concrete for UPV results for fc = 40 MPa ........................
Figure 2. 3 Compressive Strength of Concrete for UPV results for fc = 70 MPa ........................
Figure 2. 4 Compressive Strength of Concrete for UPV results for fc = 90 MPa ........................

Figure 3. 1 Cement Testing............................................................................................................

Figure 3. 2 Sieve Analysis of Sand and Gravel.............................................................................
Figure 3. 3 Slump Test...................................................................................................................
Figure 3. 4 Curing..........................................................................................................................
Figure 3. 5 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity............................................................................................
Figure 3. 6 Universal Testing Machine..........................................................................................
 10

LIST OF ABREVIATIONS

DT- Destructive Test

NDT Non Destructive Test

UPV- Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity

UTM Universal Testing Machine

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Concrete is a widely used material in building structures nowadays. It is known for

its high durability and can withstand high temperatures making it a very important

material in Civil Engineering. Thus, having a good quality of concrete is a major

necessity in building structures to ensure the safety of the people [1].

The Flexural strength of concrete are important properties of concrete. These are the

basic parameters in computing for deflection in reinforced concrete structures. There are

many methods to assess the strength of concrete such as non-destructive test methods.

Examples of these are Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test (UPV), Rebound Hammer Test

(RH). These methods are considered indirect and predicted tests to determine concrete
 11

strength. These tests are affected by many parameters that depend on the material used in

production of concrete. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity is used to assess the concrete flexural

strength. It is also used to measure the velocity of the wave in concrete by placing a

transmitter and a receiver at each side of the concrete element.

In performing the Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity, the transmitter and the receiver will be

pressed into the concrete sample. The length of the sample and the travel time of the

ultrasonic pulse from the transmitter to the receiver will be measured. From these data,

the pulse velocity will be computed and from the result of the test, a high velocity will

indicate a good quality concrete while a low velocity would mean a damaged or low

quality concrete sample.

In order to establish the connection between Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity and the

flexural strength of concrete, simple regression analysis will be performed. In the

regression analysis, it will predict the value of the flexural strength of the concrete based

from the computed pulse velocity of the concrete.

Performing destructive tests on built structures are costly and sometimes impossible.

This type of testing will sometimes require equipment that is not available in the site.

Thus, results from the tests will not be obtained immediately. Another disadvantage of

performing a destructive test is the distinction of the sample concrete from the actual

structure. These differences are due some factors such as the curing and compaction of

the concrete.
 12

In coming up with a model that will predict the flexural strengths of concrete with

the use of a nondestructive test, testing of a built structure will be made possible. With

these models, flexural strength of concrete will be determined without performing a

destructive test. Thus, testing of structures will not have to be very costly. This study will

also perform a comparative assessment of the models derived from the center point and

third point flexural strength tests to identify which model will provide a better prediction

performance.

1.2 Significance of the Study

This study is beneficial to civil engineers in providing a predicting model in

determining the quality of concrete with the use of a nondestructive method. With this

model, engineers will be able to test large-scale structures and can assess the deterioration

condition of the structure.

This study will also help future researchers in conducting their study regarding the

quality of concrete using Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity. This may serve as their guide and

reference in achieving better results than previous studies conducted.

1.3 Objectives

The main objective of this study is to perform comparative analysis of the flexural

strength prediction models between center point and third point flexural tests in concrete

beams using Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity.

The specific objectives include the following:

 13

1. measure the flexural strength of hardened concrete using center point and third

point flexural tests.

2. assess the quality of concrete using UPV.
3. develop a simple regression models for flexural strength and Ultrasonic Pulse

Velocity of concrete.
4. determine the more suitable model prediction between center point and third point

flexural strength models based on reliability test.

1.4 Scope and Limitations

This study covered the flexural strength of concrete with the use of Ultrasonic

Pulse Velocity. The researchers tested thirty (30) samples 6 inches in width, 6 inches in

height and 21 inches in length beam-shaped concrete for flexural strength using center

point and thirty (30) sample of 6 inches in width, 6 inches in height and 21 inches in

length beam-shaped concrete for flexural strength using third point and ten(10) samples 6

inches in width, 6 inches in height and 21 inches in length beam-shaped concrete for

reliability test .Simple regression analysis was conducted in order to determine the

relationship of Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity to the concretes strength. A design mix was

class A (1:2:4), 1 part cement, 2 parts fine aggregates and 4 parts coarse aggregates in
 14

accordance to Building Code of the Philippines was adopted and factors affecting

concrete strength such as aggregate grading, cement type, water-cement ratio, admixtures

and age of concrete was not considered as input variable in the prediction models. A 28

days period was required to cure the concrete at a room temperature. Submerging in

water and placing in a curing tank. The method of nondestructive testing was only be

limited to Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity.

1.5 Conceptual Framework

Figure 1.1 shows the schematic flow of this study. The researchers was conducted

destructive and nondestructive test on various concrete sample and develop a prediction

models using simple regression analysis. Sixty (60) beam-shaped concrete samples with

the same ratio of concrete mixtures was used to generate the models and ten (10)

additional samples was used for reliability test. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity tester was also

Testing
Testing of Concrete
of Concrete
Samples using
Samples using
used in obtaining flexural strength of concrete. The concrete
Utrasonic
Utrasonic Pulse
Pulse samples was tested using the

Material Properties
Material Properties Velocity
Velocity Prediction models

Seventy Beam
Seventy Beam
Test
Test for Flexural
for Flexural for flexural
Shaped
Shaped Concrete
Concrete Strength using
Strength using
Samples Center
Center Point
Point
strength of
Samples

Test
Test for Flexural
for Flexural concrete for
Strength using
Strength using center point and
Third
Third Point
Point third point test

Regression Analysis
Regression Analysis

Reliability Test of
Reliability Test of
Prediction Models
Prediction Models
 15

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV). The results that gathered from the testing was used in

making a graph about flexural strength relating to Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity through of

regression analysis. The graph obtained was used in creating a prediction model for

flexural strength of concrete using center point and third point tests.

