Contents

Preface x
List of Figures and Tables xii
List of Acronyms xiii

PART I THEORY AND HISTORY OF INTERNATIONAL

ORGANIZATIONS

1 Introduction 3
Defining international organizations 5
Distinctions between international organizations 8
Analytical classification of international organizations 10
Overview of the book 12

2 Theories of International Organizations 14

The realist school 14
The institutionalist school 16
The idealist school 20
Theories of international organizations 23
Conclusion 24

3 History of International Organizations 25

War and power politics 25
Industrial expansion 33
Transportation 33
Communication 34
Social regulation 35
Intellectual property 36
World economic crises 37
Trade relations 41
Monetary relations 43
Human rights violations 44
Protection of universal human rights 45
Regional protection of human rights 48
Developmental disparities 49
Financing development 50
Development and trade 52
Environmental degradation 53
Conclusion 55

v
vi Contents

PART II POLICY-MAKING IN INTERNATIONAL

ORGANIZATIONS
4 International Organizations as Political Systems 63
Constitutional structure of international organizations 63
Institutional structure of international organizations 65
Plenary organs 66
Executive councils 71
Administrative staff 73
Courts of justice 74
Parliamentary assemblies 75
Representation of social interests 76
Conclusion 77

5 Actors Demands and Support: the Input Dimension 78

Representatives of member states 78
Administrative staff 81
Parliamentary assemblies 83
Interest groups 84
Communities of experts 85
Conclusion 86

6 Decision-making in International Organizations: the Conversion

Process 88
Decision-making models 88
Intergovernmental negotiations 88
Majority voting 89
Rational choice 90
Standard operating procedures 90
Bureaucratic politics 91
Programme decisions and operational decisions 92
Programme decisions 92
Operational decisions 97
Conclusion 101

7 What International Organizations Produce: the Output

Dimension 102
Policy programmes 102
Effects 103
Binding nature 104
Programmes and decision-making 106
Operational activities 106
Specification 107
 Contents vii

Implementation 107
Monitoring 108
Adjudication 109
Sanctions 110
Operations and decision-making 112
Information activities 113
Collecting and publishing information 113
Independently generating information 115
Exchanging information 116
Conclusion 116

PART III ACTIVITIES OF INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

8 Security 123
Violent self-help 124
Policy programme of the UN 125
Operations of the UN 127
Collective security: enforcement 127
Consensual security I: peaceful settlement of disputes 132
Consensual security II: peacekeeping 133
Information activities of the UN 136
Evaluation of the organizations outputs 136
Dynamics of arms procurement 138
Policy programme of the UN 138
Operations of the IAEA 140
Information activities of the IAEA 143
Evaluation of the organizations outputs 143
Conclusion 144

9 Welfare and Economic Relations 145

Global trade relations (WTO) 146
Policy programme of the WTO 146
Operations of the WTO 149
Information activities of the WTO 152
Evaluation of the organizations outputs 153
European trade relations (EU) 154
Policy programme of the EU 154
Operations of the EU 155
Information activities of the EU 157
Evaluation of the organizations outputs 158
Global financial relations (IMF) 159
Policy programme of the IMF 160
Operations of the IMF 163
viii Contents

Information activities of the IMF 165

Evaluation of the organizations outputs 166
European monetary relations (EU) 167
Policy programme of the EU 167
Operations of the ECB 169
Information activities of the ECB 170
Evaluation of the organizations outputs 171
Disparities in development (World Bank) 171
Policy programme of the World Bank Group 172
Operations of the World Bank Group 174
Information activities of the World Bank Group 177
Evaluation of the organizations outputs 178
Conclusion 178

10 The Environment 180

Protection of the ozone layer 181
Policy programme of UNEP and WMO 181
Operations of UNEP and WMO 184
Information activities of UNEP and WMO 185
Evaluation of the organizations outputs 186
Climate change 187
Policy programme of UNEP and WMO 187
Operations of UNEP and WMO 190
Information activities of UNEP and WMO 190
Evaluation of the organizations outputs 192
Conclusion 192

11 Human Rights 193

Global human rights protection 195
Policy programme of the UN 195
Operations of the UN 198
Information activities of the UN 202
Evaluation of the organizations outputs 203
European human rights protection 203
Policy programme of the Council of Europe 204
Operations of the Council of Europe 205
Information activities of the Council of Europe 207
Evaluation of the organizations outputs 207
Conclusion 208
 Contents ix

12 Between a World State and International Anarchy: Global

Governance 209
Models of international relations 209
International anarchy 210
World hegemony 212
World state 213
Global governance 214
Conclusion 215

References 216
Index 235
Chapter 1

Introduction

International organizations are a new phenomenon in the time-honoured

world of politics. They first emerged during the 19th century and became
ever more important over the course of the 20th century. Whether it is the
United Nations or the European Union, international organizations are
neither the continuation of traditional power politics, albeit with new
means, nor the expression of an evolutionary process leading to the forma-
tion of a global or regional superstate. They simply allow states to broach
problems they have in common, some uniting them and some dividing
them, in a collective decision-making process. International organizations
are thus involved in innumerable issue areas from A as in Arms Control
to Z as in Zimbabwes land reform. Without them it would be difficult to
address the substance of much of contemporary international politics.
International organizations touch upon several academic disciplines,
especially International Relations, International Law and International
Political Economy. Moreover, Diplomatic and International History shed
light upon the birth and growth of individual international organizations
in the 19th and 20th centuries. Thus research into and teaching of these
relatively new structural elements of International Relations is gaining ever
more importance and attention.
Our starting point in this book is the everyday political knowledge of
the average citizen who, through the media, is regularly confronted with
news in which one international organization or another plays a significant
role, be it a well-known, global organization such as the United Nations
Organization (UN), one or more of its Specialized Agencies, or related
organizations. Until a few years ago, international financial institutions
such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank
(IBRD) were relatively unknown. More recently, however, the well-publi-
cized protests of their opponents during their annual meetings have
considerably raised their international profile. This seems appropriate,
given the substantial political influence exerted by these organizations as
well as by the World Trade Organization (WTO). Regional organizations
such as the European Union (EU) and the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (NATO) remain an important focus of broad political
interest.
The international organizations cited so far only represent a fraction of
the approximately 250 international governmental organizations (IGOs)

