Testing of Materials

Introduction
 Tensile Testing
It is one of the most widely used mechanical tests.
A tensile test helps determining tensile properties such as
tensile strength
yield point or yield strength
% elongation
% reduction in area and
modulus of elasticity

Fig. 1. Tensile-test specimen.

[Fig. 1 (a)] shows a specimen for tensile test. Since mechanical properties are to some
extent influenced by the size and shape of the test specimen, it is customary to use
standardized specimen.
The essential features of a round (cylindrical) test specimen are the diameter Do ,
parallel length PL, gauge length Lo, and end fillet radius r. These dimensions may
be set as per ASTM or BS:18:1962 specifications, e.g.

ASTM
Diameter 0.01" (12.5 mm0.25 mm)
Parallel length 2 (57 mm)
Gauge length 2 (50.8 mm)
End fillet radius min. (3 mm)
 Tensile test is carried out by gripping the ends E, E of the specimen in a tensile testing
machine and applying and increasing pull [Fig. 1 (b)] on to the specimen till it fractures.
During the test, the tensile load as well as the elongation of a previously marked gauge
length in the specimen is measured with the help of load dial of the machine and
extensometer respectively. These readings help plotting stress-strain curve as shown in
Fig. 2.

Strain

Fig. 2. Stress-strain curve.

After fracture, the two pieces of the broken specimen are placed as if fixed together
[Fig. 1 (c)] and distance Lf between two gauge marks and the Df at the place of fracture
are measured.
The various tensile properties are calculated as follows:
Load at yield point
1. Yield strength = ------------------------
Ao i.e. /4 Do2
Ultimate load, Pmax
2. Ultimate tensile strength = -------------------------
Ao (i.e. original area)
Lf Lo
3. % Elongation = -------------- X 100
Lo
Ao Af
4. % Reduction in area = -------------- X 100
Ao
5. Youngs modulus of elasticity, E
Stress at any point within the elastic limit. i.e., OA (Fig. 2)
= -------------------------------------------------------------------------
Strain at the point
PLo
Or E = ------------- X 100
Ao L

Where P is load at any point up to the Elastic limit (point A in Fig. 2),
Lo is the gauge length,
Lf is the gauge length at fracture,
Ao is original area, and
L is the elongation or change in Lo at any load P, while the specimen is
within the elastic zone.
 HARDNESS TESTING
Introduction
Hardness may be defined as resistance of metal to plastic deformation (usually) by
indentation. However, the term may also refer to stiffness or temper or to resistance to
scratching, abrasion or cutting.
Indentation hardness may be measured by various hardness tests such as Brinell,
Rockwell, etc.

(a) The Brinell Test

It consists of pressing a hardened steel ball into a test specimen.
According to ASTM specifications, a 10 mm diameter ball is used for the purpose.
Lower loads are applied for measuring hardness of soft materials and vice versa.

Load (kg) Material Range of Brinell hardness

500 Soft 16 to 100
1500 Intermediate hardness 48 to 300
3000 Hard 96 to 600

Fig. 3 shows a Brinell hardness testing machine.

Fig. 3. A Brinell hardess tesing machine.

Procedure of Harness Testing
Specimen is placed on the anvil; the hand wheel is rotated so that the specimen along
with the anvil moves up and contacts with the ball.
The desired load is applied mechanically (by a gear driven screw) or hydraulic (by oil
pressure) and the ball presses into the specimen.
The diameter of the indentation made in the specimen by the pressed ball is measured
by the use of a micrometer microscope, having a transparent engraved scale in the field of
view.
The indentation diameter is measured at two places at right angles to each other, and
the average of the two readings is taken.
The brinell hardness number (BHN) which is the pressure per unit surface area of the
indentation in kg per square meter, is calculated as follows:

W
BHN = ---------------------------
(D/2) (D D2 d2)

Where
W is load on indenter, kg
D is diameter of steel ball, mm
d is average measured diameter of indentation, mm

Brinell hardness test is best for measuring hardness of gray iron casting consisting of
soft flake graphite, iron and hard iron carbide.

(b) The Rockwell Test

Introduction
Rockwell hardness testing differs from Brinell testing in that the indenters and the loads
are smaller and therefore the resulting indentation on the specimen is smaller and
shallower.
Rockwell testing is suitable for materials having hardness beyond the scope of Brinell
testing.
Rockwell testing is faster as compared to Brinell testing because diameter of
indentation need not be measured; the Rockwell machine gives arbitrary direct reading.
Unlike Brinell testing, rockwell testing needs no surface preparation (polishing, etc.) of
the specimen whose hardness is to be measured.

Procedure for Measuring Harness

Figure 4 shows various procedural steps involved in finding harness of a test piece.
(a) Test piece is placed upon the machine. The machine dial is showing any reading.
(b) Hand wheel is turned, thereby raising the test piece up against the steel ball
indenter till the needle on the dial reads zero. This applies minor load.
(c) Major load is applied by pressing the crank provided on the right-hand side of
the machine (not shown).
(d) Crank is turned in the reverse direction thereby withdrawing major load but
leaving minor load applied.
 (e) Hand wheel is rotated and the test piece is lowered.

Fig. 4. Procedure for measuring rockwell hardness.

