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Aqueducts in the Hellenic area during the Roman

Water Science & Technology: Water Supply Vol 7 No 1 pp 139145 Q IWA Publishing 2007
period
E. Mavromati* and L. Chryssaidis**
*The Greek Ombudsman, Home address: 3 Paridi str., Polygono 11476 Athens
(E-mail: elmavromati@synigoros.gr)
**The Statial Data Maintenance Division of Ktimatologio S.A., 3 Paridi str., Polygono 11476 Athens
(E-mail: lchrysai@ktimatologio.gr)

Abstract Since their very beginnings, organized societies have been concerned with the preservation and
improvement of their environment and natural resources as these were the basis of their wellbeing and
survival. In pursuing this goal, many civilizations have constructed admirable technical and infrastructural
works. To most of us, however, the society that stands out for its particular preoccupation and special
widespread achievements in this field is the Roman Empire which actively demonstrated great interest for its
cities and the providing for their everyday basic livelihood needs. The creation of most urban centres was
combined with the construction of aqueducts, water supply and wastewater systems. During the Roman
occupation period (200 BC 300 AD) of the Hellenic world, many cities within the region expanded and
new urban centres were created. Substantial steps were taken to upgrade the urban landscape and to
improve their living conditions. This was connected with water supply and wastewater systems, comprising
aqueducts, water towers and underground pipe systems. The investigation of the criteria that determined
engineers design choices for aqueducts, methods and processes of construction, techniques and materials
used - as these are revealed through the archaeological excavations and relics - testify to the environmental
approach and the maintenance perception of the Roman period.
Keywords Aqueduct; Hellenic area; Roman period

Introduction
During the Roman period, mankind demonstrated its ability to go beyond existing
technical limitations, aiming at improving the methods covering everyday needs in
relation to adequate water supply and sewage removal. This led to new functional
constructions, by utilizing and upgrading the technical experience and by financing
appropriate public works (Italy). Roman ambassadors and governmental officials are
often cited as aqueduct, fountain and temple financers. The water supply and sewage
system networks represent one of the biggest achievements in aquatic resources
management. In addition, this sparked progress for parallel sectors such as management
of human potential and labor resources, organizing complex and extensive worksites and
management of emergencies.

Historical view of aqueduct technologies


Romans were an urban people and consumed enormous quantities of water supplies.
Furthermore, the wealthy exercised wasteful practices using large quantities of water in
their residences (epavlis), the thermes and their gardens, where anavritiria (fountains),
swimming-pools and immense gardens were a standard. Fourteen aqueducts and 170
public valaneia 33 (BC) - that increased up to 856 till the late roman years - were
found in Rome alone (Antonopoulos, 2005). Due to the construction of the aqueducts
(Boise Van Deman, 1973), Rome became a prototype of an ancient city for which needs
doi: 10.2166/ws.2007.016 139
in water supply were completely covered. According to archaeological findings, it is esti-
mated that until the 1st century AD nine aqueducts brought from the mountains around
the city about 380 000 m3 water per day.
At the same time, aqueducts were constructed in approximately 200 other cities of the
Roman Empire. Athens, Corinth, Mitilini, Diracheio and Nikopoli were the most famous
amongst them. Most of these aqueducts were made of stones, plinths or roman cement
that was named pozzuolana (crumbled limestone and volcanic dust mixed together).
E. Mavromati and L. Chryssaidis

Due to Pax Romana, trade was flourishing. Thus, lead imports from Spain and
other provinces of the Roman Empire allowed the wide use of this material for the
manufacturing of water pipes thus allowing for a better quality of provided water.
In the Hellenic area, several water supply and sewerage networks had been revealed
by archaeologists dating as back as the prehistoric period. The Minies (1450 BC) used a
sinkhole (katabothra) for the water management of Copais Lake; which was quite the
same as later water diversion constructions (Babliakis, 1997). For the purpose of
gathering water from mountains, advanced technical methods were used, and water
collection systems, shafts, reservoirs and tunnels were made. Typical examples of water
conducting works were: a) the Strymi water supply system (Kraniotis, 1984) in Thrace
(similar to the Eupalineian digging of Samos - Babliakis, 1997), composed of tunnels,
shafts and reservoirs (late 6th - early 5th BC), b) the Eupalineian digging at the mountain
Ambelos, composed of a 1040 m length and 1.80 1.80 m cross- section tunnel, into
which, a water pipeline was placed for the needs of Samos city (540 or 525 BC), c) the
Olynthos aqueduct at Chalkidiki (late 5th century BC) and d) the Pangaio aqueducts (4th
BC), whose lengths were 20 and 14 km respectively.
Romans participated in the social/ economic life of Greek cities and contributed
financially to the construction of public benefit works. The aqueducts of Athens,
Dyrrachio and Corinth were erected by the emperor Adrianos. Later, Alexandre Seviros
repaired the aqueduct of Dyrrahio, and Antigonos Efsevis built another one in Odyssos.

