CHAPTER 10: NUTRIENTS INVOLVED IN ENERGY METABOLISM AND BLOOD HEALTH

Vitamins and minerals are required for proper metabolism, do not directly provide energy, are
necessary for obtaining energy from the macronutrients and often function as coenzymes. Enzymes
are proteins that accelerate the rate of a chemical reaction. Enzymes are required for all metabolic
reactions. Coenzymes are molecules that combine with an enzyme to facilitate enzyme function. Some
metabolic reactions require coenzymes. The B-complex vitamins are especially important for energy
metabolism. The B-complex vitamins include: thiamin (B1), riboflavin (B2), niacin (B3), the vitamin B6
group, folate, vitamin B12, pantothenic acid and biotin. B-vitamins directly associated with energy
metabolism include:

NAME OF WATER SOLUBLE B- B-1 (THIAMIN)

VITAMIN
FUNCTION(S) Vitamin portion of coenzyme TTP, which helps convert
pyruvate to acetyl Co-A. It also helps with production of the
acetylcholine. Thiamin pyrophosphate is a coenzyme required
for carbohydrate metabolism. Thiamin also acts as a coenzyme
for the metabolism of some fatty acids.
RDI Women = 1.1 mg/day; Men = 1.2 mg/day.

PRIMARY SOURCES Brewers yeast, ham, wheat germ, sunflower seeds and
mushrooms. Highly refined foods do not contain thiamin.
Enriched foods and whole grains are good sources.
DEFICIENCIES Beriberi deficiency of thiamin resulting in muscle wasting and
nerve damage.
TOXICITY None known at this time.

NAME OF WATER SOLUBLE B- B-2 (RIBOFLAVIN)

VITAMIN
FUNCTION(S) Helps build the structure of a few coenzymes used in the
process of cell respiration, such as FAD. It is part of
coenzymes involved in oxidation-reduction reactions. It is part
of the antioxidant enzyme glutathione peroxidase.
RDI Women = 1.1 mg/day; Men = 1.3 mg/day.

PRIMARY SOURCES Milk, yogurt, meat and leafy greens.

DEFICIENCIES Ariboflavinosis riboflavin deficiency. Sore throat, swollen

mucous membranes.
TOXICITY None known at this time.

NAME OF WATER SOLUBLE B- B-3 (NIACIN; nicotinamide and nicotinic acid).

VITAMIN
FUNCTION(S) It is part of the energy transport molecules known as NAD and
NADP. Coenzyme assisting with metabolism of carbohydrates
and fatty acids.

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RDI Women = 14 mg/day; Men = 16 mg/day.

PRIMARY SOURCES Unique point: the body can produce this vitamin from the amino
acid tryptophan. It can also be acquired from eggs and milk.
Good sources: meat, fish, poultry and enriched bread products.
DEFICIENCIES Pellagra severe niacin deficiency.

TOXICITY Flushing, liver damage, glucose intolerance, blurred vision and

edema of the eyes.

NAME OF WATER SOLUBLE B- B-6 GROUP (pyridoxal, pyridoxine and pyridoxamine).

VITAMIN
FUNCTION(S) Group of 6 related compounds. Part of a coenzyme for more
than 100 enzymes in amino acid metabolism. All three forms
help create the enzyme PLP and are also used in metabolism of
proteins, the formation of urea and the production of:
serotonin, hemoglobin, lecithin and the nucleic acids. Group of
6 related compounds. Part of a coenzyme for more than 100
enzymes in amino acid metabolism.
RDI 1.3 mg/day. Women over 50 = 1.5 mg/day; Men over 50 = 1.7
mg/day.
PRIMARY SOURCES Uptake is impaired by alcohol. Good sources: enriched cereals,
meat, fish, poultry, starchy vegetables, green leafy vegetables
and the legumes.
DEFICIENCIES Microcytic anemia, dermatitis, convulsions, depression and
confusion.
TOXICITY Toxicity from supplements can result in nerve damage
(neuropathy) and skin lesions.

NAME OF WATER SOLUBLE B- FOLIC ACID: (a/k/a folate or folacin)

VITAMIN
FUNCTION(S) Is a coenzyme in the process of making various nucleic acids.
It is also involved in neural tube formation, in the processing
of B12 and amino acid metabolism. Critical for cell division of
very early embryos.
RDI 400 mcg/day.