PROCES
INPUT S OUTPUT

Figure 1. 1 Conceptual Framework

1.6 Definition of Terms

Center Point Test- the load is applied at the center of the span. The maximum

stress occurs at the center of the beam under the load location.
Concrete- mix of cement, water, sand, and gravel that hardens into a super-strong

building material.
Destructive Test- includes methods where your material is broken down in order

to determine mechanical properties, such as strength, toughness and hardness.

Flexural Strength the ability to resist deformation under load.
 16

Non-Destructive Test - is the process of inspecting, testing, or evaluating

materials, components or assemblies for discontinuities, or differences in

characteristics without destroying the serviceability of the part or system.

Regression Analysis- is used when you want to predict a continuous dependent

variable from a number of independent variables.

Third Point Test- the load is applied at two points at one-third of the span length.

Maximum stress occurs over the center 1/3 portion of the beam.
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity- the method consists of measuring the time of travel of

an ultrasonic pulse passing through the concrete being tested. Comparatively

higher velocity is obtained when concrete quality is good in terms of density,

uniformity, homogeneity etc.

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter reviews the concepts of Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity, flexural strength,

the equipment used and the methods that can be followed to read the ultrasonic pulse

velocity. Reviewing the remedial works for curing methods and review the published

equations for finding the relation between flexural strength and UPV.
 17

2.1 Testing of Concrete

2.1.1 Destructive Test

Destructive test is basically breaking down the concrete in a controlled

manner to test the hardness and durability of concrete. It is performed under the

most severe operating conditions and continues until the application breaks. Its

main purpose is to show the under working conditions and the duration service

life of concrete and identify the critical weakness of material. The test gives more

information than non-destructive test. It is economic for project that will be mass-

produced; destroying small samples will be insignificant in the total cost.

Destructive test can be used to attain the strength and toughness that the

concrete samples can do. Destructive tests in turn indicate how and when the

objects are in danger of breaking down or failing. It is a physical analysis to find

the mechanical properties of concrete in order to understand the performance and

material behavior of the concrete.

2.1.1.1 Universal Testing Machine

A universal testing machine, also known as a universal tester,

material testing machine or material test frame, is used to test the tensile

stress and compressive strength of materials. It is composed of two load

components; a load cell and a cross head. Load cell is required a force
 18

transducer or other means of measuring. It is calibrated to provide specific

voltage that serves as an output signal when a particular force is detected.

It can either be escalated so that the concrete sample will be in

direct contact [2]. A cross head or also known as constant rate extension

machine (CRE) is required to be moved up and down at a constant speed

[3]. Calibration and Verification are two different methods. Calibration is

the process of identification of error in the magnitude of the certain loads

while verification is a calibration that ascertain that errors obtained are

within predetermined range. It is also the certification that the machine

meets the accuracy requirements [2].

2.1.1.2 Center Point Loading Test

In this test method, the entire load is applied at the center of the

beams span length. Here the flexural strength or modulus of rupture is

higher than the modulus of rupture of the third point loading test. The

maximum stress is present only at the center of the beam. The area of

eventual failure contains not only moment-induced stresses but also shear

stress and unknown areas of stress concentration [4].

2.1.1.3 Third Point Loading Test

Half the load is applied at each third of the beams span length.

Here the flexural strength or modulus of rupture is lower than that of the
 19

modulus of rupture found in the center point loading test. In this test, the

maximum stress is present over the center one-third portion of the beam.

The modulus of rupture is then calculated and reported as the flexural

strength. The third-point loading test is preferred because, ideally, in the

middle third of the span the sample is subjected to pure moment with zero

shear [4].

2.1.2 Non Destructive Test

It is a method which evaluates the quality of concrete structures with

regards to their strength and durability apart from assessment and control of

quality of hardened concrete without or partial damage to the concrete.

2.1.2.1 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) is the most frequently used means

of Non Destructive Test (NDT). The results of this testing can be

calculated. High velocities indicate good quality of concrete, while low

velocities reveal weak concrete. The system for this testing is portable and

can penetrate about 35 linear feet of concrete.

The ultrasonic pulse velocity method is a stress wave propagation

method that involves measuring the time of travel of an ultrasonic pulse

passing through the concrete. The pulse velocity can be calculated by:
 20

V=L/T (Equation 1)

Where:

L= path length of sample

T= travel time

The pulses are introduced into the concrete by a piezoelectric

transducer and arrival of the pulse. A timing circuit is used to measure the

time it takes for the pulse to travel from the transmitting to the receiving

transducers. The presence of low density, or cracked, concrete increases

the travel time which results in a lower pulse velocity. By conducting tests

at various points on a structure, locations with lower quality concrete can

be identified by their lower pulse velocity.

Table 2.1 shows the guidelines for qualitative assessment of

concrete based on UPV test results. To make a more realistic assessment

of the condition of surface of a structural member, the pulse velocity can

be combined with rebound number.

Table 2. 1 Concrete Quality Grading [5]

Velocity (km/s) Concrete Quality (Grading)

V> 4.5 Excellent
4.5 V 3.5 Good
3.5 V 3.0 Medium
V < 3.0 Doubtful
 21

Transmission Measuring Methods

The direction of the transducers with contact to the surface of the

concrete should be perpendicular and as much as possible, there is no air

will enter between the face of the instrument and the concrete. For best

results, it is advisable to test the concrete members for every quarter in a

meter. It is possible in measuring the pulse velocity by placing the two

transducers in the following manners.

1. Dire 2. Semi-
ct Direct

3. Indirect
Transmissio
Figure 2. 1 Different Positions of Transducer Placement
 22

1 Direct Transmission
In this position, the two transducers are place directly opposite to each

other on the opposite faces of the concrete. The maximum transfers of

energy will easily detect by the receiving transducer. Additionally, the

results will become accurate.

