Using pressuremeters

Using This booklet is an introduction to pressuremeter testing using

our instruments. It is intended to be an aid to people trying to
pressuremeters decide whether to use pressuremeter testing, and what type of
pressuremeter would be appropriate for their project. People
wanting to buy pressuremeter equipment will find some of the
A guide to information useful.
pressuremeter testing It is primarily a technical guide. For information about costs
please contact us directly on cam@cambridge-insitu.com

It is a brief guide only. Further details on all aspects can be

found on our website: http://www.cambridge-insitu.com

Furggwanghorn, Switzerland
Contents An introduction to pressuremeters
Inserting the pressuremeter
3

Construction and calibration

Advantages and limitations of the pressuremeter test

How to decide what pressuremeter to use 7

Self Boring Pressuremeter (SBP)
73mm High Pressure Dilatometer (HPD73)
95mm High Pressure Dilatometer (HPD95)
47mm Reduced Pressuremeter (RPM)

Additional considerations 10
Self Boring
Pre-boring
Pre-boring with the 47mm RPM

Special tests 12
Horizontal tests
Creep tests
Consolidation tests
Permeability testing

Projects where our pressuremeters have been used 14

The underground research facility at Mol, Belgium
Testing waste and investigating barrier walls
Kolkata Metro East-West Project

Worked examples 16
Case A. A self bored pressuremeter test in London Clay
Case B. A pre-bored pressuremeter test in chalk
Case C. A pre-bored pressuremeter test in competent rock

References 23
 Disassembled CDU Portable power pack

A kit of parts for a self boring pressuremeter

2 USING PRESSUREMETERS
An introduction to pressuremeters
Pressuremeters are devices for carrying
out insitu testing of soils and rocks for
strength and stiffness parameters. They
are generally cylindrical, long with respect
to their diameter, part of this length being
covered by a flexible membrane.

Pressuremeters enter the ground by

pushing, by pre-boring a hole into which
the probe is placed, or by self boring (fig.1)
where the instrument makes its own hole.
Once in the ground, increments of
pressure are applied to the inside of the
membrane forcing it to press against the
material and so loading a cylindrical cavity.
A test consists of a series of readings of
pressure and the consequent
displacement of the cavity wall (fig. 2),
and the loading curve so obtained may
be analysed using rigorous solutions for
Fig. 1 A self boring pressuremeter approximately 1.25m x 0.08m
cylindrical cavity expansion and
contraction. It is the avoidance of
empiricism that makes the pressuremeter
test potentially so attractive.

The test is usually carried out in a vertical

hole so the derived parameters are those
appropriate to the horizontal plane.

Inserting the pressuremeter

The interpretation of the pressuremeter test
must take account of the disturbance caused
by the method used to place the probe in the
ground. The least disruptive of the methods is
self boring where disturbance is often small
enough to lie within the elastic range of the
material and is therefore recoverable. This
is the only technique with the potential to
determine directly the insitu lateral stress,
ho, the major source of uncertainty when
calculating the coefficient of earth pressure
at rest, ko. However all methods allow the
confining stress to be inferred.
The disturbance caused by pre-boring and
pushing is never recoverable. However for any
pressuremeter test it is possible to erase the
stress history of the loaded material by taking
it to a significantly higher stress than it has
previously seen, and then to reverse the
direction of loading. The point of reversal is a
new origin and the stress:strain response will
be that due to the undisturbed properties of the
material. In fig. 2 the three types of test are
Fig. 2 Test curves for 3 types of probe in Gault clay at about 5mBGL
shown. The tests were carried out at the same Pre-boring
location (a heavily over-consolidated Gault clay
site) at similar depths and give similar results A pocket is formed in the ground by
for strength and stiffness. Although the loading conventional drilling tools and the instrument
paths appear very different there are is subsequently placed in the pre-formed hole.
The major defect in this method is the complete
similarities in the unloading paths and
unloading of the cavity that takes place in the
whenever a small rebound cycle is taken.
interval between removing the boring tool and
These cycles are of particular importance.
pressurising the probe. The material must be
No matter how disturbed the material prior to
capable of standing open and so the method
insertion all types of pressuremeter test have
is best suited to rock. As fig. 2 indicates it is
the potential to make repeatable measument
possible to make a test in stiff clay. However
of shear stiffness and the reduction of stiffness
comparing the pre-bored curve to the self-
with increasing strain.
bored shows how much further the cavity may
have to be expanded before the influence of

CAMBRIDGE INSITU 3
 Water
Return Cable
flow

Flexible
Strain membrane
gauged
spring

Expansion
follower
Pore
water
pressure
sensor

Membrane
clamp

Flow of
slurried
soil and
water

Cutting Rotating
shoe edge cutter

Fig. 3 73mm and 95mm High Pressure Dilatometer Fig. 4 Self boring

insertion disturbance can erased. The method
can be used in dense sand if drilling muds are
used to support the open borehole but it is
unlikely to be suitable for loose sands. The
Mnard pressuremeter widely used in France
is an example of a pre-bored device. In the UK
the High Pressure Dilatometer (the terms
dilatometer and pressuremeter are raising the state of stress in the surrounding
interchangeable in this context) is available
and is used in rocks, hostile materials such as
boulder clay, and dense sands. See fig. 3.
A pre-bored operation will require the
assistance of a drilling rig. Unlike the other
insertion methods, if the hole is cored then it
may be possible to make laboratory tests on
material that is directly comparable to that
being tested by the pressuremeter. Pre-bored
pressuremeter testing in a vertical hole has
been carried out to depths greater than 500 are derived from the contraction curve and
metres and depths of 200 metres are routine. stiffness parameters from the response of
small rebound cycles. The method is fast and
Pushing can make a test in any material into which a
cone can be inserted. The coupling of the
As the name suggests, pushed-in profiling capability of the cone with the ability
pressuremeters are forced into the ground so to make direct measurements of strength and
stiffness is especially attractive. However as
soil. A special case of this approach is the fig. 2 indicates the stresses required to make
Cone Pressuremeter (CPM) where a 15cm2 a satisfactory test are much higher than for the
cone is connected to a pressuremeter unit of other methods, and at these levels of stress it
the same diameter. The disturbance caused to is probable that crushing of the soil particles is
the material is total and the only parameter that taking place. This may be a significant factor
can be obtained from the loading path is the especially for tests in sand. Also obtaining
limit pressure of the soil. The pushed curve in reaction for pushing the probe may present
fig. 2 is an example of a CPM test and shows difficulties a jacking force of 10 tonnes or
a clear plateau after the cavity has been more is not unusual.
expanded by about 15%. Strength parameters