3
4 International Organizations

existing at present, not to mention the approximately 6,000 international

non-governmental organizations (INGOs) which we shall consider later
(Yearbook of International Organizations 2003/04). The foundation of the
United Nations after the Second World War triggered the mushrooming of
international organizations of the most disparate kinds, and that expan-
sion is still continuing today (see Chapter 3). Not only have their numbers
increased noticeably but so have their political significance, their financial
resources and their personnel.
Since it is a truism in politics that money talks and international
organizations are no exception here let us cast a brief preliminary glance
at the budgets of international organizations. The United Nations had an
appropriated regular budget of 2.89 billion US dollars for the budget year
2002/03. Added to this were the budgets of the Specialized Agencies,
which amounted to a further almost 2.5 billion US dollars. Voluntary con-
tributions to aid agencies and related organizations of the United Nations
as well as the special budgets for financing peacekeeping operations grew
significantly to an estimated 4 billion US dollars for the budget year
2002/03. By comparison, the budget of the European Union (EU-15)
amounted to almost 100 billion Euros for the year 2003, reflecting the
higher degree of regional integration in Europe.
The practical importance of international organizations is further
evident when we consider the size of loans and grants made by the interna-
tional development banks and funds. For example, in the Asian crisis of
1997 and 1998 the World Bank and its subsidiary the International
Development Association (IDA) alone granted loans totalling almost 58
billion US dollars. The total lending volume of the World Bank Group in
the 1990s amounted to over 220 billion US dollars, thus exceeding by
several times the sum of all previously approved loans (World Bank 2000).
The World Bank Group administration budget for 2003 was 1.6 billion US
dollars (see World Bank 2003: 7).
The quantity and quality of the staff of international organizations are
another indicator of their relevance and political weight. The United
Nations alone employs 35,000 people in approximately 600 offices world-
wide, of whom 14,500 are at the New York headquarters and a further
4,000 work at the UNs European centres in Geneva and Vienna. Together
with its various Specialized Agencies, the United Nations family has over
64,000 employees (Ayton-Shenker 2002: 28690). The World Bank is the
largest Specialized Agency with 10,000 employees (www.worldbank.org),
followed by the World Health Organization (WHO) with 4,000.
Statistically, there is one employee in the UN system for every 100,000
people in the world. In the European Union there are seven so-called
Eurocrats for every 100,000 EU citizens. Around 31,000 Eurocrats, with
24,000 posts in the Commission, followed by the European Parliament
 Introduction 5

with 4,200 civil servants and the EU Council with 2,900 (European
Commission 2003), reflect the political weight of the EU.
With such financial and human resources at their disposal, international
organizations have a significant impact on a range of issues, and the
agendas of international organizations are as virtually all-encompassing as
those of domestic political systems.

Defining international organizations

The term international organization entered both scientific and everyday

vocabulary surprisingly recently. During the last third of the 19th century
expressions such as international public union, international office or
commission were commonly used in the literature. For many interna-
tional organizations at the time this term was wholly appropriate as long
as these unions, offices or commissions really were organizations with
clearly delimited technical and administrative competencies. A very early
example is the Rhine River Commission, which was founded in the after-
math of the Congress of Vienna and whose task it was (and remains) to
facilitate and coordinate the navigation of the Rhine with its international
traffic.
The term international organization was probably introduced into sci-
entific discourse around 1867 by the Scottish legal scholar James Lorimer
in some of his later publications. Lorimers works were well-known in
England and were also translated into French. By 1880, the German publi-
cist Constantin Frantz was championing federalism as a principle for
international organizations. Thus the expression was probably familiar
to interested academics and publicists by the end of the 19th century. In an
early systematic discussion of this new phenomenon Georg Jellinek (1882)
subsumed it under the study of associations between states. In Germany
the decisive acceptance of the concept occurred with Walther Schckings
treatise The Organization of the World (Die Organisation der Welt)
(1908) which was published in France in an abridged version entitled
Lorganisation internationale. In the US the expression international orga-
nization was disseminated by its use in Paul S. Reinschs textbook Public
International Unions (1911) (Potter 1945: 8036).
The term international organization was indirectly recognized in
Article 23 of the Covenant of the League of Nations, which suggests the
creation of specialized international organizations for the promotion of
international cooperation. The establishment of the International Labour
Organization (ILO) was a direct consequence of Article 23. However,
Article 24 of the Covenant continued using the older expressions such as
6 International Organizations

international office or commission for those organizations already in

existence at that time. Finally, Articles 23 and 24 were employed by the
League of Nations in order to establish its identity as a general organiza-
tion with a universal vocation.
This muddled nomenclature persisted throughout the 1920s and 1930s.
Only after the Second World War was a comprehensive concept of interna-
tional organization accepted and did the organizations themselves adopt
this name. The Preamble of the United Nations Charter ends with the spe-
cific mention that the signatories do hereby establish an international
organization to be known as the United Nations.
Three separate conceptions of international organizations are particu-
larly striking: their roles as instruments, as arenas and as actors (Archer
2001; Rittberger, Mogler & Zangl 1997). International organizations are
often seen as instruments with which states pursue their own interests as
best as they can and in which political processes primarily reflect the inter-
ests of the most powerful member states. For example, US diplomacy har-
nessed the UN in its dealings with Communist states during the Cold War.
As an arena, however, international organizations resemble a playing
field more than a tool of state policy. In this sense, international organiza-
tions are permanent institutions of conference diplomacy in which states
may exchange information, condemn or justify certain actions and coordi-
nate their national political strategies. For example, the UN is often seen as
an arena for international environmental politics (Rittberger, Mogler &
Zangl 1997).
While the image of international organizations as an arena emphasizes
that the member states are the principal actors involved, the third image of
international organizations is based on the premise that states have either
pooled or delegated their sovereignty so that international organizations
themselves embody the characteristics of a corporate actor (Moravcsik
1998: 67). Decisions are made in or through international organizations by
a collectivity of states, and the crucial point here is that without the relevant
organization decisions would not have been made in the same way. The UN
Security Council is sometimes considered as such a corporate actor.
International organizations are a specific class of international institu-
tions. In particular, two types of international institutions can be distin-
guished: international regimes, and international organizations. Both types
are international social institutions characterized by behavioural patterns
based on international norms and rules, which prescribe behavioural roles
in recurring situations that lead to a convergence of reciprocal expecta-
tions. However, international regimes and international organizations
differ in two ways.
While international regimes always relate to specific issue areas such as
the protection of the ozone layer or the protection of human rights, inter-
 Introduction 7