2 Semi-Direct Transmission
This arrangement is otherwise similar to direct transmission. How, it is

less sensitive as compared to the arrangement of direct transmission. Also,

there is a reduction in accuracy when it comes to the result of the test. In

most cases, it is used when the surface of the concrete is not accessible.
3 Indirect Transmission
This arrangement should be used only when the two transmissions

is not possible (direct transducer and semi-direct transducer). This is called

the surface transmission because the placement of the transducers is

adjacent to the surface of the concrete. It is recommended to apply

adequate coupling agent to ensure that the ultrasonic pulses generated at

the transmitting transducer should be able to pass into the concrete and

detected by the receiving transducers with minimum losses [6].

2.2 Regression Analysis

Regression Analysis is a statistical tool for the investigation of relationships

between variables. The relationship model is hypothesized and the parameters estimated
 23

values are used to develop an estimated regression equation. Various tests are then

employed to determine if the model is satisfactory. If deemed satisfactory, the estimated

regression equation can be used to predict values of the dependent variables with given

values of the independent variables.

Regression analysis is used for prediction and forecasting. It is also used to

understand which among the independent variables are related to the dependent variable

which will then explore the forms of these relationships. Under restricted circumstances,

regression analysis can be used to infer casual relationships between the independent and

dependent variables. However, this can lead to illusions or false relationships thus it is

important to note that correlation does not imply causation.

The performance of the methods of regression analysis depends on the form of the

data collecting process and how it relates to the regression technique being used. Since

the original form of the data collecting process is generally not known, regression

analysis often depends to some extent on making assumptions about the process. These

assumptions are sometimes testable if sufficient quantity of data is available. Regression

models for prediction and forecasting are often useful even then assumptions are

moderately violated even though they will not optimally perform. However, in many

applications, regression methods can give misleading results.

2.2.1 Linear Regression Analysis

Linear regression is the most basic and most used predictive analysis.

Regression estimates are used to describe data and to explain the relationship
 24

between one dependent variable and one or more independent variables. The

main task of regression analysis is the fitting of a single line through a scatter plot.

The simplest form with one dependent and one independent variable is defined by

the formula:

y = c + bx (Equation 2)
where:

y = estimated dependent,

c = constant,

b=regression coefficients,

x = independent variable.

Sometimes the dependent variable is called a criterion variable,

endogenous variable, prognostic or regressand. The independent variables can be

called exogenous variables, predictor or regressors. However, linear regression

analysis consists of more than just a fitting line through a scatter plot. It consists

of three stages. First is to analyze the correlation and directionality of the data.

Second is the estimation of the model and third is the evaluation of the validity

and usefulness of the model.

There are three major uses of linear regression analysis. First is casual

analysis. Second is forecasting of an effect and third is the trend forecasting.

Other than correlation analysis, which focuses on the strength of the relationship
 25

between two or more variables, regression analysis assumes dependence or causal

relationship between or more independent variable and one dependent variable.

Firstly, it is used to identify the strength of the effect of the independent

variable on the dependent variable. Secondly, it can be used to forecast effects or

impacts of changes. It can show how much the dependent variable will change

when one or more independent variable is changed. Thirdly, regression analysis

predicts trends and future values. The regression analysis can be used to get the

point estimates [7].

2.2.2 Linear Regression Models

When selecting the model for the analysis another important consideration

is the model fitting. Adding independent variables to a linear regression model

will always increase the explained variance of the model (typically expressed as

R2). However, adding more and more variables to the model makes it inefficient

and over fitting occurs. According to Occams razor, a model should be as simple

as possible but not simpler. Statistically, if the model includes a large number of

variables, the probability increases that the variables test statistically significant

out of random effects.

The second concern of regression analysis is under fitting. This means that

the regression analysis estimates are biased. Under fitting occurs when including

an additional independent variable in the model will reduce the effect strength of

the independent variable. Mostly under fitting happens when linear regression is
 26

used to prove a cause and effect relationship that is not there. This might be due to

researchers empirical pragmatism or the lack of a sound theoretical basis for the

model [8].

2.2.2.1 Simple Linear Regression

Simple linear regression is the most basic type of regression. It

uses only one independent variable and describe the relationship between

the independent variable and dependent variable as a straight line. It is

also used to determine the relationships between a continuous process

output and one factor. The relationship is expressed in terms of a

mathematical equation such as y = b + mX.

Supposed that it is believed that the value of y tends to increase or

decrease in a linear manner as x increases. Then a model relating y to x by

drawing a line which is well fitted to a given data set can be selected.

Such a deterministic model one that does not allow for errors of

prediction might be adequate if all of the data points fell on the fitted

line. Then relationship between the mean value of the independent

variable and the dependent variable can be inferred [9].

 27

2.3 Studies about Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity

2.3.1 Assessment of Concrete Strength at High Temperatures using UPV

A study about the assessment of concrete strength at high temperature

using UPV was conducted by Kirchhof, Lorenzi and Silva Filho (Brazil, 2015).

The study analyzed the effect of high temperature to the residual strength of

concrete. An experimental investigation was conducted to study the relationship

between UPV residual data and compressive strength of concrete with different

mix proportions. Cylindrical specimens with water-cement ratio of 0.25, 0.30 and

0.50 were heated in an electric furnace at temperatures ranging from 200C to

600C. After heating, the specimens were cooled down to room temperature in the

furnace and then taken out for testing. For each specimen, the UPV and

compressive strength were measured. From the relationship between UPV and

residual strength ratios, a general equation was proposed for predicting the

compressive strength of concrete at high temperatures. The results obtained

indicate that the application of UPV has demonstrated to be a trustworthy

analysis, being able to prove the effectiveness of its use of fire-damaged concrete

structures.

