Homeostasis Fakyu

Click to edit Master subtitle style
HOMEOSTASIS
9.1 Concept of Homeostasis
1. Explain the concept of homeostasis.
2. Describe the homeostatic control system.

Concept of Homeostasis
(homeo = sameness; -stasis = standing still)
The condition in which the bodys internal

environment remains relatively constant,
within physiological limits.
This equilibrium produced by the dynamic

state, an interplay between outside factors
and internal control mechanisms.
Outside factors tend to change the

internal environment
Internal control mechanisms that

oppose such changes
OUTSIDE
INTERNAL CONTROL
FACTORS MECHANISM

E g : Thermoregulation
E g : Temperature
Activates
Changes
Reverses the change
Internal
environment
The characterization of an animal with

regards to environmental variables is
called regulation.
A regulator uses mechanisms of

homeostasis to control internal changes
caused by external fluctuations.
It involves receptors and adjusting the

composition of the body fluids accordingly,
carrying out excretion and osmoregulation.
Regulation by an organism is very

important so that physiological processes
can proceed at an optimum rate.
Homeostatic Control System

The body can regulate its internal
environment through a multitude of
feedback systems.
A feedback system is a cycle of events in

which the status of body condition is:
continually monitored,
evaluated,
changed,
re-monitored,
re-evaluated and so on.

Each monitored variable, such as
body temperature,
blood pressure,
blood glucose level

is termed a controlled condition.
Any disruption that changes a controlled

condition is called a stimulus.
Three basic components make
up a feedback system
RECEPTOR
CONTROL
SYSTEM
EFFECTOR
Three basic components
make up a feedback system
RECEPTOR
A body structure that

monitors changes in a
controlled condition and
sends input in the form of CONTROL
nerve impulses or chemical
signals to a control center. SYSTEM
EFFECTOR
RECEPTOR
CONTROL SYSTEM
Evaluates the input it receives
from receptors and generates
output commands when they
are needed.
Output from the control center

can occur in several forms:
nerve impulses, hormones , or
other chemical signals.
EFFECTOR
RECEPTOR
CONTROL
EFFECTOR
SYSTEM A body structure that receives
output from the control centre
and produces a response or effect
that changes the controlled
condition.
Either depressing it (negative

feedback) or enhancing it (positive
feedback)
Feedback system
Negative feedback
Positive feedback
A feedback mechanism in
Homeostatic mechanism which the response
that reduces the intensity of enhances the original
the original stimulus stimulus
Consequently causes a The output is used to

enhance the input.
change in a variable that is
opposite in direction to the
initial change
The output is used to reduce

input.
Negative Feedback System
A primary mechanism of homeostasis.
If there is a change in a physiological variable

that is being monitored,
it triggers a response that counteracts the

initial fluctuation.
(Campbell, 6th edition)
Negative Feedback
Examples of negative feedback:
Negative feedback in regulation of blood

glucose level
Negative feedback in mechanism of body

temperature regulation
Positive Feedback System
A physiological control mechanism.
A change in some variable..
triggers mechanisms that amplify that change.
(Campbell, 6th edition)

An example of positive feedback (during childbirth)
Steady-state
condition
Decrease Increase
Positive feedback Positive feedback
Further decrease Further increase
Corrective mechanism
Negative feedback
Steady-
state
condition
A generalized diagram of homeostasis
HOMEOSTASIS
Negative Feedback
Mechanism in
Controlling
Blood Glucose Level

Learning Outcomes
Explain the negative feedback in controlling

blood glucose.
2 Fundamental Facts
A rise in blood glucose level stimulates the

secretion of insulin.
A fall in blood glucose level would instead

stimulate glucagon secretion.