national organizations can transcend the boundaries of issue areas. The

United Nations and the European Union are examples of organizations
active in several issue areas. Furthermore, while international organiza-
tions can function like actors, international regimes do not possess actor-
like qualities. Thus the United Nations, the World Bank, the European
Union and NATO are international organizations because they can func-
tion as or like collective actors. In their instrumental capacity, interna-
tional organizations function as quasi-actors, often at the bidding of their
most powerful member states. As arenas, however, the outcome of negotia-
tions within international organizations suggests the existence of a collec-
tive actor. Finally, when functioning as a corporate actor, international
organizations are real actors who are capable of independent action inter-
nally as well as externally thanks to pooled or delegated sovereignty. By
contrast, international regimes are issue-area-specific international institu-
tions characterized by basic principles, norms, rules and decision-making
procedures around which behavioural expectations converge. International
regimes do not function as actors (Krasner 1983b: 1).
At first glance, the close linkage between both forms of international
institution may be somewhat confusing. Nevertheless, we must differen-
tiate three relationships between international regimes and international
organizations which are ultimately founded on different levels of abstrac-
tion (Bedarff 2000: 20):

1 The issue-area-specific principles, norms, rules and decision-making

processes encompassed by the concept of an international regime can
be embedded in an international organization in which several regimes
are anchored.
On this interpretation, international organizations are more com-
prehensive than regimes. For example, one can view the UN as an
international organization in which the principles, norms, rules and
decision-making procedures of such widely differing regimes as that
for the protection of human rights or the protection of the ozone layer
are anchored.
2 The issue-area-specific principles, norms, rules and decision-making
procedures of an international regime can be drawn from different
international organizations.
On this interpretation, international regimes are more comprehen-
sive than international organizations. An example is the nuclear non-
proliferation regime, which includes both the International Atomic
Energy Agency (IAEA) and the London Suppliers Group (LSG). Yet
over and above that, the nuclear non-proliferation regime is based on
the principles, norms, rules and decision-making processes that are
8 International Organizations

contained in the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) but not in

the structure of an international organization.
3 International organizations can support international regimes just as
international regimes can be supportive of international organizations.
International organizations can have two tasks in connection with
international regimes: firstly, given their ability to generate norms, they
can be the driving force behind the creation of new regimes; secondly,
they can contribute to the effectiveness of regimes by monitoring the
implementation of norms and rules of regimes. For example, bodies of
the United Nations were involved in negotiations for the NPT, while
the IAEA is permanently involved in its implementation.

Distinctions between international organizations

While our approach underlines the status of international organizations as

social institutions, our main focus is on intergovernmental organizations
(IGOs) such as the UN, the WTO, or the EU, as opposed to international
non-governmental organizations (INGOs) such as Amnesty International,
Greenpeace or Transparency International. At first glance, the differentia-
tion between IGOs and INGOs appears straightforward. IGOs have a
membership composed of states, usually represented by governmental
agents; the membership of INGOs is made up of non-governmental actors.
Nevertheless, the cases of the European University Association (EUA), or
the International Labour Organization (ILO) reveal ambiguities due to
mixed membership. In order to differentiate between these principal cate-
gories of international organizations, we shall follow standard practice by
ascertaining whether their existence is based on a direct or indirect multi-
lateral governmental act. If an international organization is founded
neither through an intergovernmental agreement nor a decision of an
existing IGO, the new body is classified as an INGO. See Table 1.1.
There are two subsets of INGOs, transnational umbrella organizations
and transnational organizations. Our analysis touches only marginally on
the first subset, including, for example, organizations like the World
Council of Churches (WCC), the Union of Industrial and Employers
Confederations of Europe (UNICE), and the European Trade Union
Confederation (ETUC). Our concern here lies more with so-called transna-
tional organizations (TNOs), that is, non-governmental organizations with
affiliates in various countries and a hierarchical structure in which affiliates
cannot overrule the centre. Transnational organizations are further differen-
tiated according to whether their activities are for profit or are more ori-
 Introduction 9

Table 1.1 International organizations and non-governmental

organizations in international politics (rough
classification)

United Nations (UN)

IGOs European Union (EU)
International Organization of American States (OAS)
Governmental Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)
Organizations International Monetary Fund (IMF)
World Bank (IBRD)

Umbrella organizations:
World Council of Churches (WCC)
Union of Industrial and Employers
INGOs Confederations of Europe (UNICE)
International European Trade Union Confederation (ETUC)
Non-
Governmental
Organizations Profit-oriented Non-profit-
transnational oriented
organizations transnational
organizations

DaimlerChrysler Roman Catholic Church

Microsoft International Olympic
Allianz Committee
Greenpeace
Amnesty International

ented towards the common good (with charitable or not-for-profit status).