The variation of properties in concrete exposed to elevated temperatures

depend on many factors such as constituent materials, initial strength, age, water

content, etc. The interdependency of these factors difficulties the development of

an accurate model. However, there is no doubt that when concrete (NSC and
 28

HSC) is exposed to rapid temperature rise, such as fire, there is a significant

reduction of compressive strength. A comparison of NSC and HSC specimens has

been carry out. The results have shown that the compressive strength losses of

NSC occur in a gradual manner, while in HSC specimens, there is a general

tendency of increase of strength that varies from 3 to 12% in 200C. This increase

can be attribute to a slow process of hydration that is stimulated by the

temperature. A similar behavior was observed by Castillo e Durrani in samples

heated up to 300C. According to the authors, the increase in strength is attribute

to the general stiffening of the cement gel or the increase in surface forces

between gel particles due to the removal of absorbed moisture. Between 400C

and 600C, the reduction of compressive strength is more pronounce in HSC

specimen. This effect is attribute to spalling damage during the heating.

The figures 2.2, 2.3 and 2.4 show a comparison between compressive

strength of concrete and ultrasonic pulse velocity, both dependent on the

temperature, for three different mixture proportions. Clearly, it was observed that

there is a reduction in compressive strength of concrete as well in the UPV results

for both NSC and HSC cylindrical specimens. This behavior has been expected

since a rapid temperature increase causes significant changes in porosity and

permeability of concrete due to release of absorbed water, dehydration of C-S-H

and, probably, formation of micro and macro-cracks. All these processes lead to

an increase in the connectivity of pores network. The increase in

 29

porosity/permeability can be represent by UPV results since any material

imperfections, cracks or voids will cause an increase in the time of wave

propagation through the length of the cylinder, resulting in lower ultrasonic pulse

velocities.

Figure 2. 2 Compressive Strength of Concrete for UPV results for fc =

40 MPa [10]

Figure 2. 3 Compressive Strength of Concrete for UPV results for fc =

70 MPa [10]
 30

Figure 2. 4 Compressive Strength of Concrete for UPV results for fc =

90 MPa [10]
In this study, a series of tests were performed to evaluate the changes in

compressive strength and ultrasonic pulse velocity of concrete subject to high

temperatures as well as to establish a relationship between residual compressive

strength and UPV ratios. Based on the experimental results, the following

conclusions are drawn. The mixture proportion has a significant role on the

residual compressive strength of concrete subjected to elevated temperatures. In

normal strength concrete (NSC) the reduction of strength happens gradually with

the increase of temperature, while in high strength concrete, there is a general

increase of strength in 200C, however, from 400C the specimens experimented

a considerable loss of strength, mainly due to the development of cracks and the

occurrence of explosive spalling.

There is a reduction in compressive strength as well in the UPV results

for both NSC and HSC samples due to the increase of porosity/permeability in

fire-damaged concrete; - A relationship between the residual compressive strength

and UPV ratios can be establish to estimate the residual strength ratio of fire-

damaged concrete with the measured residual UPV ratio; - The UPV method has

demonstrated to be an important tool used for evaluating the changes in

homogeneity and density of concrete submitted to high temperatures as well as

estimating quantitatively the residual compressive strength of fire-damaged

 31

concrete. Further studies are necessary to increase the feasibility and precision of

the method.

2.3.2 Relationship between Flexural Strength and Compressive Strength of

Palm Kernel Shell Concrete

A study about the relationship between flexural and compressive strength

of palm kernel shell concrete was conducted by Yusuf, Jimoh and Salami (2016).

The study represents the determination of an appropriate compressive-flexural

strength model of palm kernel shell concrete (PKSC). The direct and indirect

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) measurements, with respective to mechanical

properties of compression (cube) and flexural (slab) elements, of concrete at

various mixes and water/cement ratios were made. A total of 225 cubes and 15

slabs of the PKSC were casted for nominal mixes of 1:1:1, 1:1:2 and 1:11/2:3, and

varying ratios of 0.3-0.7 at interval of 0.1. The test elements were cured for

3,7,14, 28, 56 and 91 days in water at laboratory temperature. The elements were

then subjected to nondestructive test using the PUNDIT apparatus for

determination of direct ultrasonic wave velocity and the elastic modulus at the

various ages. The cubes were subsequently subjected to destructive compressive

test. The 28-day compressive strength UPV and strength-age statistical

relationships at water-cement ratio of 0.5 determined from the velocity-strength

data set in linear, power, logarithm, exponential and polynomial trend form. The

polynomial trend line in the form y=aln(x) at R 2 value of 0.989, found

 32

appropriate, among others, was proposed for the formulation of the compressive

strength-flexural strength model of PKSC at water-cement ratio of 0.5.

2.3.3 Structural Health Monitoring Using Non Destructive Testing of

Concrete

Ayaz Mahmood (Department of Civil Engineering National Institute of

Technology Rourkela, 2008) conducted study about structural health monitoring

using non-destructive testing of concrete.

In this study, they test the columns, beams and slabs of two double storied

buildings viz., Hall No.2 and Hall no.7 (a newly constructed hostel) in N I T

Rourkela by using non-destructive instruments.

The researchers used to obtain the Calibration Graphs for Non Destructive

Testing Equipments viz., the Rebound Hammer and Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity

Tester and to study the effect of reinforcement on the obtained results.

The results of the investigation showed that the pulse velocity method is

an ideal tool for establishing whether concrete is uniform. It can be used on both

existing structures and those under construction. Fairly good correlation can be

obtained between cube compressive strength and pulse velocity. These relations

enable the strength of structural concrete to be predicted within 20 per cent,

provided the types of aggregate and mix proportions are constant. In summary,

ultrasonic pulse velocity tests have a great potential for concrete control,

particularly for establishing uniformity and detecting cracks or defects. Its use for
 33

predicting strength is much more limited, owing to the large number of variables

affecting the relation between strength and pulse velocity.

2.3.4 Combination of destructive and non-destructive methods for structures

Cengiz Kurtulus and Ali Bozkurt (Kocaeli University, 2011) conducted a

study about the determination of concrete compressive strength in structures in

Istanbul and Izmit Cities (Turkey) by combination of destructive and non-

destructive methods.