-cells secrete insulin
-cells secrete glucagon

When glucose level in
the blood increases
When glucose level in
the blood decreases
Please take note
-cells, not beta cells.
-cells, not alpha cells.

insulin
Glucose Glycogen
glucagon
Glycogen Glucose
INsulin is released when there is an
INcrease in the blood glucose level..
AND
glucaGON is released when

all the glucose has GONE!
But heres some news you can use..
Source : Business Week,

14th January 2010.
HOMEOSTASIS
Negative Feedback
in
Body Temperature
Regulation
Learning Outcomes
Explain negative feedback in the regulation of

body temperature
How does the body regulate
temperature?
The bodys temperature is monitored by
nerve cells in the skin,
hypothalamus and other parts of the body
Some nerve cells functions as

hot thermoreceptors that signal
the hypothalamus when the skin
or blood temperature increases.
Others functions as cold

thermoreceptors that signal the
hypothalamus when there is a
decrease in temperature of the
skin or blood.
Diagram :
Cross-section of skin
More heat is lost from the surface of the skin
If the temperature
rises, the blood
vessel dilates
(vasolidation).
Sweating
The
skin
vasoconstriction
Less heat is lost from the surface of the skin
If the temperature
falls, the blood
vessel constricts
(vasoconstriction).
If all else fails,
Thank you
LECTURE 2
9.3.1 Liver
Learning outcomes:
Students should be able to:
v
Describe the detailed structure of liver
v
Explain its homeostatic function
- Carbohydrate metabolism
- Detoxification
- Transamination & deamination of
amino acids
v
Illustrate Urea / Ornithine cycle
Liver
Largest internal organ

of the body (1.4 kg)
Located in the right-

upper quadrant of the
abdomen and under
the diaphragm
Liver
The gall bladder,

which stores bile
secreted by the
liver, lies just below
it and connected to
the duodenum by
the bile duct.
Structure of liver : Lobes
Consist of
Two major lobes Two minor lobes
Right lobe Left lobe Caudate lobe Quadrate lobe

Two major lobes, Two minor lobes,
right & left caudate & quadrate
Structure of liver: Lobes
The right lobe, is visible

on all liver surface and
separated from the
smaller left lobe by a
deep fissure
The posterior most lobe

is the caudate lobe and
quadrate lobe, which lies
inferior to the left lobe.
Structure of liver : Lobules
The liver consist

of thousands of
tiny polygonal
blocks of cells
called lobules
Each lobules
about 1 mm in
diameter
Lobules are formed from

radiating rows of vertical
cord of liver cells,
referred to as acini
(singular, acinus).
Between the lobules are

branches of the hepatic
artery, hepatic portal
vein and bile duct.
Simplified diagram of a liver acinus
Acinus
Structure of liver : Hepatocytes
A lobule consists of
specialized liver cells
called hepatocytes.
Hepatocytes are
arranged in irregular,
branching,
interconnected plates
around a central vein.
Structure of liver : Hepatocytes
Hepatocytes have
prominent nuclei
and Golgi apparatus,
many mitochondria
and lysosomes.
Also rich in glycogen

granules and fat
droplets.
Structure of liver : blood vessels
Connected by
Two blood vessels sinusoids One blood vessel
(tiny blood vessel)
supply blood to drains blood away
the liver cell from the liver cells
Hepatic artery Hepatic Hepatic vein

portal vein
Structure of liver : blood vessels
Hepatic Hepatic vein
Hepatic artery portal vein
Carries Sends back

oxygenated Supplies blood blood from the
blood from the gut & bring liver to the
along most of the heart
digested food into it
Structure of liver : Bile
The sinusoids alternate with bile canaliculi.
Bile canaliculi contains bile, made by the hepatocytes

which line them, and transports them into the
branches of the bile duct.
Structure of liver : Bile
Bile
A bitter- tasting greenish-

yellow alkaline fluid
Produced by liver cells
Stored in the gall bladder

and secreted into
duodenum
It assist the digestion and

absorption of fats.
Structure of liver : Kupffer cell
The sinusoids are

lined by numerous
phagocytic cells
known as Kupffer
cells (also known as
star cells/stellate
cells)
Kupffer cells are part

of the bodys defence
system
Functions of liver
Carbohydrate metabolism
Detoxification
Transamination & Deamination of

amino acids
Role of the liver in (the control) blood glucose level:
carbohydrate metabolism
Sugar enters the liver from the gut by the hepatic portal
vein.
When the blood glucose level is high
v
-cells from islet of Langerhans of pancreas secrete
insulin and stimulate the liver