At this stage, the hardness of the test piece material can be directly read from the
dial scale.
There are two scales on a Rockwell testing machine, i.e., B scale and C scale.
B scale uses a steel ball indenter whereas a diamond cone penetrator is employed
for measuring hardness on C scale.
B scale is for testing materials of medium harness such as low and medium carbon
steels in the annealed condition. The working range of this scale is from 0 to 100. C scale
is used for testing materials harder than B 100. C scale is commonly used for testing the
hardness of alloy cast irons.
In Rockwell hardness testing, the minor load for all cases is 10 kg whereas major loads
for scales C and B are 150 and 100 kg respectively (including minor load).

IMPACT TEST
 Impact testing becomes essential in order to study the behaviour of materials under
dynamic loading.
An impact test determines the behaviour of materials when subjected to high rates of
loading, usually in bending, tension or torsion.
In an impact test, a specimen, machined or surface ground and usually notched, is
struck and broken by a single blow in a specially designed testing machine [Fig. 3 (X)].
The quantity measured is the energy absorbed in breaking the specimen by a single blow.
The ideal impact test would be one in which all the energy of a blow is transmitted to
the test specimen.
An impact test gives an indication of the relative toughness of the material.
Two types of specimen are used on an impact testing machine, namely IZOD [Fig. 3
(Y-a)] and CHARPY [Fig. 3 (Y-b) ).
The Charpy specimen is placed in the vise so that it is just a simple beam support
at ends whereas Izod specimen is placed in the vise such that is a cantilever [Fig. 3 (Y)].

Procedure:
1. The swinging pendulum weight is raised to standard height depending upon the
type of specimen to be tested.
2. With reference to the vise holding the specimen, the higher the pendulum, the
more potential energy it has got.
 Fig.3. Impact Testing.

3. As the pendulum is released, its potential energy is converted into kinetic

energy until it strikes the specimen.
4. The Charpy specimen is hit behind the V notch while the Izod specimen, placed
with the V notch facing the pendulum, will be hit above the V notch.
5. A portion of the energy possessed by the pendulum is used to rupture the
specimen and the pendulum rises on the order side of the machine to a height lower than
its initial height on the opposite side of the impact testing machine.
6. The energy consumed in breaking the specimen is the weight of the pendulum
times the difference in two heights of pendulum on either side of the machine.
7. This energy on foot-pounds or metre-kg is the notched impact strength and can
be read from the dial of the impact testing machine.
 CREEP TESTING
Objective
The creep test determines the continuing change in the deformation of a material at
elevated temperature when stresses below the yield point.
The objective of creep test is to determine the creep limit or the limiting creep stress,
defined as the stress that will just not break the specimen when applied for an infinite
period of time at a specific constant temperature. This value of stress may be obtained
from stain/time observations.

Utility
A creep test is simply a tension test run at constant load and constant temperature.
A creep test is required to measure and record
Stress, Stain,
Temperatures, and Time.
Then total creep or percent elongation is plotted against time for the entire
duration of the test and the result is a creep curve.
Fig. * shows a system for testing creep.

Fig. 6. Creep-Testing equipment.

(i) Specimens for creep tests are usually the same as for environmental tension tests.
(ii) With the specimen are spot welded, one platinum and one platinum tube. The wire
slides the tube, reference marks on both are observed through a single telescope at the
middle; elongation can be measured on a scale inside the telescope.
(iii) The specimen is subjected to constant loading or a constant stress through a system
of dead weights and levers, etc.
(iv) A tubular, electrically heated furnace is made to fit around the specimen (Fig. *).
Elongated ends if the specimen may have a thermocouple in each end for temperature
measurement purposes.
 FATIGUE TESTING
Introduction
A suitable basis for designs involving static is the yield strength of the material. But if it
is a fatigue loading in which load is repeatedly applied and removed, the design criterion
is the endurance strength.
The endurance strength is the stress S that will cause a metal to fail after a lalarge
number N of applications of that stress.
The fatigue test helps estimating endurance strength and endurance limit for a metal.
The fatigue test a dynamic (and not static) type of test which determines the relative
behaviour of materials when subjected to repeated or fluctuating loads. It determines the
resistance of a metal to repeated or alternating loads.

Procedure
A fatigue testing machine attempts to simulate stress conditions developed in
component parts by vibration of cycling loads as on service.
The magnitude of stress may be changed on the machine.
Fig. * (a) shows a fatigue-testing machine.

Fig. * A rotating beam fatigue testing machine.

The machine consists of

(i) an electric motor capable of running at 10,000 r.p.m.
(ii) a large bearing whose purpose is to relive the motor of the large bending moment
which is applied to the specimen,
(iii) collets to hold the specimen,
(iv) a rotating lever arm, subjected to downward force, in order to place specimen in a
state of bending.
The upper surface of the specimen remains in tension while its lower surface experiences
compression, [Fig. * (b)].
While the specimen is rotating, any given position on the surface of the specimen
alternates between a state of maximum tensile stress and a state of maximum
compressive stress.
The maximum value of the (tensile or compressive) stress is usually lower than
the yield strength of the material.
The test is continued, i.e., the cycles of stress are applied until the specimen fails or
until a limiting number of cycles has been reached. For example, if a sift steel specimen
is able to bear 5,000,000 cycles without failure the test may be stopped, because it has
been proved experimentally that the specimen ill be able to withstand, under the same
stress, a very large number of cycles.
A number of specimen of the same material are fatigue-tested under different stress
levels and the results are plotted on a semilogarithmic scale with the stress S on the Y-axis
and the number of cycles, N, to cause failure of the specimen on X-axis.
The result is a S-N (Fatigue) Curve.
S-N curve gives an idea of endurance limit or fatigue limit [Fig. *].