4 USING PRESSUREMETERS
Self boring
Fig. 4 shows a schematic of the Cambridge
self boring pressuremeter (SBP). The
instrument is a miniature tunnelling machine
that makes a pocket in the ground into which
the device very exactly fits. The foot of the
device is fitted with a sharp edged internally
tapered cutting shoe. When boring, the
instrument is jacked into the ground, and the
material being cut by the shoe is sliced into
small pieces by a rotating cutting device. The
distance between the leading edge of the shoe
and the start of the cutter is important and can
be optimised for a particular material. If too
close to the cutting edge the ground suffers
stress relief before being sheared. If the cutter
is too far behind the shoe edge then the
instrument begins to resemble a close ended
pile. In stiff materials the usual setting is flush
with the cutting shoe edge. The cutting device
takes many forms. In soft clays it is generally
a small drag bit, in more brittle material a rock
roller is often used.
The instrument is connected to the jacking
system by a drill string. This is in two parts, an
outer fixed casing to transmit the jacking force
and an inner rotating rod to drive the cutter
device. The drill string is extended in one metre
lengths as necessary to allow continuous
boring to take place. All the cut material is
flushed back to the surface through the
instrument annulus, there is no erosion of the
cavity wall. Normally water is used but air and
drilling muds have been applied with success.
Self boring is effective in materials from loose
sands and soft clays to very stiff clays and
weak rock. It will not operate in gravel and
materials hard enough to damage the sharp
cutting edge. In principle the probe can be
made to enter the ground with negligible
disturbance. In practice, self boring results
in a small degree of disturbance that must be
assessed before deciding a value for the insitu
lateral stress. Experience has shown that the
self boring disturbance is low enough to remain
within the elastic range of the material.
The SBP requires a modest amount of
reaction. On some soft clay sites it is possible
for the self boring kit to operate without support estimated by carrying out membrane
from other drilling tools. The minimum interval
between tests is one metre. Where tests are
more widely spaced or in materials with
occasional bands of hostile layers the SBP can measurements is system compliance, or the
be used in conjunction with a cable percussion contribution of the probe itself to the measured
system, or be driven by a rotary rig using
CAMBRIDGE INSITU
special adaptors. Self boring in a vertical hole
is routinely carried out to depths of 60 metres
or more.
The self boring method is also used as a low
disturbance insertion system for other devices
such as load cells and permeameters.
Construction and calibration
There are many designs of pressuremeter in
current use, some of which are of complex
construction. Fig. 5 is a view of the inside of
a 6 arm Cambridge self boring pressuremeter.
There are transducers for measuring the radial
displacement of the membrane at 6 places and
the total and effective pressure being applied to
the cavity wall. The electronics for the signal
conditioning including the conversion from
analogue to digital is contained in the probe
itself. Apart from supplying power, the output
of the probe may be connected directly to the
serial port of a small computer. This approach
is necessary in order to obtain a high resolution
free of noise. Pressuremeters with local
instrumentation are able to resolve without
difficulty displacements of 0.5 microns and
pressure changes of 0.1kPa.
Pressuremeters can be expanded using air or
a non-conducting fluid such as light transformer
oil. There are automated systems for
pressurising the equipment. Automation allows
the expansion of the cavity to occur at a
constant rate of strain. It is conventional to log
the output of the pressuremeter on computer
and to plot the loading curve in real time.
Meticulous calibration of the equipment is vital.
The transducers must be calibrated regularly
both for sensitivity and drift. Almost all
pressuremeters suffer the defect that the
output of the transducers is governed by the
movements and pressure on the inside of the
membrane, where what is required is the
displacements and stresses acting on the
cavity wall. The properties of the pressuremeter
membrane can be a significant source of
uncertainty. It requires an amount of work to
make it move, and an additional component to
keep it moving. This is relevant to tests in soft
soils. The membrane contribution may be
expansion tests in free air.
The other major influence on the
stiffness. This can be a significant source of
Fig. 5 Inside a 6 arm SBP
5
error if the probe is used in very stiff soils or
weak rock. This contribution may be estimated
by inflating the instrument to full working load
inside a metal sleeve of known elastic
properties.
The importance of the various calibrations
depends on the type of pressuremeter and
where it is being used. For example the
contribution of the hose supplying pressure
to the probe is highly relevant if volume
changes are being measured at the surface,
but is of no importance at all for a probe with
internal instrumentation, such as the
Cambridge family of devices.
6 USING PRESSUREMETERS
Advantages and limitations of the pressuremeter test
Advantages
A large number of fundamental soil
properties are obtained from a single test.
To derive these properties, no empirical
correcting factors are needed.
Measurements are made insitu at the
appropriate confining stress.
A large volume of material is tested
a typical test loads a column of material 0.5
metres high and extending to more than 10
times the expanded cavity radius. This is the
equivalent of at least 1000 triaxial tests on
38mm samples.
Representative loads are applied in the
example shown in fig. 2 about 12 tonnes is
being applied to the cavity wall.
Results can be obtained quickly as all the
data logging and most of the analysis is
carried out by automated systems.
Commercial operation has shown that the
instruments, though more complex than
conventional site investigation equipment,
are reliable.
There are many materials whose properties
can only be realistically determined by insitu
measurement.
The pressuremeter test is particularly
appropriate for predicting the performance
of laterally loaded piles.
Pressuremeter tests are routinely used to
calibrate finite element models of complex
geotechnical problems.
Limitations
The instrument will not penetrate gravels,
claystones or the like, so generally
pressuremeter testing requires support
from conventional drilling techniques.
Failure planes and deformation modes are
not always appropriate to those occurring
in the final design. An estimate of the
anisotropy of the material will be required
in order to derive vertical parameters from
lateral values.
Many familiar design rules and empirical
factors are based on parameters obtained
from traditional techniques. It is not always
possible to use them with pressuremeter
derived values, even if the insitu parameters
more accurately represent the true state of
the ground.
Only two stress paths can in practice be
followed, undrained and fully drained.
The instruments and their associated
equipment are complex by conventional site
investigation standards and can only be
operated by trained personnel.
Use of an inappropriate analysis to interpret
a pressuremeter test can result in seriously
misleading parameters.
How to decide what pressuremeter to use
The decision about what pressuremeter to use for a particular project is not clear cut and there will be budgetary constraints in addition to
technical considerations. This section of the booklet focuses on the technical issues. It is divided up by instruments, as there is considerable
overlap between the probes and the materials they can test.