The conversion of glucose to glycogen is known as
glycogenesis and is stimulated by the presence of
insulin
When blood glucose level is low
-cells of islet of Langerhans in pancreas secretes

glucagon
glucagon stimulates liver cells to convert glycogen

into glucose (glycogenolysis)
glucose can be synthesized from non-carbohydrate

precursors such amino acids, and glycerol
(gluconeogenesis)
Muscle: Uptake glucose by cell
Insulin secreted Liver: Negative feedback
glucose CO2 + H2O
glucose glycogen
Islet of langerhans (detector)
glucose fat
Fall in glucose
Rise in glucose level
level
Normal blood Normal blood

Glucose level Glucose level
Fall in glucose
level
Rise in glucose
level
Islet of langerhans (detector)
Liver:
glycogen Negative feedback
Glucagon secreted
glucose
protein glucose
Figure : summary diagram of control blood glucose level
Transamination of amino acid
Process of transferring the amino group from one

amino acid to form other amino acid
An amino group from amino acid is transffered to

organic acid or to an acid (keto acid) in the Krebs
cycle.
It means other non-essential amino acids can be

formed by the body.
Deamination of amino acid
The liver is the site of the

deamination of excess
amino acids
amino acids are broken

down and the amino group
(NH2) is removed
and used to make ammonia

NH3
Detoxification

From deamination, amino acid is broken
into a non-nitrogenous part and a
nitrogenous part.
H R R
deamination
2 N C COOH + O2 2 C COOH + 2NH3
H
H O
ammonia
Keto acid
Detoxification
The non-nitrogenous parts are

converted into glucose in the
liver and then stored as
glycogen
The nitrogenous part is

ammonia which is toxic even in
small quantities
Ammonia is converted into

urea which is less toxic
Formation of urea
Urea, CO(NH2)2 is
the nitrogenous
waste product of
humans and other
land-living mammals
Ammonia from
deamination is
converted to urea in
the ornithine cycle
(urea cycle).
Formation of urea
Two molecules ammonia are combined with one carbon

dioxide
And enter the ornithine cycle
2NH3 + CO2 NH2 + H2O

C=O
Ammonia
NH2
carbon dioxide urea water
Formation of urea
Urea cannot be made

directly by combining
carbon dioxide and
ammonia because this
is not a feasible
reaction.
Formation of urea
By using the four

molecules:
ornithine, citrulline,
arginosuccinate and
arginine as intermediates,
and the energy from ATP

molecules,
the synthesis of a molecule

of urea becomes feasible
arginosuccinate
A porter
BACK
LECTURE 3
9.3.2 Kidney
Structure of kidney and nephron
Learning outcomes
Describe the gross structure of kidney and

the detailed structure of nephron and the
associated blood vessels.

Gross structure of kidney
Kidney
Is the major excretory and

osmoregulatory organ of
mammals
Function:

Removal of metabolic
waste products

Regulation of the water
content of body fluids

Regulation of pH of body
fluids

Regulation of the
chemical composition of
body fluids
Structure of kidney
Pair of bean-shaped
organ
Situated towards the back

of the lower part of the
abdominal cavity
The left kidney lies

slightly above the right
It is 10-20 cm long, 5-7.5

Structure of kidney
Receive blood from

the aorta via the renal
arteries
Renal vein returns

blood to the posterior
vena kava
Structure of kidney
Urine formed passes

by a pair of ureters
to the bladder where
it is stored until it is
released via urethra
Structure of kidney : transverse section
Two regions
Cortex (outer) Medulla (inner)
covered by fibrous
composed of tubular
connective tissue parts of the nephron and
blood vessels which
Contains glomerulus, together form renal