PRIMARY SOURCES Leafy greens, organ meats, legumes, ready-to-eat cereals,

enriched bread products and orange juice.
DEFICIENCIES Macrocytic anemia. Neural tube disorders, such as spinal
bifida.
TOXICITY Neurological damage and concealment of existing B12
deficiencies.

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NAME OF WATER SOLUBLE B- COBALAMIN (B12)
VITAMIN
FUNCTION(S) Works with folate to make nucleic acids. Part of its structure
is cobalt and it needs intrinsic factor in order to work. Part of
coenzymes for blood formation. Required for nerve
functioning. Required for homocysteine breakdown.
RDI 2.4 mcg/day.

PRIMARY SOURCES Meat, milk, cheese and eggs. Found only in animal-based foods.

DEFICIENCIES Pernicious anemia. Deficiency results in anemia, low energy,

fatigue, shortness of breath and can lead to pernicious anemia.
TOXICITY None known at this time.

NAME OF WATER SOLUBLE B- PANTOTHENIC ACID

VITAMIN
FUNCTION(S) Main part of the structure of the enzyme Co-A in the process
of cell respiration. Component of coenzymes for fatty acid
metabolism. Required for building new fatty acids.
RDI 5 mg/day.

PRIMARY SOURCES It is easily destroyed by heat. Good sources: chicken, beef,

egg yolk, potatoes, oat cereals and tomato products.
DEFICIENCIES Only observed in people specifically fed diets totally lacking in
pantothenic acid. Deficiencies are very rare.
TOXICITY None known at this time. No apparent toxicity from excess
pantothenic acid.

NAME OF WATER SOLUBLE B- BIOTIN

VITAMIN
FUNCTION(S) CO2 carrier in the Krebs Cycle. It is a link to the process of
gluconeogenesis. Part of structure of the coenzymes involved
in metabolism of carbohydrates, fat and proteins. Important
for gluconeogenesis.
RDI 30 mcg/day.

PRIMARY SOURCES Liver, egg yolks. Also produced in the gut. Its bioavailability
can be limited by the protein avidin, which is found in raw egg
whites. Biotin content has been determined for very few
foods.
DEFICIENCIES Deficiency symptoms include hair thinning, dermatitis, loss of
hair color, depression and a red facial rash.
TOXICITY None known at this time.

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Vitamin B imposters include: inositol, choline, lecithin, lipoic acid, PABA, bioflavenoids, CoQ
(ubiquinone), B15 (pangamic acid), B17 (laetrile) and B-T (carnitine). Choline is a necessary nutrient for
energy metabolism; its just not a B-vitamin. Here are some choline details:

FUNCTION(S) Choline is a component of acetylcholine, which is a

neurotransmitter that provides energy to your skeletal
muscles and assists with memory functions within the brain.
Choline is a vitamin-like substance. Assists in homocysteine
metabolism.
RDI Women = 425 mg/day; Men = 550 mg/day.

PRIMARY SOURCES Choline is food in a wide variety of foods, including milk, eggs,
liver and peanuts.
DEFICIENCIES Choline deficiency can produce a fatty liver.

TOXICITY Toxicity can result in vomiting, excess salivation, sweating,

diarrhea and low blood pressure. Toxicity can result from
supplements.

Minerals retain their chemical identity in the body. They can be either water or fat-soluble. Minerals
can easily reach toxic levels in the body, so pay attention to RDA. They help maintain the bodys fluid
balance, and are called cofactors when they assist enzymes. Minerals cannot be destroyed by heat,
cold, acid, air, or mixing. They are excreted from the body without being altered in any way. There are
two categories of minerals: major (macro-) minerals are those that are present in the body structure
in amounts greater than 5 grams. Trace minerals are present in the body in amount under 5 grams.

Minerals involved in energy metabolism include:

NAME OF MAJOR MINERAL SULFUR

FUNCTION(S) Stabilizes the structure of amino acids. Also is part of the

structure of the vitamins biotin and thiamin and part of the
hormone insulin. Required for detoxification of alcohol and
drugs by the liver.
RDI There is no RDI; we consume what we need from any protein-
containing foods.
PRIMARY SOURCES All protein foods, including meat, fish, eggs, milk, legumes and
nuts. Found in a few amino acids. Sufficient sulfur is
synthesized from the protein in our diets.
DEFICIENCIES None known. Protein deficiency would occur first.

TOXICITY Depresses growth rate in animals.

NAME OF TRACE MINERAL IODINE

FUNCTION(S) Critical for the synthesis of thyroid (T3 and T4) hormones.
Thyroid hormones regulate body temperature and resting
metabolic rate.