Self boring pressuremeter

Insertion methods Self boring

Initial Diameter 83-89mm, depending on the configuration

Length of material sacrificed At least 1 metre of material must be self bored before testing

Displacement system Direct strain sensing at 3 points equally spaced around the centre of the expanding region

Displacement resolution Better than 1 micron

Pressure resolution 0.1kPa

Maximum expansion capability 15% greater than the at rest diameter

Maximum working pressure 10MPa

Suitable for: Homogeneous clays (soft to very stiff), silts and sands, soft rocks such as flint-free chalk

Strengths The SBP gives the highest quality pressuremeter test with minimal insertion disturbance. It is the only device
able to measure the external pore water pressure and so can provide effective stress parameters. As an
addition to the expansion test it can incorporate a consolidation phase. With a slight modification it can also
be used to obtain good quality measurements of the permeability of the formation [ref 26].

Weakness If the cutting shoe edge is damaged (by gravel or a hard layer) then the insertion disturbance is not minimal
and the expansion capability may not be enough to erase the consequences.

There is no core recovery as such but all the cut material is returned to the surface as a completely disturbed
sample.

Additional notes In general self boring is a faster system than other methods for making a test pocket. It can also be less
demanding on supporting equipment. In some circumstances it can operate as a portable stand alone system
and It is often used in conjunction with a cable percussion rig.

There are versions of this instrument that have 6 displacement sensors and incorporate a three axis
inclinometer.

CAMBRIDGE INSITU 7
73mm High Pressure Dilatometer (HPD73)
Insertion methods Pre-bored hole or pocket

Initial Diameter 73mm

Allowable pocket diameter 75mm to 83mm

Length of material sacrificed At least 2 metres of material must be cored to give a pocket long enough to test

Displacement system Direct strain sensing at 6 points equally spaced around the centre of the expanding region

Displacement resolution Better than 1 micron

Pressure resolution 0.3kPa

Maximum expansion capability 33% greater than the nominal pocket diameter (76mm)

Maximum working pressure 20MPa in normal use, 30MPa with some modifications

Suitable for: Stiff clays, sands and rock of all kinds

Strengths Pre-boring a hole means that core can be recovered, giving the possibility of carrying out laboratory tests
on the same material as the pressuremeter tests.

Weakness It can be difficult to core at this diameter in highly fractured or friable materials. If the material is prone to
collapse, and a pocket it lost, this can give rise to substantial gaps in the information obtained from a borehole.

Additional notes If the pocket size is 83mm then the expansion capability falls to 22%. Because a large pocket size implies a high
level of disturbance it is likely to be difficult to achieve a test that gives representative properties for the material.

The instrument also has a magnetic compass so that the orientation of the displacement axes can be known.

95mm High Pressure Dilatometer (HPD95)

Insertion methods Pre-bored hole or pocket

Initial Diameter 94mm

Allowable pocket diameter 97mm to 110mm

Length of material sacrificed At least 2 metres of material must be cored to give a pocket long enough to test

Displacement system Direct strain sensing at 6 points equally spaced around the centre of the expanding region

Displacement resolution Better than 1 micron

Pressure resolution 0.3kPa

Maximum expansion capability 49% greater than the nominal pocket diameter (101mm)

Maximum working pressure 20MPa in normal use, 30MPa with some modifications

Suitable for: Stiff clays, dense sands and rock of all kinds

Strengths Pre-boring a hole means that core can be recovered, giving the possibility of carrying out laboratory tests
on the same material as the pressuremeter tests. Provided the pocket stands open then a test is almost certain.
Because it has a large expansion capability it is often used in transition materials where core recovery is likely
to be poor.

Weakness If the material is prone to collapse, and a pocket it lost, this can give rise to substantial gaps in the information
obtained from a borehole.

Additional notes This HPD has sometimes been fitted with a point and used as a push-in probe in very soft materials, typically
alluvial clay.

The instrument also has a magnetic compass so that the orientation of the displacement axes can be known.

8 USING PRESSUREMETERS
47mm Reduced Pressuremeter (RPM)
Insertion methods Pre-bored hole and pushed

Initial Diameter 46mm

Allowable pocket diameter 46mm to 52mm

Length of material sacrificed Only 0.6 metres of material is required to make a test

Displacement system Direct strain sensing at 3 points equally spaced around the centre of the expanding region

Displacement resolution Better than 1 micron

Pressure resolution 0.1kPa

Maximum expansion capability 52% greater than the at rest diameter

Maximum working pressure 12MPa

Suitable for: Medium to stiff clays, loose to dense sands and weathered or soft rock

Strengths Extremely compact, portable and versatile

Weakness Due to the small diameter the displacement sensing system is slightly more affected by instrument compliance
than the larger probes.

It can be difficult to make a hole for the probe at the required tolerance, as this is not a common size.

Although it can be pushed, in practice it will be difficult to do this in stiff material because of the high loads that
will be required.

Additional notes Because the probe is dimensionally similar to a Mnard pressuremeter it is often used to carry out this style
of testing, with the advantage that the high resolution of displacement allows good quality unload/reload cycles
to be incorporated.

The probe has also been used down a borehole formed by a 102cm cone penetrometer, with the cone profile
used to identify suitable locations for the pressuremeter test.

CAMBRIDGE INSITU 9
Additional considerations
It is usually the case that our testing is one part A stand-alone drilling system
only of the operations being carried out in a operating underneath
borehole, and we are operating as specialist
a cable percussion rig
sub-contractors to the Main Contractor. This
part of the booklet is concerned with making This is a common way of working, using all
clear the separation between what we supply the special self boring drilling parts already
and what we need. mentioned but working in conjunction with a
cable percussion rig (fig. 3.2). The rig places
Self boring a column of water well casing to a depth just
above where the first test is required,
This comes in three varieties: hammering it in the last 0.5 metre. The SBP
system couples to the top of the casing column
A stand-alone drilling system and the skin friction on the casing is enough to
requiring no additional equipment allow self boring into most materials. An ample
water source is required, not normally part of
There are not many circumstances where this a cable percussion operation.
is possible but it does happen. Usually it will
be a green field site. The system consists of If the test spacing is more than 2 metres then
hydraulic rams to jack the probe, a small motor the operation is usually one test and out. The
to rotate the inner drill string, and a water pump rig open-holes to the next test depth, carrying
to provide circulating fluid. A portable hydraulic out additional testing if required.
power pack and control panel distributes power
There are some locations that only a reduced
to the various units (fig. 3.1).
height cable percussion rig can access, so the Fig. 3.2 Cable percussion system
One difficulty is that kentledge for the hydraulic combined system is versatile.
rams is limited, so in practice suitable material
If the hole is left open for a long time then the
A system for operating under
will be of low to medium strength only. The SBP a rotary rig
tested zones begin to collapse so a reasonably
must drill every metre of the borehole so
quick operation is important. In this method we supply the pressuremeter,
additional testing is not an option. An ample
water source is required. a special drill string and a purpose-built adapter
for the rotary drill head. The probe is drilled as
if it were a core barrel, but the adapter has a
thrust bearing to separate down-thrust from
rotation. Everything above the adapter spins,
everything below is static and the probe enters
the ground without being rotated (fig. 3.3
opposite).