The former are usually called transnational (or multinational) companies.
Examples of these are DaimlerChrysler, Microsoft and the Allianz Group.
Not-for-profit TNOs are, for example, the Roman Catholic Church, the
International Olympic Committee, Greenpeace and Amnesty International.
Since our focus is on IGOs rather than INGOs, the latter only come into
play when they participate in policy-making processes within the frame-
work of global (United Nations) or regional (European Union) organiza-
tions. They may then be considered as elements of a multilevel system of
regional or global governance (Huntington 1973; Jacobson 1984: 1011;
Cutler, Haufler & Porter 1999).
10 International Organizations

Analytical classification of international organizations

This rough-and-ready categorization of international organizations needs

to be fleshed out by a more detailed analytical classification concentrating
on IGOs. For this, as a first step, we employ the membership and compe-
tencies of international organizations as criteria.
Membership can be open or restricted, with the universal organizations
of the UN family at one pole. Within this family, even if complete univer-
sality of membership is rare, a universal organizations statutes and activi-
ties do not permanently exclude a state from membership. At the other
pole, limitations to membership are defined by specific organizations.
Membership of particular international organizations can be limited by
many criteria such as geography, economy or culture. Examples are the
European Union (EU), the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
(OPEC) or the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
(OECD).
As with membership, the competencies of international organizations
also vary substantially, ranging from comprehensive organizations such as
the UN or the EU, whose competencies cover a multitude of different issue
areas, to sectoral organizations, which are limited in their competencies.
This category includes not only the Specialized Agencies of the United
Nations such as the International Labour Organization (ILO), but also a
multitude of specific organizations, such as the European Space Agency
(ESA).
On the basis of these two dimensions of membership and competencies
we can draw up a 2 x 2 matrix containing four different types of interna-
tional organizations (Jacobson 1984: 12). Since we want to think of both
dimensions as a continuum we shall use a two-dimensional coordinate to
depict the classification of different international organizations. See Figure
1.1.
While membership and competencies can be regarded as a first step in
classifying IGOs analytically, other dimensions have more fundamental
significance. The functional dimension focuses on the main tasks of an
international organization, be they programme organizations or opera-
tional organizations. Programme organizations deal primarily with pro-
gramme formulation, that is, the setting of behavioural and distributive
norms and rules. They can play a prominent role in the establishment of
international regimes. Operational organizations, on the other hand, con-
centrate on implementation, especially the monitoring of compliance with
norms and rules. The UN or the Organization for Security and
Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) are examples of programme organizations;
the IMF, the World Bank, and IAEA are operational organizations.
 Introduction 11

Figure 1.1 International organization (typology I)

Competence

Comprehensive

UN EU

Membership Universal Restricted

ILO ESA
WHO OPEC

Issue-specific

A further classification of international organizations can be derived

from their decision-making authority. Programme organizations are con-
cerned with the obligations of individual members, while operational orga-
nizations focus on their capacity for implementation. Programme
organizations can thus be differentiated into strongly binding and loosely
binding international organizations, while operational organizations can
be separated into those that are strong and those that are weak in imple-
mentation. The EU and the WTO are strongly binding programme organi-
zations, while the OSCE and WHO are more loosely binding.
Correspondingly, the IMF and the World Bank are operational organiza-
tions strong in implementation, while the UNHCR is weaker.
International organizations can also be distinguished according to the
degree to which states pool or delegate decision-making authority. In
strictly intergovernmental organizations such authority is neither pooled
nor delegated. These organizations for instance the OSCE, OPEC or the
International Coffee Organization (ICO) are limited to providing services
intended to facilitate the intergovernmental self-coordination of national
decision-making units. Ultimately, national autonomy and sovereignty are
maintained, since there must be a consensus among all the participating
national decision-making units. Supranational organizations, by contrast,
are based on a more hierarchical mode of coordination through centralized
decision-making procedures. Although decentralized national governments
remain participants in international organizations decision-making, con-
sensus between them is not always required. In the EU, for instance,
members pool sovereignty in the Council of Ministers where binding
12 International Organizations

Table 1.2 International organizations (typology II)

Function Authority Delegation Example

Inter- United Nations

governmental
Strongly binding
Programme Supranational EU
organizations
Inter-
governmental OSCE
Loosely binding
Supranational IWC

Inter- OPEC
governmental
Strong in
implementation Supranational IMF
World Bank
Operational
organizations
Inter- ICO
governmental
Weak in
implementation Supranational UNHCR

decisions can be made by qualified majority, and they delegate sovereignty

to the European Court of Justice where decisions are made by independent
judges. See Table 1.2.

Overview of the book

Scientific analysis is not merely a question of systematic description; it

must also lead to general statements about causes and effects. We therefore
have to deal with the conditions and circumstances that give rise to the
creation of international organizations as well as the effects they might
have. Given this understanding of scientific analysis, four fundamental
questions weave their way through this volume:
 Introduction 13

Why are international organizations created? Chapter 2 gives an intro-

duction to the various theories of international organizations, while
Chapter 3 offers an empirical analysis of the conditions that led to the
creation of international organizations in six issue areas of interna-
tional politics.
What effect does the existence of an international organization have
on collective decision-making processes? Chapters 4 to 7 examine how
collective decisions in international organizations are reached. To this
end international organizations are conceived as political systems in
which the demands and support (inputs) of different actors are trans-
formed into decisions and activities (outputs) by means of various con-
version processes.
What are the effects of the decisions and activities of international
organizations on international cooperation? Are there differences
between issue areas? We shall deal with this topic in Chapters 8 to 11.
Starting with the specific obstacles to international cooperation in the
areas of security, welfare and human rights, we analyse the extent to
which selected international organizations can assist in overcoming
these obstacles to cooperation (as an outcome).
Does the establishment of international organizations indicate a funda-
mental transformation of the structure of international relations? In
Chapter 12 we go beyond the effects of international organizations in
specific issue areas to examine whether the presence of international
organizations is likely to transform structures in international relations
in general.

But first, what is the theoretical background and where do we stand in the
available range of theoretical approaches?
Index

Note: Organizations and initiatives are listed under their full names, with their acronyms
in brackets afterwards. All organizations and initiatives coming under the aegis of the UN
are listed as subentries of United Nations. All organizations and initiatives coming under
the aegis of the EU are listed as subentries of European Union.