Bowmans capsule and pyramids
part of the nephron
A transverse section
Structure of nephron
Bowmans capsule
Each nephron begins as a

hollow, cup shaped component
(diameter 200m)
in the cortex of the kidney.
From here , the tubule runs

towards the center of the
kidney.
The cupped wall region and

blood vessel is a blood
filtering unit called a
glomerulus.
Proximal
convoluted tubule
Close to the capsule,

highly coiled and
diameter 60m.
Located in the cortex

of the kidney.
Loop of Henle
Hair-pin shaped.
Has descending
limb & ascending
limb.
Located in the
medulla of the
kidney.
Distal convoluted
tubule
Not as long as the

proximal convoluted
tubule.
Located in the
cortex of the kidney.
Collecting duct
End of kidney.
Located in the medulla of

the kidney.
Several nephrons feed

into the same collecting
duct.
The collecting ducts all

eventually drain into the
pelvis of the kidney, from
where the urine flows into
the ureter.
Nephron and the associated blood
vessels
Renal artery
Blood enters the kidney by the renal artery
which branches into the afferent arteriole.
vessels
An afferent arteriole brings blood towards each

Bowmans capsule, dividing to form a network of
capillaries called glomerulus in the hollow part of
the capsule.
vessels
The blood leaves the Bowmans capsule in an
efferent arteriole, which is narrower than the
afferent arteriole.
vessels
The efferent arteriole is
divided to form a second
set of capillaries which
surround the:
proximal and distal

convoluted tubules
and the loop of Henle in

the medulla.
vessels
The capillaries of the
peritubular capillaries
(vasa recta) run parallel
to the loop of Henle
and the collecting duct
in the medulla.
Blood leaves the

kidney through the
renal vein.
Summary of blood
circulation in the
kidney:
Renal artery afferent

arteriole glomerulus
efferent arteriole
peritubular capillary (vasa
recta) renal vein
9.3.2 Kidney
Urine formation

Learning Outcomes
Explain the formation and concentration of

urine involving ultrafiltration, reabsorption
and secretion.
URINE FORMATION
ULTRAFILTRATION REABSORPTION SECRETION
Urine formation :
1) Ultrafiltration
Ultrafiltration occurs
from the capillaries of
the glomerulus into
the lumen of the renal
capsule.
Urine formation :Ultrafiltration
Filters out molecules

which are much smaller
than RBC and plasma
proteins.
Substance forced through

the capillary wall and
between the podocytes
by blood pressure enter
the lumen of Bowmans
capsule.
Filtrate
H2O
Salts (NaCl and

others)
HCO3-
H+
Urea
Glucose; amino
acids
Some drugs
Factors contributing to ultrafiltration
a) The hydrostatic blood
pressure in the glomerulus
is higher than in other
capillaries.
q
This high pressure is
mainly due to the high
resistance to outflow
presented by the efferent
arteriole, which is
smaller in diameter than
the afferent arteriole.
b) Large amount of
glomerulus filtrate large
surface area for filtration
provided by the highly coiled
glomerulus capillaries.
c) High permeability of the
glomerulus
q
The wall of Bowmans
capsule in contact with
capillaries consists of
specialized epithelial cell
called podocytes.
q
These cells have numerous
cytoplasmic extension
called foot processes that
cover most of the
capillaries.
q
Foot processes of
adjacent podocytes
are separated by
narrow gaps called
filtration slits.
q
The perforated walls of the
capillaries and the
podocytes form a filtration
membrane that permits fluid
and small solutes dissolved in
the plasma, to pass through

and become part of the
filtrate.
q
This filtrate membrane holds
back blood cells, platelets,
and most of the plasma
protein.
2) Reabsorption (proximal convoluted
tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted
tubule and collecting duct)
Nearly all sugars,

vitamins and other
organic nutrients
present in the initial
filtrate are reabsorbed.
i) Proximal tubule
Helps maintain a constant pH in

body fluid
By controlled secretion of
hydrogen ions and
By reabsorbing about 90% of
HCO3- from filtrate
)
Reabsorbing of NaCl (salt) and
water