Water needs to be supplied at appropriate

flows. This means that the rig pump and water
swivel must be in good order, because the SBP
water path is a narrow annulus compared to
normal drill rod. Air mist can be used but is
more difficult and only suitable for relatively
shallow holes.

This system allows core to be taken in the

test intervals. In material with a tendency to
collapse or in boreholes deeper than 40 metres
it is the only appropriate option.

Pre-boring
For pre-boring the problems of getting the
probe into the ground are the responsibility of
the drilling contractor. The additional issues to
be considered are these:
Fig. 3.1 Self boring, stand-alone system

10 USING PRESSUREMETERS
Size of borehole. It sometimes happens that
the same size borehole is cored from surface
to some considerable depth, and the High
Pressure Dilatometer (HPD) must test layers in
this borehole. Because the probe is a close fit
to the nominal core size this can be risky. Any
material falling down onto the probe can make
it difficult to recover the device.
Wireline coring. We are often asked to
consider adapting the equipment to work with
a wireline coring system. The fit of the probe
to the cavity has to be reasonably close for a
successful test. It is not practical to test the
cavity made by a wireline system with a probe
small enough to pass through the wireline core
bit. There are wireline systems able to core at
two diameters but it is not advisable to use the
wireline cable for lowering the pressuremeter.
If the probe becomes trapped the wire cable
will not be able to exert more than a nominal
force to help pull it back. We therefore
recommend lowering the probe on rods. These
rods must has a diameter no greater than the
diameter of the borehole less two times the
diameter of the umbilical connecting the probe
Fig. 3.3 Rotary rig system
CAMBRIDGE INSITU
to the pressure source on the surface. This
umbilical must be taped at intervals to the rod
to prevent loops occurring.
Inflation method. The HPD can be inflated
with oil or air. The decision about what method
to use depends on circumstances. The best
test is obtained with oil because it allows
pressure to change without large temperature
alteration. In good rock where certainty over
tiny displacements is important this is an issue,
especially where surface temperature is
considerably different from the downhole
state. However oil raises environmental issues.
We use bio-degradeable transformer oil to
minimise the risk.
Oil also gives a slower overall test, as time has
to be allowed for oil to return to the surface.
There are ways of speeding up the process but
it means adding an additional umbilical to the
system, making the lowering and raising
procedure more complex and time consuming.
For speed and convenience air inflation is used
in most circumstances. However, oil is always
used when calibrating the pressure capability of
the probe on the surface because it is inherently
safe in the event of a failure of any part.
Speeding up testing. The easiest way to
accelerate the test rate is to reduce the number
of lowering and raising events. We sometimes
test a borehole that has been completely cored
prior to our arrival. In such circumstances the
probe is lowered to the deepest location first,
then tests are carried out in reverse order to
depth. Normally the deepest part will be the
tightest fit because the core barrel has made
the fewest passes.
Material with cavities. Limestone in particular
can be prone to solution cavities. Testing in this
material is frustrating because if the HPD
membrane is not completely supported at all
places then it will burst at pressures too low to
give useful data. Where such testing is required
we advise that the boreholes be cored in
advance of our arrival. They should then be
grouted up. Once we are on site the grouted
holes can be re-cored, with the grout core
available for inspection to prove the integrity
of the cavity wall. The grout will be weak
compared to the limestone so no reinforcement
takes place.
Pre-boring with 47mm RPM
The difficulty with this device is that the
diameter is smaller than the customary drill
parts a drilling contractor can be expected to
keep. The holes for the RPM need to be formed
with drill bits and drill rods based on the AW
size. Typically the RPM is used to target certain
layers at significant depth, and in these
circumstances there is no alternative but to
make a large diameter borehole first, then drill
a 51mm or similar diameter pocket out of the
base of the larger hole. Provided the pocket for
the RPM is not too long (no more than six
metres) then we supply the necessary rods to
take the probe and umbilical from its small hole
into the larger hole. At this point we expect to
couple to whatever drill rods are available via
a suitable adapter.
For very shallow tests, within 5 metres of the
surface, we can sometimes make the borehole
ourselves using a powered hand auger.
Successful tests can also be made using the
RPM to ream out an existing cone penetrometer
(CPT) hole. This technique has been applied
with some success in weak chalk, taking
advantage of a hole made by a 102cm CPT.
11
Special tests
The pressuremeter is normally used to carry
out a cavity expansion test in a vertical hole.
There are other more specialised tests that
can be made and this section gives some
examples.
Horizontal tests
Fig. 4.1 shows an example of a self boring
pressuremeter working horizontally. The
location is more than 200 metres below ground
in a test tunnel researching the properties of
Boom Clay as a possible barrier medium for
the long term storage of nuclear waste. It was
not permitted to use water as a drilling fluid,
so the SBP was adapted to drill with air. The
camera flash is reflecting off some of the
returning soil particles.
Horizontal testing has also been carried out
with pre-bored pressuremeters and inclined
Fig. 4.1 Horizontal self boring in Boom Clay
Fig. 4.2 Creep testing in Switzerland
12
holes are common-place. If one axis
is arranged to be vertical when the
pressuremeter is used horizontally then this
can inform the analysis, because the vertical
insitu stress is normally known.
Creep tests
Fig. 4.2 shows a test carried out with an HPD
in a rock glacier. At intervals during the test
the pressure was held constant for one hour
duration. For each step the creep displace-
ments, expressed as a percentage of the cavity
diameter, were plotted against log elapsed
time. The slope of this trend gives a stress
dependent rate.
In this material the creep is substantial and
made it difficult to obtain an unload/reload
cycle, even after a long creep hold.
Consolidation tests
The SBP can carry out a holding test to obtain
consolidation parameters. It is a modification of
a normal undrained expansion test. Near the
point where the cavity would be unloaded it is
instead held at that expansion and the excess
pore water pressure (pwp)that has been
generated is allowed to dissipate. As it does so
the effective stress at the cavity wall starts to
rise and the cavity wants to expand.
This triggers an automatic control system to
reduce the total pressure at the cavity wall to
compensate. The net result is that the cavity
remains at a constant diameter for as long as
the test is conducted. There is a closed form
solution for this situation [ref 6] that uses the
parameters derived from the expansion phase
of the test and the time taken for 50% of the
generated excess to dissipate.
Fig. 4.3 shows the dissipation data from two
pwp cells, their mean and the total pressure
response, plotted in a normalised form.
Any of the profiles can give a value for the
horizontal consolidation, but it is normal to
use the mean of the two pwp sensors.
USING PRESSUREMETERS
Permeability testing
Figs. 4.4 and 4.5 show the result of a
permeability test carried out with a self boring
pressuremeter. The procedure exploits the
ability of the pressuremeter to bore a pocket
in the ground that it exactly fits. The stress
conditions are, more or less, representative of
the insitu state and are acting on the body of
the probe, giving an excellent seal. As a
consequence the drill string now provides a
pipe from the surface down to the bottom of the
probe allowing access to the formation. For low
permeability material the pipe work is filled with
water, is sealed off and is connected to the
output of a small constant flow pump. This then
pressurises the water column. Fig. 4.4 shows
steps of pressure, and the flow rates required
to establish each step. Fig. 4.5 plots the flow
rates against pressure, and gives a linear Fig. 4.3 Consolidation testing in London Clay
trend. The slope of this trend is a function of
the permeability and a shape factor.