Abbott, Kenneth W., 104 Asian crisis, 1997, 4, 164, 165, 178
abuse of power, 46 Association of German Railway
Abyssinia, 28 Administrations, 38
acid rain, 54 Association of South East Asian Nations
actors demands and support, 7887 (ASEAN), 9, 32, 43
adjudication, 10910 Atlantic Charter, 45
Adler, Emanuel, 21, 115 Attac, 85
administrative staff, 734, 813 Austria, 65
Adriatic Sea, 130 autonomy, national, 11, 15, 92, 93, 97,
advocacy networks, 22, 85 106, 112, 121, 123
Afghanistan, 72, 127, 130 Ayton-Shenker, D., 4
African Union (AU), 29, 32
agricultural prices, in Europe, 99, 108 Bailey, Sidney D., 72
agriculture, 39, 51 balance of power, 15, 18, 191
air transport, 38 Balkan question, 26
Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS), Balkan Wars, 31
188 Barnett, Michael N., 23, 113
Allianz Group, 9 Basch, Paul F., 35
Allison, Graham T., 88, 90, 91 Battle of the Sexes, 19
Alston, Philip, 46, 91, 199, 205 Baumgart, Winfried, 27
Alter, Karen J., 75, 110, 157 Beckman, Peter R., 142, 144
American hegemony, 16 Bedarff, Hildegard, 7
Amin, Idi, 195 Beigbeder, Yves, 73
Amnesty International, 8, 9, 46, 49, 76, Beise, Marc, 147, 148, 150, 151
85, 116, 194, 201 Belgium, 43, 95
analytical classification of international Berlin Congresses, 26
organizations, 1012 Berne Convention for the Protection of
anarchical self-help system, 15 Literary and Artistic Works, 37, 39
anarchy, international, 21, 63, 21011, Bhagwati, Jagdish, 149
212, 214, 215 Bildt, Carl, 133
Andersen, Stephen O., 181, 182, 183, 184, binding nature of policy programmes,
185, 186 1045
Angola, 72, 126, 130 biomedicine, 48
Annan, Kofi, 82, 98, 99, 132 Boekle, Henning, 202
ANZUS Pact, 29, 32 Boli, John, 197
Apartheid regime, in South Africa, 129, Bornschier, Volker, 94
130, 193, 195 Borrmann, Christine, 95, 100
Appellate Body, WTO, 74, 151 Bosnia, 29, 30, 73, 112, 126, 129, 201
Arab League, 29, 32 Bosnia-Herzegovina, 131, 134
Arab states, 211 Bosnian Serbs, 131
Archer, Clive, 6, 28 Bothe, Michael, 30, 127, 132
Argentina, 128 Boughton, James, 44
arms control agreements, 91 Boutros-Ghali, Boutros, 47, 82, 98, 99,
arms procurement, 13344 135
Armstrong, David, 26, 27, 28 Bradley, Anthony W., 204, 205

235
236 Index
Braithwaite, John, 37, 43, 44
Brazil, 162, 178
Breitmeier, Helmut, 86, 116, 181, 182,
183, 184, 188, 191
Brenton, Tony, 188
Bretton Woods system, 40, 41, 43, 44,
160, 162, 172
Brinkmeier , Friederike, 205, 208
Britain, see United Kingdom
British hegemony, 16
Brock, Lothar, 132
Brown, Janet Welsh, 54, 81, 181, 184
Brunell, Thomas L., 157
Brunner, Stefan, 65
Brzoska, Michael, 112
BSE, 60
Bundesbank, German, 168
bureaucracy, 97, 99, 100
bureaucratic politics model of decision-
making, 912, 97, 100, 112, 149,
155, 175
Busch, Marc L., 152
Cambodia, 47, 135, 195
Cameron, David R., 168
Canada, 43, 182
Canan, Penelope, 182, 183, 185, 186
Cancun, WTO Ministerial Conference,
153
capital markets, 50, 166, 173, 174
Carr, Edward H., 14
causal beliefs, 22
Central Office for International Carriage
by Rail, 38
Charter of Paris, CSCE, 31
Chasek, Pamela S., 54, 81, 181, 184, 187
Chatfield, Charles, 22, 85
Chayes, Abram, 108, 112, 142
Chayes, Antonia, 108, 112, 142
Chechnya, 48, 111, 201
Chellaney, Brahma, 141
Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC),
109, 144
Chesterman, Simon, 126, 132, 137
child labour, 36
Chile, 195
China, 28, 64, 71, 103, 139, 140
Chinkin, Christine, 76
Churchill, Winston S., 45
Clements, L. J., 205
climate change, 18792
cloning, human, 48
CO2 emissions, 188
Coate, Roger A., 28, 133, 135
Code of Conduct for the Transfer of
Technology, 52
cognitive condition, 22, 25, 26, 27, 28, 33,
41, 42, 45, 49, 53
Cohn, Theodore H., 147, 148, 149
Cold War, 6, 28, 29, 30, 31, 47, 81, 124,
128, 129, 130, 131, 133, 137, 138,
144, 172, 197, 201, 204, 205, 208
Coleman, James S., 21
Colijn, Ko, 142
collective actors, 7
Colonels coup, in Greece, 111
Common [European] Foreign and Security
Policy (CFSP), 31, 70, 73, 105
Communist regimes/system, 6, 30, 45, 204,
205
competencies, 5, 10, 33, 44, 53, 54, 63,
64, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 77, 99, 109,
127, 134, 156, 159, 184, 209
Comprehensive Development Framework
(CDF), World Bank, 175, 176
comprehensive test-ban treaty (CTBT), 140
Concert of Europe, 26, 27, 55
Conference of the Parties (COP) to the
Framework Convention on Climate
Change, 86, 1889, 191
Conference on Security and Cooperation in
Europe (CSCE), 31, 32, 198
Congo question, 26
Congress of Vienna, 5, 26
consensus procedure, 68
constitutional structure of international
organizations, 635
consumer protection, 103, 150
Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna
and Flora (CITES), 116
conversion process, 88101
coordination games without distributional
conflict, 19
coordination games with distributional
conflict, 19
copyright, 33, 37
corporate actor, 6, 7
Cortright, David, 112
Cte dIvoire, 130
Council of Europe, 11, 31, 48, 49, 72, 75,
110, 111, 194, 2048
Committee of Experts, 205
Committee of Ministers, 73, 204, 206,
208
Court of Arbitration, Permanent, 27
courts of justice, 745
Crimean War, 26
criminal justice/law, 70, 103, 105
Croatia, 129
cross-border issues, 19, 33, 34, 42, 46, 53,
54, 126