Salt moves from the filtrate to
the interstitial fluid by active
transport

Water follows passively by
osmosis
Reabsorption and secretion at
proximal convoluted tubule
Reabsorption from
proximal tubule
into blood
Secretion from
blood into proximal
tubule
Reabsorption in the proximal convoluted
tubule
The wall is one cell thick
The cells of the tubule are

packed with mitochondria
And the surface facing into

the tubule has a brush
border of microvilli
Microvilli provide a large

surface area for the
movement of solute
molecules into the cell
i) Proximal tubule
(cont.)
)
Glucose , amino acids ,
vitamins and other
useful materials are
also reabsorbed into
the blood.
)
This is accomplished
by a combination of
active transport,
diffusion and osmosis.
ii. Decending limb of the loop
of Henle
Permeable to water but not to

salt
Water moves out of the tubule

by osmosis
Filtrate moves downwards and

continues to lose water
NaCl concentration inside the

loop of Henle increases
iii. Ascending limb of
the loop of henle
Consist of thin segment

and thick segment
The walls become more

permeable to NaCl
and less permeable to

water
Salt that was concentrated

now diffuse out of the thin
segment of ascending limb.
iii.Ascending limb of the
loop of henle
This contributes to the high

salt concentration in the
interstitial fluid in medulla
In the thick segment ,

salt is actively transported
out of the tubule
Filtrate becomes progressively

more dilute as it moves up to
the distal tubule
iv. Distal convoluted tubule
Here, NaCl and HCO3- are

also reabsorbed into the blood
by active transport.
Water molecules are

reabsorbed into the blood by
osmosis.
Reabsorption and secretion at
distal convoluted tubule
Reabsorption from
distal tubule into
blood
Secretion from
blood into distal
convoluted tubule
v. Collecting duct
Carries the filtrate in the

direction of the medulla
and renal pelvis
The special tissue

epithelium is permeable to
water but not to salt
v. Collecting duct (cont.)
The filtrate becomes more

and more concentrated as
water is lost to the interstitial
fluid
The bottom portion is

permeable to urea and
leakage of this solute into
the interstitial fluid
contributes to the high
osmolarity of the medulla
3) Secretion
The opposite direction of
reabsorption
K+ and H+ are among the

substances actively secreted
from blood into the filtrate
NH3 and certain drugs are

also removed from blood by
secretion
Secretion occurs mainly in

the regions of the distal
convoluted tubule.
Urine concentration by counter
current multiplier mechanism

Definition:
1) Countercurrent
Fluids past each other in opposite directions.
Fluid flow down one side of the loop the
descending limb, and up the other side the
ascending limb
2) Multiplier
Fluid flow down the descending limb, high
concentration of NaCl ; hypertonic
Fluid flow up the ascending limb, less
concentration of NaCl ; hypotonic
counter current multiplier mechanism
The loop of Henle as a
countercurrent multiplier
The loop of Henle maintains the interstitial fluid
gradient of NaCl in medulla.
The filtrate concentration of this salt increases
because of the loss of water from the
descending limb.
Then the ascending limb leaks the salt into the
interstitial fluid.
Additional salt is actively transported out of the
thick segment of the ascending limb.
The loop of Henle as a countercurrent
multiplier
The high concentration of
salt in the medulla makes
water leave the
descending limb by
osmosis
The counter current like

arrangement of
descending and ascending
limbs helps maintain the
high salt concentration in
the medulla
Under conditions in which the kidney
conserves as much water as possible,
urine can reach an osmolarity of about
1,200 mosm/L, considerably hyperosmotic
to blood (about 300 mosm/L)
This ability to excrete nitrogenous wastes

with a minimal loss of water is a key
terrestrial adaptation of mammals
Urine concentration by counter
current multiplier mechanism

The loop of Henle acts as a
countercurrent multiplier.
Countercurrent refers to the fact that:
Fluids past each other in opposite directions.
Fluid flow down the descending limb, and up

the ascending limb.

There could be no osmotic gradient if
the filtrate in these adjacent tubes ran in
the same way.
Therefore there could be no exchange of