This is one result at this location, for one

geometry the tested pocket is zero length
and the permeability is the mean of the
horizontal and vertical characteristics. If time
allows, then the probe can be pulled back to
give a pocket of some length and the test
repeated. This gives a second permeability
value where the horizontal characteristic is
having a greater influence. Further pulling back
allows additional values to be obtained. By a
best fit process it is possible to identify the
anisotropy factor for the horizontal and vertical
conditions. In practice reconciling the data is
more complex than this implies because as
more and more of the material is exposed to
the test then a scale effect related to the Fig. 4.4 Permeability testing, raw data
variability of the fabric becomes apparent
[ref 26].

The permeability testing is an addition to the

conventional expansion test, and is a way of
obtaining more data from one self boring
episode. If k is higher than 10-7m/sec then the
same concept can be used, but constant flow
is not required and a falling head test can be
carried out, measuring the height of the water
column in the SBP drill rods.

Fig. 4.5 Permeability testing, result

CAMBRIDGE INSITU 13
Projects where our pressuremeters have been used

The front cover of this booklet gives an The underground research in this material it must be bored and tested
indication of the range of projects and as rapidly as possible because after one hour
environments where the pressuremeter test facility at Mol, Belgium the material will close onto the probe with
can be used. It is widely used off-shore as well sufficient force to make extracting the
We have at intervals over the last 15 years
as on land, in deserts, in mountains and in equipment almost impossible.
made visits to the SCK-CEN facility at Mol,
tropical conditions.
Belgium, to carry out pressuremeter testing in Successful pre-bored tests have also been
Every project has its own set of problems and the underground research facility HADES. This carried out with a 95mm HPD. This allowed
difficulties that have to be overcome. This might is a system of shafts and tunnels some 224 a larger pressure to be applied and a greater
mean man-handling equipment in remote metres below ground level in a zone of Boom cavity expansion achieved than is possible
locations, such as Tanzania or The Gambia, Clay in a highly plastic condition. The clay has with a self bored probe.
or using helicopters to deposit equipment on interesting self healing properties when
a rock glacier in Switzerland. It is not usual fractured, displays extremely low levels of Links
for us to run a completely self-contained permeability and offers a possible solution http://www.euridice.be/
operation. Most of the time we have to work to the problem of the disposal of high level http://www.sckcen.be/en/Our-
with a local drilling contractor and operatives nuclear waste. Since 2000 the facility has been Research/Research-facilities/HADES-
who will be unacquainted with our equipment run by an expert group called EURIDICE and Underground-laboratory
and unused to what is required for a successful pressuremeter testing has been used during
pressuremeter test. This is not a major difficulty, the construction of the facility and after to Testing waste and
and our engineers are accustomed to looking examine the engineering properties of the clay.
after the on-site training involved. We ourselves began work there in 1999 with a investigating barrier walls
self boring pressuremeter. We were not allowed
Our pressuremeters have been used on some to introduce water into the formation and so We were approached by Dr Neil Dixon of
of the worlds major civil engineering projects, Loughborough University (now Professor of
drilled using air from a modified drill rig to
such as Crossrail in London or the proposed Engineering) about the possibility of using a
implement the self boring process. Special
crossing of the Padma river in Bangladesh. pressuremeter to investigate the mechanical
casing and drilling parts were designed by us
What follows is a selection of some of the properties of municipal solid waste. Most of the
with some help from the drilling contractor to
more unusual projects. work took place at a landfill site in Calvert,
give the ideal flow path for delivering the air
Buckinghamshire. The waste was a mixture of
and returning the cuttings. The bulk of the
residential and commercial residue, not well-
testing has been horizontal. Speed is important