In this study, cylindrical concrete cores of 10 cm diameter and height were

taken from the columns and shear walls of randomly chosen 5-40 years old

reinforced concrete buildings located in different towns of Istanbul and Izmit

(Kocaeli) in Turkey from 2000 to 2011. The ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV)

measurements and uniaxial compressive strength tests were conducted on 200

concrete core specimens in a laboratory. The core uniaxial compressive strength

of the specimens was regressed against UPV and linear regression equations were

obtained.

The UPV measurements of compressional waves were conducted using

DT Qust-120t ultrasonic pulse generator instrument with the transducers with 50

mm in diameter and had maximum resonant frequency of 54 kHz. The end

surfaces of the core samples were polished and greased to provide a good
 34

coupling between the transducer faces. The pulse velocity was measured pressing

the transducer to the core samples firmly.

The compressive strength of the concrete core specimens was measured by

breaking the cylindrical concrete specimens by the help of a (UTEST)

compression-testing machine with the capacity of 200t. For determining of the

compressive strength of the cores BS-1881-120 (1983) and ASTM C 42-90

procedures were used.

2.3.5 Correlation between Concrete Strength and Nondestructive Test for

Concrete Using High-Early Strength Cement

Engr. Razon Domingo and Professor Sohichi Hirose conducted a study

about the correlation of concrete strength and combined nondestructive tests for

concrete using high-early strength cement (University of the Philippines-Diliman,

2009). In this study, the researchers performed nondestructive test (NDT) on

Portland cement concrete (PCC) pavement. The NDT used was ultrasonic pulse

velocity method.

The study aimed to contribute to the development of a pragmatic method

for the improved nondestructive determination of concrete strength in structures,

particularly on PCC pavements. Specifically, the study aimed to determine the

correlations of concrete strengths with some NDT methods using high-early

strength cement compared to normal cement.

 35

Concrete specimens with different type of mixtures was used (w/c = 0.49,

0.45, 0.41) Then at different ages of the specimens, compressive strength, flexural

strength and pulse velocity was determined. Using regression analysis, the

correlations among concrete properties and NDT results was established.

After conducting the study, the researchers concluded the following: A

combined ultrasonic pulse velocity and rebound number can be used to predict the

flexural strength and compressive strength of concrete from a standard concrete

beam specimen. The use of a standard concrete beam specimen (6 x 6 x 21) be

used for determining UPV instead of the standard cube specimen (6 x 6 x 6).

The third-point loading test for flexure is recommended to be used both in the

design and in acceptance of concrete for pavements. Further study is

recommended by validating results in actual construction.

2.3.6 Estimation of Flexural Strength of Plain Concrete from Ultrasonic

Pulse Velocity

Dr. Alaa Hussein and Alwan AI-Zuhairi (Engineer College- Civil

Department of Baghdad University, February 2013) conducted a study about the

Estimation of Flexural Strength of Plain Concrete from Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity.

The aim of this study is to propose mathematical expressions for

estimation of the flexural strength of plain concrete members from ultrasonic

pulse velocity (UPV) measurements. For each precast unit, direct and indirect
 36

(surface) ultrasonic pulses were subjected to the concrete media to measure their

travel velocities.

In this study, 203 pieces of precast concrete kerb units were tested.

Each unit is submitted to measuring of dimensions and locating the points at

which the ultrasonic transducers will be attached for both direct and indirect test.

And UPV tests were taken using 55 kHz transducers. Each precast unit was

subjected to flexural stress at center point to the failure.

After conducting the study, the researchers conclude the following: the

proposed equations can be used in estimating the flexural strength of plain

concrete members such as precast kerb units. The method of test may be applied

in situ where the units are constructed. The relationship between direct and

indirect (surface) pulse velocities may be used in other ultrasonic applications.

The two equations cannot be used in estimating the flexural strength of reinforced

concrete members because the existence of reinforcement steel has an important

role in UPV measurements.

2.3.7 Evaluation of Cement Mortars by Ultrasound

Nesibe Gzde zerkan and . zgur Yaman (Department of Civil

Engineering of Middle East Technical University, January 2006) conducted a

study about Evaluation of Cement Mortars by Ultrasound.

 37

The study aimed is to determine the ultrasonic pulse velocity of mortars,

to investigate the relationship between the UPV of mortars and their strength

characteristics and to make an attempt to evaluate the effects of different

specimen size and shape on ultrasonic pulse velocity, to determine the

compressive and the flexural strengths as well as capillary porosity.

Mortars were prepared using an electrically driven mechanical mixer with

a 200 kg capacity. From each mortar mixture, cylindrical, cubical and prismatic

specimens with the geometrical dimensions. The mean UPV of all the specimens

for 54 kHz, 82 kHz, and 150 kHz at 2, 7, and 28 days and coefficient of variations

of UPV.

The results of the investigation showed that the w/c ratio adversely

affected the mechanical properties of mortars. An increase in w/c ratio caused a

decrease in the compressive and flexural strength. The UPV of cement mortars

was also adversely affected by the w/c. The pulse velocity in the longitudinal

direction of the mortar prismatic specimens is smaller when compared with the

velocity in the lateral direction. And an increase in the moisture content results in

an increase in UPV and a decrease in compressive strength of cylindrical and

cubical specimens.
 38

2.3.8 Comparison of Destructive and Nondestructive methods of material

properties testing with focus to historical building materials masonry

(ceramics and stone), mortars and plasters

Ivan Acosta Collell (Construction Engineering Department, 2014)

conducted a study about the comparison of destructive and nondestructive

methods of material properties testing with focus to historical building materials

such as masonry (ceramics and stone), mortars and plasters.

This study aimed to compare the NDT with the DT in order to obtain a

correlation between the parameters that can be obtained with both techniques. The

idea is that knowing some correlation, it would be possible to evaluate in a proper

way properties like resistance, durability or strength of a historical building

without the needed of doing destructive tests. And, moreover, it would be helpful

to rely more in the results obtained with NDT when there is the needed of

evaluating the condition of a building and to do the required corrective actions

only with the NDT data.