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 RDI 150 g/day.

PRIMARY SOURCES Good sources: saltwater fish, shrimp, iodized salt, milk and
dairy products.
DEFICIENCIES Enlarged thyroid, Goiter, cretinism. Iodine deficiency can
result in hypothyroidism, goiter and cretinism (a type of
mental retardation that results from iodine deficiency during
embryonic development).
TOXICITY Also can result in an enlarged thyroid gland. Excess iodine
blocks synthesis of thyroid hormones. The thyroid tries to
make more hormones and this results in production of a goiter
(enlarged thyroid).

T3 is known as tri-iodothyronine and is the active form of hormone produced by the thyroid gland (an
endocrine gland located in the neck region of the body). The other form, T4 (tetra-iodothyronine), is
more commonly known as thyroxine. Iodine taken into the human body is modified into a form called
iodide. Iodide plays a critical role in both thyroid hormones. These hormones regulate metabolism,
body temperature, reproduction, growth, blood cell formation and nerve and muscle function. TSH
(thyroid stimulating hormone) is produced by the anterior pituitary and regulates the production of
the thyroid hormone. In the USA iodine is added to salt therefore, there is almost no iodine
deficiency disease in America.

NAME OF TRACE MINERAL CHROMIUM

FUNCTION(S) Associated with insulin to help regulate blood sugar levels.

Assists insulin as it transports glucose from the blood into the
cells.
RDI Women = 25 mcg/day Men = 35 mcg/day.

PRIMARY SOURCES Good sources include mushrooms, prunes, dark chocolate, nuts,
whole grains, meat, fats and vegetable oils.
DEFICIENCIES Diabetes-like symptoms. Chromium deficiency inhibits glucose
absorption by body cells.
TOXICITY Unknown (from diet).

Chromium picolinate supplements are advertised as: (1) terrific fat burners and (2) muscle builders.
There is absolutely no scientific evidence that supports the supposed benefits of these supplements.

NAME OF TRACE MINERAL MANGANESE

FUNCTION(S) Works as cofactor for enzymes. It is used in urea formation

and also pyruvate conversion. It is a metalloenzyme. Part of
the structure of the antioxidant enzyme superoxide.
RDI Women = 2.3 mg/day; Men = 1.8 mg/day.

PRIMARY SOURCES Widely distributed. Good sources include whole-grain foods,

brown rice, pineapple, pine nuts, okra and spinach.
DEFICIENCIES NS and reproductive disorders.

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 TOXICITY Environmental, not dietary, is most likely. Can result in NS
disorders. Toxicity impairs the nervous system causing spasms
and tremors.

Blood consists of a fluid component known as blood plasma and a cellular component, which includes red
blood cells (RBCs; erythrocytes), white blood cells (WBCs; leukocytes) and platelets.

RBCs transport oxygen, which is required for the reactions that release energy from nutrients. WBCs
are defensive cells of the immune system and platelets assist with the process of blood coagulation
(clotting). Without these specialized cells we would not be able to maintain life functions. Nutrients
associated with maintenance of a healthy blood stream include:

NAME OF TRACE MINERAL IRON

FUNCTION(S) Part of hemoglobin in RBCs, part of myoglobin in muscles, used

in cell respiration as cofactor for many enzymes ad works with
cytochromes in ETS (ETC).
RDI Women = 18 mg/day; Men = 8 mg/day. RDA varies based on age
and gender. 27 mg/day for pregnant women.
PRIMARY SOURCES Red meat, poultry, fish, shellfish, legumes and dried fruits.
Meat, poultry, fish, clams, oysters, enriched cereals and
breads.
DEFICIENCIES Blue eye whites, lowered immunity, fatigue, iron poor blood.
Causes microcytic anemia. Iron deficiency is the most common
nutrient deficiency in the world. High risk people include
infants, young children, preadolescent girls, premenopausal
women, and pregnant women.
TOXICITY Hemochromatosis, a genetic disorder that causes too much
absorption of iron. Also joint disease, loss of hair and death by
poisoning in kids. Iron overdose is the most common cause of
poisoning deaths in children. Toxicity symptoms: nausea,
vomiting, diarrhea, dizziness, confusion.