14 USING PRESSUREMETERS
sorted, in various stages of degradation and
depending on its age could be lightly to heavily
compacted.
The primary purpose of the testing was to
obtain engineering parameters that would
permit the interaction between the body of the
waste and the components of the protective
barriers to be modelled and quantified.
Self boring, pushing and pre-boring were
all attempted. If metallic materials were
encountered then the damage caused to
equipment could be spectacular. The most
satisfactory results were obtained with a 95mm
HPD, where the large expansion capability
proved to be helpful. The pockets for this were
cut dry, using a modified bit resembling a large
hole cutter. The waste is heterogeneous, may
be partially saturated and of no particular
particle size so the results were variable and
the analytical processes were not necessarily
appropriate. However shear stiffness from
unload/reload cycles proved to be a plausible
and repeatable parameter, and it was possible
to relate the stiffness values to stress level.
Partly as a result of this work we became
interested in the properties of the barriers
themselves, and have (in conjunction with
Cambridge University) carried out research
Fig. 5.1 Self boring in Kolkata
CAMBRIDGE INSITU
work on the mechanical properties of man-
made and natural barriers, with special
attention being paid to permeability.
Reference
Dixon, N, Whittle, R, Jones, DRV, Ngambi, S
(2006)
Pressuremeter Tests in Municipal Solid Waste:
Measurement of Shear Stiffness.
Gotechnique, 56(3), pp 211-222.
Link
http://hdl.handle.net/2134/4618
Kolkata Metro East-West
project
Twenty four self bored tests were carried out
at four critical locations along the alignment of
the proposed metro in Kolkata, India. The
pressuremeter testing component of the site
investigation had been specified by W S Atkins.
For the most part the tests were conventional
in material that behaved either as a clay or
sand. What was different about this project was
the technical and practical difficulties that had
to be overcome to achieve success.
The work was conducted on a 24 hour basis
at pavement locations in the heart of the city.
The only rig available turned out to be a small,
light and rather old quill drive system where
most of the controls had long broken down.
Rate of rotation and advance was down to the
skill of the driller, who knew his rig and how to
coax results from it. On more than one
occasion the rig rotation system broke down
whilst driving the pressuremeter, and the
boring was completed by rotating rods by
hand.
In some ways a worse problem was an
inadequate water pump, as no boring is
possible if the pump is not delivering a
sufficient flow. However as our report noted at
the time, these issues were a problem for the
rate of progress of the fieldwork rather than the
tests themselves, which were of reasonable
quality.
Some of the expansions in the more clay-like
material were turned into consolidation tests.
The tests typically took two hours to complete,
and were popular with the drilling crew.
There is an increasing need for complex
transport infrastructure in such locations and
this project is typical of the kind of testing we
are asked to do.
15
Worked examples
The following pages are examples of
pressuremeter tests from a range of materials
with illustrations of how engineering
parameters can be derived.

CASE A. Analysis of a self

bored pressuremeter test
in London Clay
The most straightforward test to analyse is an
undrained cavity expansion and contraction in
clay, where a self boring pressuremeter has
been used. The insertion disturbance is likely
to be small and the undrained path means it
is easy to calculate radial and circumferential
stresses and strains directly from the
Fig. 1 Field curve
displacement and pressure measurements
made by the instrument. There are a number of
analyses that can be applied; what is described
here is one approach. The test itself was over
water so depth is referred to bed level.

Fig. 1. Field curve

The test is logged as a set of readings of
pressure and displacement. At intervals the
loading is interrupted to make a small
unload/reload cycle. These cycles can also
be taken on the final contraction.

Fig. 2. Lift-off
The first action when analysing the data is to
select a plausible co-ordinate of stress and
displacement that represents the origin for the
cavity expansion. The stress value is the
point where some movement is apparent. Fig. 2 Lift-off
The displacement ordinate is close to zero,
a feature of self boring.

Fig. 3. Shear strength (a)

Having selected an origin, displacement can be
converted to strain and the data analysed. This
figure shows the result of plotting the loading
data on semi-log scales and identifying the
ultimate slope and intercept. These give shear
strength and limit pressure [ref 9].

Fig. 3 Shear strength (a)

16 USING PRESSUREMETERS
Fig. 4. Shear strength (b)
This is a similar procedure but applied to the
final contraction data. It is of special interest
because the origin at the start of unloading is
an observable point the origin used for the
initial loading is always uncertain due to
disturbance [ref 19].

Fig. 5. Shear modulus (a)

This is a simple approach to derive an estimate
of the shear modulus, by taking the slope of
the chord bisecting a cycle of unloading and
reloading. In a linear elastic material the
unloading and reloading data would coincide.
Here the cycle appears hysteretic, indicating
that modulus varies with strain.
Fig. 4 Shear strength (b)
Fig. 6. Shear modulus (b)
This non-linear stiffness behaviour can be
represented by a power law. Here the reloading
data from the previous plot are redrawn on
log-log scales and the slope and intercept
identified. These two parameters allow the
current shear stress to be predicted at any
strain [ref 3].

The two parameters are referred to as (the

shear stress constant) and , the non-linear
exponent. will take a value between 0.5 and
1, where 1 is a linear elastic response. These
may be combined to give secant shear
modulus Gs for a particular value of shear
strain , as follows: Gs = -1.

This expression is good for values of shear Fig. 5 Shear modulus (a)
strain down to 10 -4 , the resolution limit of our
probes. This is not small enough to predict
Gmax which is probably found at a shear strain
nearer 10 -5.

Fig. 6 Shear modulus (b)

CAMBRIDGE INSITU 17
Fig. 7. Stiffness/strain
The trend of declining stiffness with strain is
drawn here for each cycle. Because the test is
virtually undrained the three cycles give almost
exactly the same result. The lines come from
the power law results, the data points from
applying Palmer (1972) directly to the data
[ref 25].

Fig. 7 Stiffness/strain

At this stage of the process the analyst has a
set of parameters describing the strength and
stiffness of the material, and the insitu stress
state. There are differing levels of uncertainty
in these values. One method for resolving this
uncertainty is to see if the parameter set can
reproduce the measured field curve. Every
measured data point could be calculated if the
underlying stress:strain curve was known.
The soil model used here assumes a non-
linear elastic/perfectly plastic stress:strain
curve for which there is a closed-form solution.
The essence of such solutions is to define the
stress and strain required to make the material
yield, then integrate this condition between
known boundaries. In the implementation
shown here only the insitu horizontal stress
is treated as a free variable.

Fig. 8. Curve comparison

The parameters produced so far are used
to calculate a pressure/strain curve for
comparison with the measured data. The non-
linear stiffness parameters are assumed
correct. A tiny alteration to the origin reconciles
loading and unloading shear strength. Finally,
the initial reference stress is chosen for best fit
[ref 29].

Fig. 8 Curve comparison

18 USING PRESSUREMETERS
CASE B. Analysis of a pre-bored pressuremeter test in chalk
A more difficult test to analyse is now unloading of the cavity prior to the probe being strain and circumferential stress from
described. This is a test in weak chalk made placed means that little can be gleaned from measured pressuremeter co-ordinates of
with a pre-bored pressuremeter. The pocket for the initial response. It is also complicated pressure and displacement. Account has to
the probe was made by rotary coring. The because the material is highly permeable and be taken of dilatant properties, possible
analysis is harder because the disturbance therefore the test is a drained loading. This cohesion and the ambient pore water state.
caused by pre-boring and the complete means that it is not so easy to derive radial

Fig. 9. Test in chalk

The picture is slightly misleading because it
shows the final output of the analysis. The
additional features of this test compared with
the self boring example in clay are:

The cavity wall is not pressing against

the instrument at the start of the test.
There is an appreciable difference between
the point of first contact and cavity strain
zero. This is a consequence of unloading
the cavity prior to the test.
The initial part of the expansion contains
short duration stress holds, to monitor the
creep characteristics of the material.
There is a longer stress hold before the
start of each unload/reload cycle
Less evidence of hysteretic behaviour in Fig. 9 Test in chalk
the cycles, so they appear more linear than
the clay.
The membrane collapses at the head
of water pressure at the end of the test,
a feature of a drained expansion.