In this study, the rebound method and the pulse velocity method were used

in NDT. And the parameters obtained with DT were the flexural strength, the

compressive strength and de Young Modulus. He used two point and center point

loading in obtaining the flexural strength of the concrete samples. The relations

considered were linear or polynomial of second-degree approximations.

 39

After conducting the study, the researcher concluded that knowing some

parameters due to NDT it is possible to evaluate the strength and the resistance of

a material like if a DT was done.

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

This chapter states the experimental work and the devices that was developed in

this study. It includes a brief description of the materials that were used and the
 40

experimental tests that was carried out in accordance to the research plan in observing the

development of concrete strength and its relationship with Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity.

3.1 Material Testing

3.1.1 Cement

The cement was tested through visual examination of its color. The

material should be in uniform color of grey with a light greenish shade. Another

test was conducted by throwing a small amount of cement into water. A good

quality cement float for some time before sinking.

3.1.1.1 Fineness of Portland Cement

Fifty (50) grams of sample cement was sieved using a number 200

sieve with pan. Sieving operations by a gentle wrist motion was performed

for 20 minutes until most of the fine materials have passed through the

sieve. The weight of residue (R) on the number 200 sieve in grams was

then measured and the fineness of cement (F) will be then computed.

50R
F= 100 (Equation 3)
50

Based on ASTM C115 -96a, a particle size value of 50 m to 7.5 m will be

accepted (See Appendix A).

3.1.1.2 Specific Gravity of Portland Cement

 41

A sample of sixty four grams (64) of Portland cement (W 1) was

weighed and introduced into the Le Chatelier Flask containing kerosene in

small amounts. Care was taken to avoid splashing and to see that the

cement does not adhere to the inside of the flask above the liquid. After all

the cement has been introduced, the flask was then whirl in a horizontal

circle direction to free the cement from air. More kerosene is added until it

flushed with the graduated mark then weighed (W 2). The flask was

emptied, filled with kerosene for final weighing (W3) and the recorded

weights were used to compute the specific gravity (SG) of the cement.

W1
SG= (Equation 4)
W 1( W 2 W 3 ) 0.79

The acceptable standard deviation for Portland cement as per

ASTM C188- 95 is 0.012 (See Appendix B). Therefore, results should not

differ by more than 0.03.

 42

Figure 3. 1 Cement Testing

3.1.2 Sand and Gravel
In testing the quality of sand and gravel, sieve analysis were performed

based on ASTM C33 -03 (See Appendix C). Sieves are piled up ranging from sieve

number 4 with an opening of 4.750 millimeters to sieve number 200 with an

opening of 0.075 millimeters. The sand was placed into the top sieve and all the

piled sieves were placed into the sieve shaker for about 5 10 minutes. It is

considered as sand if it will retain from sieve number 10 with an opening size of 2

millimeters to sieve number 200. Beyond the sieve 200, it is already considered as

silt and clay. Same process was done for testing gravel. It was placed in the sieve

and the gravel should retain in sieve number 4 to sieve number 8. Otherwise, it is

already considered as sand.

 43

Figure 3. 2 Sieve Analysis of Sand and Gravel

3.1.2.1 Specific Gravity and Absorption of Fine Aggregates

A pycnometer was filled with water, rolled to expel air, and

weighed (W2). One thousand (1000) grams of dry fine aggregate sample

was placed in a conical mold and tamped 25 times. The mold was

removed and examined the sample to slump will indicated that the

aggregates are in a surface dry condition.

About 40 % of the water contained in the pycnometer was

removed and five hundred (500) grams (W1) of dried fine aggregate

sample was placed inside the pycnometer for about an hour. The

pycnometer was refilled with water up to 500 ml mark and weighed (W 3).

The fine aggregates sample were removed from the pycnometer, oven

dried until constant weight (Wo). The specific gravity (SG) and absorption

can be calculated using the formula:

W1
SG= (Equation 5)
W 1+W 2W 3
 44

W 1W O
Absorption = 100 (Equation 6)
WO

The acceptable value for bulk specific gravity (dry) is 0.032 and a

standard deviation of 0.011. For apparent specific gravity and bulk

specific gravity (SSD), an acceptable value is 0.027 and a standard

deviation of 0.0095. A absorption of 0.25 and a standard deviation value of

0.11 is acceptable as per ASTM C128-97(See Appendix D).

3.1.2.2 Specific Gravity and Absorption of Coarse aggregates

Coarse aggregate samples were dried at room temperature for

about 1 to 3 hours and will subsequently be immerse in water. The

aggregates was removed from water and visible spots of water was wiped

using an absorbent cloth so that the sample is in surface dry condition. The

sample was weighed (W1) and placed in a wire basket to determine the

weight in water (W2). The coarse aggregates sample was removed from

water then oven dried until constant weight (Wo). The specific gravity

(SG) and absorption can be calculated using the formulas:

W1
SG= 100 (Equation 7)
W 1W 2
 45

W 1W o
Absorption= 100 (Equation 8)
Wo

The acceptable value for bulk specific gravity (dry) is 0.025 and a

standard deviation of 0.009. For apparent specific gravity and bulk

specific gravity (SSD), an acceptable value is 0.020 and a standard

deviation of 0.007. A absorption of 0.25 and a standard deviation value of

0.088 is acceptable as per ASTM C128-88 (See Appendix E).

3.2 Sample Preparation and Testing

3.2.1 Design Mix

The design mix of seventy (70) beam-shaped concrete samples was design

class A. It is composed of one-part cement, two parts of fine aggregates, and four

parts of coarse aggregates.