currencies, 41, 43, 159, 160, 161, 162,
165, 167, 168, 170
customs union, 42, 43, 154, 156
Cutler, A. Claire, 9
Cyprus, 65
Czech Republic, 65
Czechoslovakia, former, 198
Czempiel, Ernst-Otto, 121, 126, 214
DaimlerChrysler, 9
Danube River Commission, 38
Daws, Sam, 72
Dayton Accord, 133
de Zayas, Alfred, 200
decision-making in international
organizations, 88101
decolonialization, 49, 52, 56, 125, 172
Deen, Thalif, 81
defining international organizations, 58
Deighton, A., 32
Delors, Jacques, 82, 158, 168
Democratic Republic of the Congo, 130
den Dekker, Guido, 142
Denmark, 65, 95
Depledge, Joanna, 190
Deutsch, Karl W., 17, 18
developmental disparities, 4953, 1718
Di Blase, Antonietta, 36
diamonds, 112
Dicke, Klaus, 136, 196
Diederichs, Udo, 74
DiIulio , John J., Jr, 88, 89, 96
dilemma games with distributional conflict,
20
dilemma games without distributional
conflict, 19
Dirks, Jan, 36
discrimination, 36, 46, 141, 147, 148,
196
Dispute Settlement Body (DSB)/Dispute
Settlement Procedure, WTO, 42, 151,
152
distinctions between international
organizations, 89
Doha Round, GATT, 150, 153
Donnelly, Jack, 46, 193, 195, 196, 205
Downs, Anthony, 90
Doyle, Michael W., 135
Drahos, Peter, 37, 43, 44
drinking water, quality of, 107
Driscoll, David D., 163
Dlffer, Jost, 27
Dumbarton Oaks, 64
Dutch hegemony, 16
Earth Summit, 54, 188
Index 237
East Timor, 29, 126, 135, 201
Eastern Bloc, 30, 139
EastWest relations, 19, 30, 31, 32, 47, 48,
49, 57, 81, 128, 131, 137
Ebock, Kerstin, 126, 127
effects of policy programmes, 1034
Efinger, Manfred, 123, 145, 180, 193
Eichengreen, Barry, 43, 162, 167, 168
Einhorn , Jessica P., 178
El Salvador, 135
Elbe River Commission, 38
electronic components, 150
Elias, Norbert, 213, 215
embargoes, 111, 129, 130, 193, 201
Emergency Financing Mechanism (EFM),
IMF, 164
employers associations, 36
Enderlein, Henrik, 171
Engel, Christian, 95, 100
Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility
(ESAF), IMF, 164
environmental degradation, 25, 535, 56,
57, 115, 18092
epistemic community, 22, 86, 115, 116,
177, 186, 191
Eritrea, 130
Estonia, 65
Ethiopia, 130
European Atomic Energy Community
(EURATOM), 43
European Coal and Steel Community
(ECSC), 43
European Court of Justice (ECJ), 12, 65,
74, 75, 109, 110, 111, 156, 157
European Economic Community (EEC),
43, 44, 95, 154, 156
European Human Rights Charter, 204
European integration, 17, 84
European Movement, 48, 204
European Patent Office, 37, 39
European Space Agency (ESA), 10
European Trade Union Confederation
(ETUC), 8, 9
European Union (EU), 3, 4, 7, 9, 10, 31,
32, 40, 43, 44, 53, 54, 60, 64, 65, 68,
69, 70, 73, 74, 75, 77, 80, 82, 83, 84,
85, 89, 91, 94, 95, 98, 99, 100, 104,
105, 107, 111, 146, 147, 1549,
16771, 182, 183
Cohesion Fund, 81, 95, 104
comitology, 155
Committee of Permanent
Representatives (COREPER), 73
Common Market Programme, 83
Completing the Internal Market, White
Paper, 158
238 Index
European Union (EU) continued
Economic and Financial Committee
(ECOFIN), 170
Economic and Social Committee (ESC),
77, 84
Emissions Limits for Vehicles with
Smaller Engines, EC Directive, 95
euro, 44, 90, 98, 168, 169, 170, 171
Eurocrats, 4
European Central Bank (ECB), 90, 98,
168, 16971
European Commission (EC), 4, 5, 60,
65, 73, 74, 82, 94, 95, 98, 99, 108,
110, 155, 156, 157, 168, 170
European Constitutional Treaty, 65, 76,
105
European Convention on Human Rights
(ECHR), 48, 49, 204, 205, 206
European Council/Council of the
European Union, 65, 67, 68, 70,
80, 94, 98
European Court of Human Rights, 48,
49, 205, 206, 207
European Currency Unit (ECU), 167
European Monetary System (EMS), 40,
44, 167, 168, 169
European Monetary Union (EMU), 40,
44, 168, 169
European Parliament (EP), 4, 65, 74, 75,
83, 84, 95, 111, 155, 157, 159
European Security and Defence Policy
(ESDP), 31
European Social Charter, 48, 49, 204, 205
European System of Central Banks
(ESCB), 169
first pillar, 70, 73, 74, 82, 95, 104
Rapid Reaction Force, 31
Regional Fund, 74
second pillar, 70
Single European Act (SEA), 43, 54, 65,
68, 69, 76, 81, 82, 84, 94, 100,
154
Stability and Growth Pact, 169, 170
Structural Fund, 74, 81, 95, 104
third pillar, 70
Treaty of Amsterdam, 31, 65, 68, 69,
70, 76, 105, 111, 154
Treaty of Maastricht, 44, 65, 68, 69, 76,
77, 81, 82, 84, 94, 95, 111, 154,
157, 168, 169
Treaty of Nice, 65, 68, 70, 74, 76, 105,
154
Treaty of Rome, 69, 94, 154
Werner Plan, 94, 167, 168
European University Association (EUA), 8
Evans, Peter B., 93
exchange rate, 43, 44, 160, 161, 167, 170
executive councils, 713
experts, 46, 51, 78, 856, 87, 115, 116,
143, 151, 155, 175, 176, 182, 185,
186, 190, 192, 200
Extended Fund Facility (EFF), IMF, 163
fairness, 93
Falke, Josef, 155
Falkland Islands, 128
Fascist regimes, 45, 49
federal states, 17
Ferdowsi, Mir A., 52, 81
Ferreira , Francisco H. G., 175
Feske, Susanne, 43
Finland, 65
Finnemore, Martha, 22, 23, 113, 194
First World War, 21, 26, 27, 32, 36, 41,
55, 56
Fischer, David, 139, 142
football, 63, 78
forced labour, 36
form follows function, 17
Forster, Anthony, 32
Forsythe, David P., 28, 133, 135, 137, 198,
201, 202
France, 5, 27, 28, 33, 43, 60, 69, 71, 79,
80, 81, 94, 95, 103, 139, 168
Frantz, Constantin, 5
free trade, 22, 23, 40, 41, 42, 43, 154, 159
Frieden , Jeffrey A., 167, 168
Friedrich, Carl J., 17
Gareis, Sven Bernhard, 127, 135, 136, 202
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
(GATT), 37, 40, 41, 42, 52, 75, 103,
114, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151,
152, 153, 156, 160, 173, 212
General Agreement on Trade and Services
(GATS), 40, 42, 147, 149, 150
General Arrangements to Borrow (GAB),
IMF, 164
General Postal Union, 34, 39
German Mark (D-Mark), 168
German reunification, 94
Germany, 5, 27, 28, 30, 41, 43, 45, 60, 79,
81, 94, 95, 115, 168, 183, 195
Gilbert , Christopher L., 172, 173
Gill, George, 27
Gilpin, Robert, 15, 16, 160, 161, 162,
212
Giscard dEstaing, Valry, 167
Global Development Finance, World Bank
report, 177
Global Environmental Facility (GEF),
World Bank, 184, 190