Fig. 10. Estimates of cavity reference

stress and displacement
It is not possible to discover the initial stress
state by inspection, so a method is used
whereby estimates are back-calculated from
the yield stress. The plot above consists of
three views. The main display shows about
2mm of the initial expansion. The slope of the
stiffest part has been used to estimate initial
shear modulus. The onset of plasticity is where
the data points move away from the slope line.
Fig. 10 Estimates of cavity reference stress and displacement
Initially the reference stress is guessed, the
displacement ordinate of that stress giving an
fall to a minimum in the vicinity of the cavity
origin for calculating strain. An analysis for
reference stress estimate and increases again
mobilised shear stress near failure is carried
near the yield stress estimate.
out, and a calculated failure stress derived. This
should coincide with the observed value. If not, This analysis is used regardless of whether the
the guess of cavity reference stress is adjusted loading conditions are drained or undrained.
and the cycle repeated until a match is found. It is expected to give a higher bound estimate
for reference stress but a lower bound value
The chart on the left shows the creep
for the strain origin [ref 20, 11].
displacements from the holds included in the
expansion phase of the test. Creep seems to

CAMBRIDGE INSITU 19
Fig. 11. Friction angle
Because the expansion is drained a different
analysis for strength is required. The gradient
of a log-log plot of effective stress and strain is
used to produce a value for the internal angle
of friction and dilation. Ambient water pressure
and the residual friction angle have to be
known or estimated [ref 16].

Fig. 12. Stiffness/strain

Non-linear modulus parameters are obtained in
the same manner as a test in clay. Because the
test is drained each cycle plots a higher trend,
related to the mean effective stress. The cycle
on the final unloading shows the stiffest
response because the mean stress is that
which applied at the end of loading. Fig.11 Friction angle

Fig. 13. Drained curve modelling

We have developed a closed-form solution for
a drained test in a c-phi material based on the
same non-linear elastic/perfectly plastic shear
stress:shear strain curve as for the undrained
case. It is less well constrained:

Cohesion is also unknown as well as the

insitu lateral stress.
Shear modulus parameters must be adjusted
for stress level.
Poissons ratio is required, and this probably
has to be guessed.
Ambient water pressure and residual friction
angle are required.
The solution takes no account of tensile
strength which begins to be an issue as
material approaches a rock like condition.

Despite these cautions the procedure is

capable of producing plausible matches to the
Fig. 12 Stiffness/strain
field data.

In this example the cavity reference pressure

from the yield stress analysis gives the best fit
curve but it has been necessary to make a
slight adjustment to the origin for strain. The
shear modulus at yield is nearly 3 times greater
than the value provided by the initial slope, a
typical result for a pre-bored test. The solution
is also able to provide a value for the limit
pressure of the material [ref 4].

Fig. 13 Drained curve modelling

20 USING PRESSUREMETERS
CASE C. Analysis of a pre-bored pressuremeter tests in rock
If failure in shear is an identifiable point in a can be so good that the probe reaches its modulus. It it important to derive this from as
pressuremeter test then it is always possible maximum working pressure with only elastic late in the test as possible so that the forming
that analyses for strength and initial stress deformation being seen. All that can be easily of the pressuremeter cover against the rock is
state can be carried out. In rock, the material derived from such tests is a value for shear not confused with movement of the rock itself.

Fig. 14. Elastic deformation only

The example is from a test in intact limestone.
Although not obvious, there are two
unload/reload cycles in this test, virtually
indistinguishable from the loading path. The
only parameter that is sensible to take from this
test is an estimate of shear modulus from the
latter part of the loading, giving a value greater
than 15GPa, or in terms of Youngs modulus
40GPa. The total displacement once the probe
has contacted the cavity wall is only about 80
microns, so careful calibration of the probe for
compliance effects is essential. A shear
modulus of 15GPa is about the limit of what
the probe can determine before the calibration
uncertainty exceeds the apparent value.

In general it is the poorer material that is of Fig. 14 Elastic deformation only

most interest, especially those where core
recovery is poor or does not produce intact
samples for laboratory testing. The final
example is from a test carried out in weathered
limestone.

Fig. 15. Elastic deformation with

tensile failure
The test shows two cracks forming, one at
4.8MPa and another at 8.1MPa. The event is
too fast for any data points to be recorded so
the plot shows a sudden jump at these stress
levels.

The slope of the loading curve changes as a

result of the tensile failure. Slope A is stiffer
than slope B which is stiffer than slope C.
Not so obvious is the fact that the reload
cycles have a different slope and are not Fig. 15 Elastic deformation with tensile failure
representative of the properties of the intact
rock they will be under-estimates.

CAMBRIDGE INSITU 21
Fig. 16. Interpreting creep readings
In this figure, creep readings are plotted on the
left and the data in the main display are end of
creep readings only. No parameters are quoted
except for the initial slope and its intercept on
the displacement axis. Although the material
appears to have failed in shear, the loading
curve is actually three lines of differing slopes
with the shear failure stress not yet reached.
After each crack has occurred, creep
displacements reduce in magnitude.

Curiously, the one parameter that it is possible

to identify with only limited uncertainty is the
horizontal cavity reference pressure, Po. The
first crack appears at 4MPa total radial stress.
At this point the circumferential stress must
be zero or below. It follows that Po can be no
greater than 2MPa, and if the tensile strength Fig. 16 Interpreting creep readings
were known, could be narrowed down even
further.

22 USING PRESSUREMETERS
References
1. BAGUELIN, F., JEZEQUEL, J.F. and SHIELDS, D.H. (1978)
The Pressuremeter and Foundation Engineering. Transtech Publications, Clausthal, Germany ISBN 0-87849-019-1.

2. BELLOTTI, R., GHIONNA, V., JAMIOLKOWSKI, M., ROBERTSON, P. and PETERSON, R. (1989).
Interpretation of moduli from self-boring pressuremeter tests in sand. Gotechnique Vol. XXXIX, no. 2, pp.269-292.