 46

3.2.2 Slump Test

Based on California Test 556 (See Appendix F), slump test mold, non-

porous base plate, and tamping rod was used to determine the consistency of the

concrete. The mold was placed in a non-porous surface and was filled with the

concrete mixture in three layers. Each layer was tampered twenty-five (25) times

using the tamping rod in a uniform manner throughout the cross section of the

mold. The excess concrete mixture at the surface of the mold were removed using

a trowel and it is also used to level the top layer of the concrete mixture. Then, the

mold was raised slowly from the concrete mixture and it will be placed beside the

concrete mixture. Obtaining a result that takes more or less the shape of the mold

would mean a true slump. To determine the slump, it is the difference between the

height of the concrete mixture and that of the mold. A slump of 4-7 inches will be

accepted in creating samples.

Figure 3. 3 Slump Test

 47

3.2.3 Curing

After the samples hardened, the researchers was used curing. Curing

allows concrete to achieve optimal strength and hardness. Curing is the hydration

process that occurs after the concrete has been placed. The samples was placed in

a drum of water. Twenty eight (28) days of curing were conducted based on

ASTM C192 (See Appendix G).

Figure 3. 4 Curing

3.2.4 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity

Based on the ASTM C 597-09 (See Appendix H), the transmitter and the

receiver probes was pressed against the concrete. The length of the concrete

sample was recorded and so as the time the ultrasonic pulse will pass from the

transmitter to the receiver. Direct transmission was applied in recording the time

and was placed in 5 different points of the specimen and the average were
 48

determined. If the concrete is of a good quality, the pulse was pass through in a

direct path and if the concrete sample contains flaws, the time for the pulse will be

higher than that of a good quality concrete. With these recorded data, the velocity

were computed using equation 4.

Time taken by pulse

Length of sample (Equation 9)
PulseVelocity= go through

The beam concrete samples was tested for pulse velocity respectively. A

result having a high velocity was indicate as a good quality concrete and a low

velocity was mean a damaged concrete. With the use of the computed pulse

velocity, the quality grade of the concrete sample were determined as shown in

table 3.1:

Table 3. 1 Concrete Quality Grading [5]

Velocity (km/s) Concrete Quality (Grading)

V> 4.5 Excellent

4.6 V 3.5 Good

3.5 V 3.0 Medium

V < 3.0 Doubtful

 49

Figure 3. 5 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity

3.2.5 Universal Testing Machine

After measuring the pulse velocity, the samples were tested via universal

testing machine. It a type of destructive test that was used to test the flexural and

compressive strength of materials. The beam shaped concrete samples were tested

for flexural strength at the center point and third point. The samples was placed

between the grips and extensometer. Once the set-up was done, the machine

begins to apply an increasing load on the concrete sample. For the center point

flexural test, the load was applied on the center of the specimen while in third

point flexural test; it was on the third points of the specimen based on ASTM

C293 and ASTM C78 respectively (See Appendix I and J). Throughout the test, the

control system and its associated software, will record the load and flexural or

compression of the specimen. The stress will be recorded up to the maximum

after the samples breaks.

 50

Figure 3. 6 Universal Testing Machine

3.3 Regression Analysis

3.3.1 Plot of Flexural Strength and UPV at Center Point

After determining the pulse velocity of the samples through ultrasonic

pulse velocity test, the resulting value was plotted against the flexural strength

tested at center point. A regression line was drawn to assess the relationship

between two.

3.3.2 Plot of Flexural Strength and UPV at Third Point

After determining the pulse velocity of the samples through ultrasonic

pulse velocity test, the resulting value was plotted against the flexural strength

tested at third point. A regression line was drawn to assess the relationship

between the two.

 51

3.3.3 Regression Models

A simple linear regression model was used to assess the relationship

between pulse velocity and flexural strength. Simple linear regression was used to

determine the relationship between two independent variables. The relationship of

UPV on the flexural strength at center point and third point was determined.

Using spreadsheet, a regression model was made. The trend line was used to

determine the relationship of each sample regarding flexural strength at center

point and third point as well as its pulse velocity.

3.3.4 Testing of Accuracy of the Models

Ten (10) beam concrete samples were prepared to validate the accuracy of

each prediction model. In turn, the results were used to identify which model will

provide better prediction results.

CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter illustrates and define all the results attained from the material

testing, ultrasonic pulse velocity, center point and third point loading flexural test.

The data consist of comparative analysis of the flexural strength prediction

models between center point and third point flexural tests in concrete beams using

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity.

4.1 Material Tests Results

4.1.1 Cement
4.1.1.1 Fineness of Portland Cement
 52

The fineness of Portland cement was determined using the

equation (3). It
4.1.1.2 Specific Gravity of Portland Cement
4.1.2 Sand
4.1.2.1 Sieve Analysis
4.1.2.2 Specific Gravity and Absorption
4.1.3 Gravel
4.1.3.1 Sieve Analysis
4.1.3.2 Specific Gravity and Absorption
4.2 Physical Test Results

Table 4. 1 Data Gathered for Physical Testing

Beam Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Length (mm) Volume (mm^3)

1 155 150 530 12322500

2 150 145 530 11527500
3 150 145 530 11527500
4 150 145 530 11527500
5 150 150 530 11925000
6 150 150 530 11925000
7 150 150 530 11925000
8 150 145 530 11527500
9 150 145 530 11527500
10 150 150 530 11925000
11 150 150 530 11925000
12 150 155 530 12322500
13 155 155 530 12733250
14 150 150 530 11925000
15 150 150 530 11925000
16 150 150 530 11925000
17 150 150 530 11925000
18 150 150 530 11925000
19 150 150 530 11925000
20 150 150 530 11925000

Beam Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Length (mm) Volume (mm^3)