Aqueducts in the Hellenic area mainland Greece


At 30 BC, in southern Epirus, the city of Nikopolis ( victory city) was founded by Octa-
vius Augustus in commemoration of his victory against the joined fleets of Marcus Antonius
and Cleopatra at the naval battle of Aktium. After a relatively short period, the population
increased to 300,000 residents. An enormous aqueduct capable to supply the water needs of
the city was constructed (Figure 1). The aqueduct, 50 km long, started from near the sources
of river Louros (Filippiada). The water was transported to the city of Nikopoli, and to the
aqueduct of Nymfaio. For the construction of the aqueduct three different ways of transfer-
ring the water were used by its builders: (a) The water was transported through an
underground canal dug in the soft soil, or in certain cases, curved in the hard rock.

Figure 1 Parts of bridges of Nikopolis aqueduct: (a) Canal bridge at the area of Agios Georgios (Source:
www.AT.idx.gr); (b) Bridge near the mountain (Sakellariou, 1974, p. 188); and (c) Part of the aqueduct at
140 Nikopoli (Source:http://netkerveros.blogspot.com/2006/04/photography.html)
Canals were covered with the construction of arches impermeable to water (with square
openings for ventilation and cleaning at intervals). (b) In certain difficult geomorphic
regions, as that one of Kokkinopylo, a tunnel was dug out by particularly skilled technicians
who devised innovative methods in order to allow for the passage of water through the
mountain. By using strong fires and cold water alternatively, they heated and cooled the
rocks in quick succession, thus cracking the bedrock and facilitating the removal of the
unwanted rock mass. Through parallel working in separate sections, they managed neverthe-

E. Mavromati and L. Chryssaidis


less to achieve excellent alignment throughout the total length of the tunnel!
Finally, in order to surmount natural obstacles (i.e. rivers) or to pass across valleys, as in
the area of Agios Georgios, they created (c) arched bridges in which water flowed free (canal
bridges), supported by lines of pillars, built with the characteristic plinths-built walls, and
connected with wall-plaster. It should be emphasized that canal bridges had a specific
inclination created on the base of the bridge. Therefore, water flowed continuously into
pipes, in the superior department of arches. Lower parts of pillars were based on pedestals.
According to Makris (2004), despite the fact that canal bridges had been manufactured for a
specific use (transport of water), they were at the same time narrow and lighter than usual
bridges that allowed people to cross them. Pantermalis (1974) characterizes these arched
bridges/aqueducts as genuine fine art structures.
In the area of Attica, drought had already started from the prehistoric period. As a
consequence the residents tried, and ultimately found ways for steady water supply. Thereby,
they created many aqueducts that drove water to public built fountains (fontanas). In Athens
and Piraeus, a lot of aqueducts existed, with main, subsidiary or regional functions. Since the
prehistoric period, the residents of the city had constructed underground main pipes of ten
thousands of metres in length or they carved galleries in the rocks. Well known aqueducts
were the one of Pelasgoi (at Hymettus), the aqueduct of Thiseas (at Penteli), the Peissistra-
tion (2.8 km) and others at the hill of Pnyka, at Thissio and at Loutro. As Bavliakis (1997)
said, Peissistration was a water conducting construction.
During the preparation period of the Olympic Games in Athens 2004 and the construction
of the new underground metro network, many sections of the above ancient water supply sys-
tems came to light (Platonos, 2005). Several such findings are exhibited in situ in specially
designed sections of the subway stations. Under present-day Amalias Street part of an aque-
duct was found. One balaneion appeared at the riverbed of the now-covered river of Iridanos,
another one, with a lot of cisterns, in the intersection of Amalias with Vassilissis Sofias street
and a last one inside the grounds of the new Museum of Acropolis. In Santarosa Street, relics
of hydraulic systems, with water traps (freata) and cisterns were revealed. They were joined
together with underground tunnels. From classic up to late roman period they functioned as
part of the citys overall water supply network.
In the ancient municipality of Athmonos (where still stands the ancient Olympic Stadium)
water supply was difficult to ensure because the underground water horizon was very low
and wells could not meet the demands. During the Roman period (1st - 2nd century AD)
reserves of water supplies had been obtained by the construction of enormous cisterns in the
region (Olympic stage). Via big earthen water pipes, water was transported inside cisterns
from surface sources of Kifissia (an area under the Penteli mountain to the north of the city).
Thus the water supply of residents and the irrigation of fields were achieved. The cisterns [at
Lassani, (southern side of Peleka), in Artemidos road (Journalistic Village) and in the
northeastern and relatively western Olympic Stage] were big in size; one of them was
rectangular in a two-level gradient arrangement, (Spyros Louis street to the south-west of the
Stadium). Earthenware inlays composed the floor mosaic and walls were plastered with
hydraulic mortar. There were descending stairs, and a water trap. Skylardi (undated) assumes
that, perhaps, these cisterns were accommodated with a lightly elevated roof. 141
Ancient pipelines of water supply were discovered throughout the works made for the
Olympic installations in Marousi. They were manufactured from rings, made out of two
horseshoe-shaped pieces (one fitting inside the other). At intervals, square shafts had
been built, giving accessibility for cleaning and controlling conductors.
Perhaps, the most creditable hydraulic achievement in Roman Greece, after the
Aharnikos drain of the 4th century BC, is the Hadrianian aqueduct in Athens. Emperor
Hadrian started its construction and Antonios Efsevis completed it (125140 AD) (see
E. Mavromati and L. Chryssaidis