There are two dietary sources of iron: heme bound and non-heme. The heme bound accounts for only
about 10% of your daily dietary intake of iron but 23% of it will be absorbed; whereas the non-heme
iron is about 90% of your daily intake but only 2 to 20% of it will be absorbed. Heme iron comes from
animal sources. Meat, fish and poultry also contain MFP, a factor that promotes absorption of non-
heme iron. Vitamin C also helps with the absorption of non-heme iron. Taking supplements with orange
juice will not work because the vitamin C in the juice only helps with absorption of dietary iron not
supplemental iron. Foods cooked in iron cookware will absorb iron salts from the cookware.

Iron is absorbed into the body by special cells in the small intestine called mucosal cells. These
mucosal cells are replaced about every three days. When shed in the feces they carry some iron with
them. It is part of what gives the coloration to the feces. Specific proteins called mucosal ferritin
proteins get iron from the GI tract and store it in the mucosal cells. When the body needs iron,
mucosal ferritin releases some iron to another special protein called mucosal transferrin, which moves
the iron to another protein, blood transferrin. Blood transferrin will transport the iron to the rest of
the body. Much of the iron is moved into the bone marrow cells that help produce new red blood cells
(erythrocytes, which contain hemoglobin).

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 NAME OF TRACE MINERAL ZINC

FUNCTION(S) In structure of many enzymes, the hormone insulin and genetic

materials. It is also involved in sperm production. It is a
coenzyme for hemoglobin production. It is part of superoxide
dismutase antioxidant enzyme system and is active in the
development and function of immune system.
RDI RDA is 8 mg/day for women, 11 mg/day for men.

PRIMARY SOURCES Note: fiber and phytates limit the bioavailability of zinc. Found
in all protein containing food. Meats, whole grains, enriched
grains and cereals.
DEFICIENCIES Low DNA synthesis, night blindness, anorexia and a low sperm
count. Deficiencies are uncommon in the US. Symptoms are
growth retardation, diarrhea and delayed sexual maturation.
TOXICITY Renal failure and anemia. Toxicity can occur from supplements.
Symptoms are intestinal pain, cramps, nausea, vomiting and loss
of appetite.

Zinc can be absorbed into intestinal cells, or carried in the blood by attachment to albumin (a plasma
protein). A diet with too much zinc will limit the bioavailability of copper because copper competes
with zinc to bind with metallothionein, the binding protein that brings zinc into the intestinal cells.
Zinc also competes with iron to bind with blood transferrin, so too much zinc in the diet can affect
your iron levels as well. Do not take excessive amounts of zinc in daily supplements it can seriously
impair the uptake of copper, which can lead to heart muscle cell degeneration. High doses of zinc also
enhance the development of atherosclerosis. Lozenges containing zinc gluconate can reduce head cold
symptoms, but lozenges with zinc gluconate bound to flavor-enhancers have no value.

NAME OF TRACE MINERAL COPPER

FUNCTION(S) Helps absorb iron into hemoglobin. Coenzyme for energy

metabolism and for collagen production. Part of superoxide
dismutase antioxidant enzyme system. Required for iron
transport.
RDI RDA for adults is 900 mg/day.

PRIMARY SOURCES Organ meats, seafood, nuts, seeds, whole grain foods

DEFICIENCIES Copper deficiency is rare. Symptoms are anemia, reduced white

blood cells and osteoporosis in children.
TOXICITY Toxicity in not well studied in humans. Symptoms are intestinal
pain, cramps, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea and liver damage.

Copper works with some enzymes (ceruloplasmin and ferroxidases) to catalyze the oxidation of iron.
Copper also works with other enzymes (superoxide dismutase) to help them act as antioxidants.

Still other copper/enzyme combinations (such as lysyl oxidase) help with the production of big protein
molecules called collagen molecules, which are used for support in many of the bodys connective
tissues. Others are involved in structure of the enzyme cytochrome-C oxidase, which is an important
enzyme in the electron transport system (ETS, ETC) of the cell respiration process.

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 NAME OF FAT SOLUBLE VITAMIN K
VITAMIN
FUNCTION(S) Aids in blood clotting and helps vitamin D with production of
bone protein. Coenzyme for the synthesis of proteins involved
in blood clotting.
RDI Women = 90 mcg/day; Men =120 mcg/day.

PRIMARY SOURCES Produced by E. coli in the intestine as well as acquired from

liver, leafy greens and milk.
DEFICIENCIES Jaundice and excessive bleeding. Deficiencies can result in
diseases that disturb absorption of fats.
TOXICITY Reduction in effectiveness of anticoagulants.

Review these energy-metabolism/blood health related disorders:

Anemias
Beri-beri
Neural tube defects
Pellagra
Spinal bifida
Vascular disease

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