The term multiplier refers to the fact that:
Small differences of osmolarity at any one

point along the loop is multiplied along the
length of the loop.
This creates a large osmotic gradient.
Fluid flows down the descending limb, high

concentration of NaCl ; hypertonic.
Fluid flows up the ascending limb, less

concentration of NaCl ; hypotonic.
counter current multiplier mechanism
The loop of Henle as a
countercurrent multiplier
The loop of Henle maintains the
interstitial fluid gradient of NaCl in
medulla.
The filtrate concentration of this salt
increases because of the loss of water
from the descending limb.
Then the ascending limb leaks the salt
into the interstitial fluid.
Additional salt is actively transported out
of the thick segment of the ascending
limb.
The loop of Henle as a countercurrent
multiplier
The high concentration of
salt in the medulla makes
water leave the
descending limb by
osmosis
The counter current like

arrangement of
descending and ascending
limbs helps maintain the
high salt concentration in
the medulla
Under conditions in which the kidney
conserves as much water as possible,
urine can reach an osmolarity of about
1,200 mosm/L, considerably hyperosmotic
to blood (about 300 mosm/L)
This ability to excrete nitrogenous wastes

with a minimal loss of water is a key
terrestrial adaptation of mammals
9.3.2 kidney (continued)

Learning Outcomes
Students should be able to explain:
-
water regulation by ADH
-
The action of aldosterone on Na+
reabsorption
-
pH regulation of the tissue fluid
Water regulation by ADH
Concepts

The kidneys play central role in the
regulation of the water content of the
body or osmoregulation.

The water content of the blood is
monitored by osmoreceptor cells in the
hypothalamus and they stimulate the
pituitary gland to secrete antidiuretic
hormone, ADH.
What happens if you havent
had a drink for a while?
1. Your blood will have a low water

potential (it becomes more
concentrated).
2. This is detected by osmoreceptors in

your hypotalamus, which stimulates
your pituitary gland to release
antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
The release of ADH into the
bloodstream brings about the
following:
ADH makes the distal

convoluted tubule and
collecting duct more
permeable to water.
This allows more water to be

reabsorbed into blood.
This produces a smaller

volume of more concentrated
urine.
In addition to stimulating
the release of ADH
when the blood is
concentrated, the
hypotalamus also
activates your thirst
centre in the brain.
As a result, you feel

thirsty and take in
additional water to dilute
the blood.
What happen if you drink lots of
fluids?
Your blood will have a
high water potential (it
becomes more dilute).
This is detected by the

osmoreceptors in your
hypotalamus and
results in a decrease in
the amount of ADH
secreted by the
pituitary.
The decrease in the amount
of ADH in the bloodstream
results in the following:
Lack of ADH makes the

distal convoluted tubule and
collecting duct less
permeable to water.
Less water is reabsorbed
into the blood.
Larger quantities of dilute
urine are produced.
The action of aldosterone on Na+
reabsorption
Sodium reabsorption is regulated
by the hormone Aldosterone
Sodium is the most
abundant extracellular
ion.
Its concentration is
carefully regulated by
the hormone,
aldosterone.
Aldosterone secretion can be
stimulated by a decrease in
blood pressure.
When blood pressure fall,

certain cells (juxtaglomerular
apparatus) near the
glomerulus secrete the
enzyme renin and activates
the renin-angiotensin
pathway.
Renin acts on a plasma
protein, converting it to
angiotensin, which
stimulates aldosterone
secretion.
Aldosterone is secreted by
the cortex of the adrenal
glands.
This hormone
stimulates the distal
tubules and collecting
duct to increase
sodium reabsorption.
Then the blood

volume and pressure
will increase.
pH regulation of the tissue
fluid
pH regulation of the tissue fluid
pH is a measure of the concentration of

hydrogen ions and the acidity of the blood.
The nephron regulates the pH of the

blood, maintaining it at pH 7.4.

pH < 7.3 : acidosis

pH > 7.5 : alkalosis
One factor which tends to increase acidity

is production of CO2 during cell
Carbon dioxide reacts with water to produce
carbonic acid:
CO2 + H2O H2CO3
Carbonic acid dissociates to produce hydrogen

ions and hydrogen carbonate ions:
H2CO3 H+ + HCO3-
Process
In the distal
convoluted tubule
longer-term
adjustments in the
ion balance of the
blood are made.
If the blood pH is
tending to fall below
7.4, H+ ions from the
plasma are secreted
If the blood pH rises
above 7.4, OH- ions
from plasma are
secreted in the distal
convoluted tubule.
9.4 Water regulation in plants
Objectives :
a) Describe the role of stomata in regulation
of water loss
b) Explain the importance of transpiration
c) Describe the various types of plant
adaptation to the environment in relation
to morphology, anatomy and physiology
The role of stomata in
regulation of water loss
On a short term basis,
closing of the stomata can
control water loss
This occurs in many