global governance, 21415
global warming, 53, 54, 187, 188
gold standard, 40, 41, 43
Goldberg , Jrg, 176
Goldstein, Judith, 22, 115
Gordenker, Leon, 73
grants, 4, 37, 51
Grnzer, Sieglinde, 23
Great Depression, 40, 41
Greece, 65, 81, 95, 111, 133
Greene, Owen, 185
greenhouse gas emissions, 187, 188, 189,
190, 191, 192
Greenpeace, 8, 9, 76, 85
Grenada, 126
Grieco, Joseph M., 15, 16, 211
Groom, A. J. R., 26, 33
Group of 77, 81
Gulf War, 1991, 107, 112, 131, 143
Haas, Ernst B., 60
Haas, Peter M., 17, 21, 22, 86, 115, 116,
181, 182, 186
Hague Peace Conferences, 27
Haiti, 47, 112, 130, 201
Hammarskjld, Dag, 29, 133
Harrigan, Jane, 176
Harris, David, 205
Hart, Jeffrey A., 160, 161, 162, 173
Hasenclever, Andreas, 14, 19, 85, 211
Haufler, Virginia, 9
Hauser, Heinz, 42, 149, 150
Havana Charter, 41, 42
health, see public health
Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC)
initiative, IMF, 164
hegemonic condition, 16, 25, 26, 27, 28,
33, 41, 42, 45, 50, 53
hegemony, world, 21213
Helleiner, Eric, 41, 43, 44, 160, 161,
162, 163
Helsinki, Final Act of, CSCE, 31,
198
Higgott, Richard, 175, 176, 178
history of international organizations,
2557
Hix, Simon, 81, 83, 95
Hffe, Otfried, 213
Hofmann, Jeanette, 35, 104
Holbrooke, Richard, 133
Holtrup, Petra, 189, 192
Howorth, Jolyon, 32
human rights, 6, 7, 13, 22, 23, 25, 449,
56, 57, 77, 82, 91, 103, 109, 111,
113, 116, 117, 121, 126, 129, 137,
193208, 209
Index 239
Human Rights Watch, 46, 49, 116, 194,
198, 201
Hungary, 65
Huntington, Samuel P., 9
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 103, 116,
181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187
IAEA Activity Report, 143
IAEA Bulletin, 143
idealist school of international
organizations theory, 203
IMF Research Bulletin, 166
implementation of operational activities,
1078
income tax, 104
India, 140, 144
industrial expansion, 337
inflation, 165, 169, 170
information activities, 11316
inputs of international organizations, 13,
60, 61, 7887, 88, 106
institutional structure of international
organizations, 6577
institutionalist school of international
organizations theory, 1620
intellectual property, 36, 37, 42, 147, see
also Trade-Related Aspects of
Intellectual Property
interdependence, 16, 17, 18, 45, 213, 214,
215
interest constellations, 16, 19, 20
interest groups, 845
interest orientation, 22
interest rates, 90, 98, 165, 169, 170
Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative
Organization (IMCO), 38
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC), 86, 191
intergovernmental negotiations model of
decision-making, 889, 93, 94, 95, 97,
106
Intermediate Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF),
109, 140
internal market, 74, 81, 82, 94, 100, 104,
147, 154, 158, 159
International Association for Labour
Legislation, 36, 39
International Aviation Commission, 38
International Bureau for Weights and
Measures, 34, 38
International Capital Markets, IMF report,
166
International Civil Aviation Organization
(ICAO), 34, 38
International Coffee Organization (ICO),
11, 12
240 Index