www.penteli.gr). It is considered as a Greek work of the Roman period. It assembled potable


water taken from the sources of Parnitha and Kifissia. Via a 2025 km free flow pipeline,
the water was led to the two-metre depth cistern located at the area of present-day Kolonaki
(dimensions 26.10 9.10 m and capacity 500 m3). From that cistern water was distributed to
the whole city of Athens and still supplies some of its sections. Romans used to manufacture
cisterns near the sources, in most of their aqueducts. In this way, the principle of communi-
cating vessels was in force and, consequently, they maintained constant flow and pressure in
their aqueducts. The convention of water was performed from the so-called vaulted depart-
ments which, with a 1:1000 gradient, ensured constant flow.
The Hadrianian aqueduct transected the present-day municipalities of Acharnes,
Metamorphosis, Maroussi, N. Ionia, N. Philadelphia and Ambelokipi. As at Nikopoli, it
consisted of underground built conductors, tunnels (some carved inside the rock), or
valley bridges. Sections of this are still preserved in N. Ionia (Kalogreza), the Olympic
Village (two sectors) and elsewhere. Preserved underground departments also exist in
Marousi, Halandri, N.Psyhiko in depths of up to 20 m. They were constructed in
rectangular shaped venues with an arched cover, 0.70 m width and 1.60 m height. At
35 m intervals, square or circular cross-section shafts (for cleaning and ventilation) were
created. It is significant that, the aqueduct was made to collect water not only from the
initial source, but also to pick up additional quantities from other sources along the way.
For this reason, branches of the water-carrier, supplementary tunnels or smaller aqueducts
were created. They carried water from other springs around the area of Athens (Halandri,
Kokkinara, Kithara Monomati). A model of Hadrianian aqueduct is shown in Figure 2.
Another important aqueduct of that period (perhaps of the Augustus era, 40 BC) is
that of Patras. It was the first comprehensive water supply system of the city. Near
Romanos village stood the Neromana sources of the Diakoniaris stream. At a distance
of 10 m from the sources, at the beginnings of the gorge, Romans constructed a wall and,
consequently, created an artificial lock. The base of this construction still exists. From
there, water was directed in the city by a stone-built underground tube or through lines of
arches, which bridged valleys and ravines, (six and a half km in length). Apart from the
central covered tube, branches also existed. Their smaller cross-section covered tubes
leading to various directions. Relics of a really strong wall are still to be found in the
riverbed at a distance of about 20 meters from the current cistern and in other places.
Herodis Atticus constructed a monumental drainage in Olympia, the Nymfaio (155
AD). It supplied with water the sacred area and the surrounding region, south of Alti.

142 Figure 2 Model of a water bridge of Hadrianion aqueduct (Source: Phoca and Valavanis, 1992, p. 56)
E. Mavromati and L. Chryssaidis
Figure 3 Nymfaio: (left) Image of Nymfaio (Source: History of Greek Nation, v. ST, p. 160, according
Hliakis); and (right) Nymfaio today (Source: Calendar 2004, Efessos publ.)

In fact, it was a votive offering. It included two cisterns, (one oblong rectangular cistern
and another of semicircular shape, which was located at a higher level, Figure 3).