plants when they are
subjected to water stress
About 90% of the water a

plant loses escapes
The role of stomata in regulation of
water loss
These pores account for only 1-2% of the
external leaf surface
The waxy cuticle limits water loss through

the remaining surface of the leaf
Guard cells control the diameter of the

stoma by changing shape
The amount of water lost by a leaf

The importance of transpiration
Transpiration is the loss of

water vapour from the leaves
and stems of plant
About 90% of the water is

lost through transpiration.
Transpiration is an important
process to plants, because it
provides the force to pull
water and mineral ions up
the xylem vessels
The importance of transpiration
Transpiration has a cooling

effect, countering the heating
effect of the sun on the whole
shoot system
Transpiration can lower the

temperature of a leaf in
comparison with the
surrounding air
This prevents the leaf from

reaching temperatures that
Plant adaptation of habitats

Xerophytes

Hydrophytes

Mesophytes

Halophytes
Xerophytes
Live in short water supply
Problem: loss of water death
Features to reduce water loss

Waxy cuticle

Smaller leaves

Presence of trichomes

Leaf rolled up

Succulent

Stomata
Close in the day
Open in the night

Photosynthesis - CAM
Hydrophytes
Live in water
Adaptation:

Xylem vessel is poorly
developed

Large leaves

Lack sclerenchyma tissue

Stem and leaves have
paerenchyma tissue

Large air spaces
Mesophytes
Live with an adequate
water supply
Most angiosperm plants
No special adaptation
Hot & dry:
close stomata
Thin layer cuticle
Stomata under leaves
Variable leaf shape

cold season:
Seeds dormant
Halophytes
Live in areas of high salinity
Problem:

absorption of water from salty
water

High rate of transpiration
Adaptive:

Root accumulate minerals by
active absorption

Thick layer of cuticle

Succulent leaves

Reduced stomata and hairs

Root submerged in salt
water/knee root
The End
Thank you and till we meet again

Homeostasis Fakyu

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Homeostasis Fakyu

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Click to edit Master subtitle style

2. Describe the homeostatic control system.

The condition in which the bodys internal

This equilibrium produced by the dynamic

Outside factors tend to change the

Internal control mechanisms that

Reverses the change

The characterization of an animal with

A regulator uses mechanisms of

It involves receptors and adjusting the

Regulation by an organism is very

A feedback system is a cycle of events in

re-evaluated and so on.

blood glucose level

Any disruption that changes a controlled

A body structure that

Output from the control center

Either depressing it (negative

Consequently causes a The output is used to

The output is used to reduce

A primary mechanism of homeostasis.

If there is a change in a physiological variable

it triggers a response that counteracts the

Examples of negative feedback:

Negative feedback in regulation of blood

Negative feedback in mechanism of body

A physiological control mechanism.

A change in some variable..

triggers mechanisms that amplify that change.

(Campbell, 6th edition)

Further decrease Further increase

Blood Glucose Level

Explain the negative feedback in controlling

A rise in blood glucose level stimulates the

A fall in blood glucose level would instead

-cells secrete glucagon

-cells, not beta cells.

-cells, not alpha cells.

glucaGON is released when

Source : Business Week,

Explain negative feedback in the regulation of

Some nerve cells functions as

Others functions as cold

Students should be able to:

Largest internal organ

Located in the right-

The gall bladder,

Two major lobes Two minor lobes

Right lobe Left lobe Caudate lobe Quadrate lobe

The right lobe, is visible

The posterior most lobe

The liver consist

Lobules are formed from

Between the lobules are

Also rich in glycogen

Hepatic artery Hepatic Hepatic vein

Carries Sends back

The sinusoids alternate with bile canaliculi.

Bile canaliculi contains bile, made by the hepatocytes

A bitter- tasting greenish-

Produced by liver cells

Stored in the gall bladder

It assist the digestion and