 53

21 150 150 530 11925000

22 150 145 530 11527500
23 150 150 530 11925000
24 150 150 530 11925000
25 150 150 530 11925000
26 150 150 530 11925000
27 150 155 530 12322500
28 150 150 530 11925000
29 150 150 530 11925000
30 150 155 530 12322500
31 150 150 530 11925000
32 150 150 530 11925000
33 150 150 530 11925000
34 155 145 530 11911750
35 155 145 530 11911750
36 150 150 530 11925000
37 150 150 530 11925000
38 150 150 530 11925000
39 150 150 530 11925000
40 150 150 530 11925000
41 150 150 530 11925000
42 150 150 530 11925000
43 150 150 530 11925000
44 150 150 530 11925000
45 150 150 530 11925000
46 150 150 530 11925000
47 150 150 530 11925000
48 150 150 530 11925000
49 150 150 530 11925000
50 150 150 530 11925000

Beam Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Length (mm) Volume (mm^3)

 54

51 150 150 530 11925000

52 150 150 530 11925000
53 150 150 530 11925000
54 150 150 530 11925000
55 150 150 530 11925000
56 150 150 530 11925000
57 150 150 530 11925000
58 150 150 530 11925000
59 150 150 530 11925000
60 150 150 530 11925000
61 150 150 530 11925000
62 150 150 530 11925000
63 150 150 530 11925000
64 150 150 530 11925000
65 150 150 530 11925000
66 150 150 530 11925000
67 150 150 530 11925000
68 150 150 530 11925000
69 150 150 530 11925000
70 150 150 530 11925000

4.1.1 Dimension of Each Concrete Beam Sample

The width of the concrete beam samples have common value of 150mm.

The thickness on the other hand varies with 145mm being the lowest and 155mm

being the highest and 150mm the most common. The lengths do not vary for each

sample and remains at 530mm. Due to varying dimensions, the volume varies

with 12322500mm3 being the highest and 11527500mm3 being the lowest and a common

value of 11925000mm3 .

4.3 Mechanical Test Results

 55

4.3.1 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test Results

4.3.1.1 Time of Travel of the Pulse in Each Concrete Beam Sample

The time of travel of the pulse that passed in each concrete

beam sample through direct transmission were all recorded. The time of travel in

all samples, ranges from 35.0s to 45.4s. 35.0s to be the shortest time recorded

which is gathered from concrete beam sample no. 42 and 45.4s for the longest

time recorded which is from the concrete beam sample no. 7.

4.3.1.2 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity

After the pulse time was recorded, the ultrasonic pulse

velocity can be determined using the thickness of each concrete beam sample that

will serve as the distance traveled by the pulse. The pulse velocities are from

4.3.2 Flexural Strength Test

4.3.2.1 Center Point Loading Test

After performing the Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Testing, 35

of the samples were tested in Center Point Loading flexural test. The samples

were placed in the universal testing machine and the loading is applied on the

center of the concrete beam span. The machine then recorded the maximum load

the sample was able to carry. The strength is also recorded.

4.3.2.1 Third Point Loading Test

After performing the Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Testing, 35

of the samples were tested in Third Point Loading flexural test. The samples were

placed in the universal testing machine and the loading is applied on each one
 56

third of the concrete beam span. The machine then recorded the maximum load

the sample was able to carry. The strength is also recorded.

4.4 Prediction Models

4.4.1 Prediction Model of UPV and Center Point Flexural Strength
The correlation between the Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity to the Center

Point Flexural Strength was determined through simple linear regression.

Through simple linear regression, the correlation between the

ultrasonic pulse velocity and the center point flexural strength of the concrete

beam samples is determined. In the graph shown above, it is shown that there is

low correlation which is at 0.22.

4.4.1 Prediction Model of UPV and Third Point Flexural Strength
The correlation between the Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity to the Third

Point Flexural Strength was determined through simple linear regression.

Through simple linear regression, the correlation between the

ultrasonic pulse velocity and the center point flexural strength of the concrete

beam samples is determined. In the graph shown above, it is shown that there is

low correlation which is at 0.22.

CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusions
 57

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 59

October 2016].

[21] "The Constructor- Civil Engineering Home," 2015. [Online]. Available:

http://theconstructor.org/concrete/concrete-slump-test/1558/. [Accessed 4 October 2016].

[22] in Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures, Skokie, Illinois, Portland Cement Association,
2016.

[23] BAQER ABDUL HUSSEIN ALI, "Assessment of Concrete Compressive Strength by

Ultrasonic Non-Destructive Test," Baghdad, 2008.

[24] I. A. Collell, "Comparison of destructive and nondestructive methods of material properties

testing with focus to historical building materials - masonry (ceramics and stone), mortars
and plasters," Barcelona, 2014.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

STANDARD TEST METHOD FOR FINENESS OF PORTLAND CEMENT BY

THE TURBIDIMETER

(ASTM C 115-95a)
 60

APPENDIX B

STANDARD TEST METHOD FOR DENSITY OF HYDRAULIC CEMENT

(ASTM C 188-95)
 61

APPENDIX C
 62

STANDARD SPECIFICATION FOR CONCRETE AGGREGATES

(ASTM C 33-03)
 63

APPENDIX D

SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND ABSORPTION OF FINE AGGREGATE

(ASTM C 128-97)
 64

APPENDIX E

SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND ABSORPTION OF COARSE AGGREGATE

(ASTM C 127-88)
 65

APPENDIX F

METHOD OF TEST FOR SLUMP OF FRESH PORTLAND CEMENT

CONCRETE

(CALIFORNIA TEST 556)

 66

APPENDIX G

STANDARD PRACTICE FOR MAKING AND CURING CONCRETE TEST

SPECIMENS IN THE LABORATORY

(ASTM C 192/C 192M-02)

 67

APPENDIX H

STANDARD TEST METHOD FOR PULSE VELOCITY THROUGH CONCRETE

(ASTM C 597- 09)

 68

APPENDIX I

STANDARD TEST METHOD FOR FLEXURAL STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

( USING SIMPLE BEAM WITH CENTER- POINT LOADING)

(ASTM C 293/C 293 M-10)

 69

APPENDIX J

STANDARD TEST METHOD FOR FLEXURAL STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

( USING SIMPLE BEAM WITH THIRD-POINT LOADING)

(ASTM C 078-02)
70