Aqueducts in the Hellenic area islands


In ancient Lappa, one of the most important cities of West Crete, (now Argyroupoli,
County of Recymnis), a relatively unknown aqueduct was found, dated also from the
Octavian era. From the sources of Kastania and Kollita, one hour away from the
settlement, the water was drained through built tubes (not existing any more) into a
cistern of 600 m3 (dimensions of 25 6 4). A plan of the building of Lappas thermae
to the west below the main site on the hill is shown in Figure 4. It was constructed at a
high point outside the city and provided with water both the city and the thermae, one of
the citys most important structures. Until 1982, two tile-faced concrete piers, 3.50 metres
high, 2 square metre base and 6 metres apart, could still be seen. Two cisterns in series, 4
metres wide, were attached to one of the surviving piers.
During the 2nd century AD, an aqueduct was constructed on the island of Lesbos.
Sections of its remnants can still be found at a distance of 600 m from Moria, 6 km from
Mitilini, as well as in gorges of central Lesbos. The aqueduct, of a total length of
approximately 22 km, transported water into the city of Mitilini from the sources of the
Agiassos region, from Megali Limni of Olympus and elsewhere. Its builders used the
standard roman technique of the simple and elegant arches, erected in successive levels.
Grey marble pillars (emanated from the neighboring quarry) were successively placed

Figure 4 Plan of the building of Lappas thermae (Crete) to the west below the main site on the hill.
(Source: Sanders, 1982, p. 82) 143
E. Mavromati and L. Chryssaidis

Figure 5 Parts of the canal bridge of Lesbos aqueduct (Source: www.culture.gr)

and were linked with three lines of arches. Seven arches of its intermediate section and
one of the lower line, are still to be seen today.
The artificial channel was found at the top of the bridge. It was supported by plinths-
built arches. It has been estimated that the part of the Moria region had a length of about
170 m and a height of 27 m, and it comprised seventeen arches. Parts of the canal bridge
of Lesbos aqueduct is shown in Figure 5.

Conclusions
Adequate water supply was a major concern of many Roman rulers. During the Roman
period ambitious constructions were erected with the purpose of both covering the needs
of provinces and big urban centres while reflecting the power and supremacy of Pax
Romana and the Roman way of life. Emperors promoted such an administrative and
economic system that served and facilitated the construction of impressive water supply
and wastewater management systems in the hub and the provinces of the Roman territory
In Hellas, the problem of water shortage was already intense since the prehistoric period.
Steps to find solutions had been taken from early times, primarily through the construction of
technical works (pipelines, cisterns, public fountains etc.), but it was during the Roman ages
that civic economics and technological know-how finally allowed for the systematic
construction and maintenance of comprehensive and adequate aqueducts and networks in the
various urban centres of Greece. This trend was further promoted by the incorporation of
Roman officials in the economic and social life of the regional urban centres.
In the Hellenic area, technologically up-to-date sound processes were used for the
construction of aqueducts and water management systems. They usually started by
locating adequate water sources (usually found at a high altitude, up in hills or
mountains). Distance between springs and settlements stopped posing unsurpassable
hindrance, as the craftsmen were able to overcome natural obstacles in order to direct
water into the cities. Essential elements of an aqueduct were the water tanks, which were
constructed a) near the source, b) at a region outside the city and c) in various points of
the urban network. They provided for water storage and guaranteed that the water flow
and pressure would be constant. The prevailing way of gathering water was hydromas-
tefsi (see analysis of this system in Babliakis, 1997), that gave also a) the possibility to
collect water from other sources along aqueducts and b) the possibility to supply water to
several destination points with the creation of sinks.
In order to convey water, underground pipelines, tunnels and terrestrial water bridges
were used. Underground venues were dug or curved in hard rock. Shafts were used for
144 cleaning and ventilation. The tunnels were created a) by the technique of quick
expansion-contraction of rocks through overheating/cooling, b) by digging or c) by cur-
ving the rock. The aqueduct bridges were built with plinth walls, connected with wall
plaster. They were supported by built or marble pillars and had arches, usually in their
upper part, or in successive levels, which hosted the water channel.
Concluding, one could say that aqueducts and other water management great works of
that period best reflect the prowess and supremacy of the Roman Empire throughout the
then-known world. They provide historical evidence of the sustainability perception of the

E. Mavromati and L. Chryssaidis


era, together with the roman concept of dealing with surrounding natural resources in relation
to the support of their cities. The archaeological findings have proven exceptionally useful
today, as they also relate to the subjects of priorities regarding the viability of the anthropo-
genic and natural environment, and the adoption of institutional directions aiming to guaran-
tee a better quality of life.

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