3. BOLTON M.D. and WHITTLE R.W. (1999)

A non-linear elastic/perfectly plastic analysis for plane strain undrained expansion tests. Gotechnique Vol. 49, No.1, pp 133-141.

4. CARTER, .I. P., BOOKER, J. R. & YEUNG, S. K. (1986).

Cavity expansion in cohesive frictional soils. Gotechnique 36, No. 3,.pp 349-358.

5. CHANDLER, R.J., LEROUEIL, S. and TRENTER, N.A. (1990)

Measurements of the permeability of London Clay using a self boring permeameter. Gotechnique 40, No. 1, pp 113-124.

6. CLARKE, B.G., CARTER, J.P. and WROTH, C.P. (1979).

In Situ Determination of Consolidation Characteristics of Saturated Clays. Design Parameters in Geotechnical Engineering, VII ECSMFE, Brighton,
Vol. 2, pp 207- 211.

7. ERVIN, M.C., BURMAN, B.C. and HUGHES, J.M.O.(1980).

The use of a high capacity pressuremeter for design of foundations in medium strength rock. International Conference on Structural Foundations
on Rock, Sydney.

8. GHIONNA, V., JAMIOLKOWSKI, M., LANCELLOTTA, R. & MANASSERO, M (1989).

Limit Pressure of Pressuremeter Tests. Proc. of 12th ICSMFE, Rio De Janeiro.

9. GIBSON, R.E. and ANDERSON, W.F. (1961)

In situ measurement of soil properties with the pressuremeter, Civil Engineering and Public Works Review, Vol. 56, No. 658 May pp 615-618.

10. HABERFIELD, C.M and JOHNSTON, L.W (1990)

The interpretation of pressuremeter tests in weak rock theoretical analysis. Proc. 3rd Int.Symp.Pressuremeter, Oxford, pp. 169-178.

11. HAWKINS, P.G., MAIR, R.J., MATHIESON, W.G. and MUIR WOOD, D. (1990)
Pressuremeter measurement of total horizontal stress in stiff clay, Proc. ISP. 3 Oxford.

12. HOULSBY, G.T and SCHNAID, F. (1994)

Interpretation of shear moduli from cone pressuremeter tests in sand. Gotechnique 44, no.1, pp 147-164.

13. HOULSBY, G. and WITHERS, N.J. (1988)

Analysis of the Cone Pressuremeter Test in Clay. Gotechnique, Vol 38, No. 4, pages 573-587.

14. HUGHES, J.M.O. (1973).

An instrument for in situ measurement in soft clays. PhD Thesis, University of Cambridge.

15. HUGHES, J.M.O., ERVIN, M.C. (1980)

Development of a High Pressure Pressuremeter for determining the engineering properties of soft to medium strength rocks. Proc. 3rd Aus.-NZ Conf.
Geomechanics, Brisbane, pp.292-296.

16. HUGHES, J.M.O., WROTH, C.P. and WINDLE, D. (1977)

Pressuremeter tests in sands, Gotechnique 4, pp 455-477.

17. JARDINE, R.J. (1991)

Discussing Strain-dependent moduli and pressuremeter tests. Gotechnique 41, No. 4., pp 621-624.

18. JARDINE, R.J. (1992)

Nonlinear stiffness parameters from undrained pressuremeter tests. Can. Gotechnique. 29, pp 436-447.

19. JEFFERIES, M.G. (1988)

Determination of horizontal geostatic stress in clay with self-bored pressuremeter. Can. Gotechnique. 25 (3), pp 559-573.

20. MARSLAND, A. and RANDOLPH, M.F. (1977).

Comparison of the Results from Pressuremeter Tests and Large Insitu Plate Tests in London Clay. Gotechnique 27 No. 2 pp 217-243.

CAMBRIDGE INSITU 23
21. MAIR, R.J. and WOOD, D.M. (1987)
Pressuremeter Testing. Methods and Interpretation. Construction Industry Research and Information Association Project 335. Publ. Butterworths,
London. ISBN 0-408-02434-8.

22. MANASSERO, M. (1989)

Stress-Strain Relationships from Drained Self Boring Pressuremeter Tests in Sand. Gotechnique 39, No.2, pp 293-307.

23. MUIR WOOD, D. (1990)

Strain dependent soil moduli and pressuremeter tests. Gotechnique, 40, pp 509-512.

24. NEWMAN, R.L., CHAPMAN, T.J.P. and SIMPSON, B. (1991)

Evaluation of pile behaviour from pressuremeter tests. Proc. Xth European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Florence,
May 1991.

25. PALMER, A.C. (1972)

Undrained plane-strain expansion of a cylindrical cavity in clay: a simple interpretation of the pressuremeter test, Gotechnique 22 No. 3 pp 451-457.

26. RATNAM, S., SOGA, K. and WHITTLE, R.W. (2005)

A field permeability measurement technique using a conventional self boring pressuremeter. Gotechnique, 55. pp. 527-537. ISSN 0016-8505.

27. ROWE, P.W. (1962)

The Stress Dilatancy Relation for Static Equilibrium of an Assembly of Particles in Contact. Proceedings of the Royal Society. Vol. 269, Series A,
pp 500-527.

28. WHITTLE, R.W. and DALTON, J.C.P. (1990)

Discussing Experience with the self boring rock pressuremeter. Ground Engineering, Jan/Feb, pp 30-32.

29. WHITTLE R.W (1999)

Using non-linear elasticity to obtain the engineering properties clay a new solution for the self boring pressuremeter. Ground Engineering, Vol.32,
No.5, pp 30-34.

30. WINDLE, D. and WROTH, C.P.(1977)

The Use of a Self-boring Pressuremeter to determine the Undrained Properties of Clays. Ground Engineering, September.

31. WITHERS, N.J., HOWIE, J., HUGHES, J.M.O. and ROBERTSON, P.K. (1989)
Performance and Analysis of Cone Pressuremeter Tests in Sands. Gotechnique 39, No. 3, pp 433-454.

32. WROTH, C.P. (1984)

The Interpretation of In Situ Soil Tests. Twenty Fourth Rankine Lecture, Gotechnique 34, No. 4, pp 449-489.

24 USING PRESSUREMETERS
CAMBRIDGE INSITU Load cell pressuremeter
Cambridge Insitu Ltd
38-39 High Street
Little Eversden
Cambridge CB23 1HE
England
Primary contact: Clive Dalton
Tel: +44 (0)1223 262361
Fax: +44 (0)1223 263947
cam@cambridge-insitu.com
http://www.cambridge-insitu.com