International Court of Justice (ICJ), 69, 75, Internet, 35, 39, 103
109, 110, 133, 214 Internet Corporation for Assigned Names
International Criminal Court (ICC), 47, and Numbers (ICANN), 35, 39, 103
48, 49, 202 Inventory of International Non-
International Development Association proliferation Organizations and
(IDA), 4, 50, 51, 172 Regimes, 140
International Finance Corporation (IFC), Iran, 126, 134
50, 51, 52, 172, 174 Iraq, 29, 60, 100, 107, 108, 126, 128, 130,
International Fund for Agricultural 131, 132, 134, 141, 142, 144
Development (IFAD), 51, 52 Ireland, 65, 95, 138
international governmental organizations Israel, 140, 144, 211
(IGOs), 3, 8, 9, 10 Italian lira, 168
International Hygiene Code, 39 Italy, 27, 28, 43, 95
International Institute of Agriculture, 35,
39 Jackson, John H., 42, 151, 152
International Labour Conference, 66 Jacobson, Harold K., 9, 10, 26, 64, 66, 82,
International Labour Organization (ILO), 93
5, 8, 10, 36, 39, 67, 71, 76, 84, 114 Janis, Mark W., 204, 205
International Maritime Committee, 38 Japan, 27, 28, 79, 150, 182, 184, 189
International Maritime Organization Jellinek, Georg, 5
(IMO), 33, 38, 53, 54 Jervis, Robert, 123
International Monetary Fund (IMF), 3, 9, Jetschke, Anja, 203
10, 11, 12, 23, 40, 41, 43, 44, 69, 70, Joerges, Christian, 155
71, 85, 91, 107, 146, 15967, 168, Johannesburg, Earth Summit, 54
171, 173, 175, 176, 178, 212 Jnsson, Christer, 74, 156
international non-governmental Jrgensen, K. E., 32
organizations (INGOs), 4, 8, 9
international norms, 6, 92, 97 Kahler, Miles, 149, 160
international office, 5, 6 Kambanda, Jean, 202
International Office for Public Hygiene Kanbur, Ravi, 175, 177
(OIHP), 35, 39 Kant, Immanuel, 21, 26
International Olympic Committee (IOC), 9 Kapstein, Ethan Barnaby, 43
international public union, 5 Karns, Margaret P., 28
International Radiotelegraph Conferences, Kashmir, 133
38 Katzenstein, Peter J., 23
international regimes, 6, 7, 8, 10, 54 Kaul, Hans-Peter, 65
international relations, models of, 20915 Kay, Richard S., 204, 205
International Regulations for the Keck, Margaret E., 22, 85, 198
Prevention of Collisions at Sea, 33 Keeler, John, 32
International Sanitary Code, 35 Keely, Louise C., 175
International Sanitary Conferences, 39 Kellogg-Briand Pact, 27, 32
International Seabed Authority, 96 Kennedy Round, GATT, 149
International Social Conference, 39 Kennedy, Paul, 15, 16
International Statistics Conference, 38 Keohane, Robert O., 16, 18, 22, 26, 30,
international system, 15, 16, 20, 23, 27, 75, 80, 109, 110, 115, 206, 212
36, 123, 211, 212 Kindleberger, Charles P., 16
International Telecommunications Klein, Eckart, 205, 208
Convention, 38 Klingebiel, Stephan, 51
International Telecommunications Union Klotz, Audie, 23, 193, 203
(ITU), 34, 38, 103 Kohl, Helmut, 94
International Telegraph Union, 34, 38 Korean War, 112, 131
International Trade, GATT report, 114 Korey, William, 47, 197
International Union of Railways (UIC), 34, Kosovo, 29, 30, 108, 126, 128, 129, 130,
38 132, 135, 201
International Whaling Commission (IWC), Ktter, Wolfgang, 139, 142
80, 85, 108 Krasner, Stephen D., 7, 172, 195

Krugman, Paul R., 43, 44
Khne, Winrich, 131, 135, 137, 201
Kulessa, Manfred, 53
Kurdish population of Iraq, 126
Kuwait, 29, 60, 103, 128, 130, 131
Kyoto Protocol, 54, 86, 89, 189, 190, 191
Latvia, 65
League of Nations, 5, 6, 21, 26, 27, 28,
32, 36
Lee, Kelly, 35
Leib, Volker, 35
liberal economic order, 40, 41, 171, 173
liberal trade relations, 147, 160, 161
Liberia, 130
Libya, 80, 130
Liese, Andrea, 36, 193, 194, 197, 201
Lipson, Charles, 147
List, Martin, 111
Lister, Frederick K., 68, 88
literacy, 37
Lithuania, 65
Lloyd, Lorna, 26, 27, 28
loans, 4, 43, 50, 51, 161, 162, 163, 164,
165, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176
logic of appropriateness, 21
logic of expected consequences, 21
Loibl, Gerhard, 63, 64, 65
London Agreement, 115
London Ambassadors Conferences, 26
London Suppliers Club/Group, 7, 141, 143
Loosch, Reinhard, 142
Lopez, George A., 112
Lorimer, James, 5
Lowi , Theodore J., 103, 104, 106, 121
Luard, Evan, 28, 33, 34, 35
lumber products, 112
Luterbacher, Urs, 187
Luxembourg, 43, 75, 95
Luxembourg Compromise, 69
Maier, Jrgen, 55
majority voting model of decision-making,
8990, 93, 95, 96, 106
malaria, 35
Malta, 65
Mangone, Gerard J., 33, 34
March, James G., 21
Marchisio, Sergio, 36
Marin Bosch, Miguel, 140
maritime navigation, 38
Marks, Gary, 91
Marr, Simon, 190
Martenczuk, Bernd, 30, 127, 132
Martin, Lisa L., 19
Matsushita, Mitsou, 147
Index 241
Maurer, Andreas, 69, 76, 84
Mavroidis, Petros C., 147
Mayer, Peter, 14, 19, 211, 214
Mayntz, Renate, 106
McGowan, Francis, 157
McNamara, Robert, 175
Mearsheimer, John J., 15, 210
Mechanism for Consultation and
Cooperation with regard to
Emergency Situations (Berlin
mechanism), CSCE, 31
mediation, 133
Mdicins sans Frontires, 136
member states, representatives of, 7881
Mendrinou, Maria, 156
Metzger, Martina, 50, 51, 172
Meuse River Commission, 38
Mexico, 43, 44, 162, 164, 165, 178
Microsoft, 9
Middle East, 24
Miller, Lynn H., 137
Milosevic, Slobodan, 202
Mingst, Karen A., 28
Missbach, Andreas, 189
Mitrany, David, 17
Mittag , Jrgen, 77
Mitterrand, Franois, 94
Modelski, George, 16
Mogler, Martin, 6, 137, 213, 214
Mole, Nuala, 205
monetary relations, 434
monitoring, 1089
Montreal Protocol on Substances that
Deplete the Ozone Layer, 54, 81, 103,
115, 183, 184, 186
Moravcsik, Andrew, 6, 43, 75, 89, 94, 95,
109, 154, 168, 193, 204, 206
Morgenthau, Hans J., 14, 15
Morocco conferences, 26
Mosley, Paul, 176
most favoured nation status, 41, 42
motor cars, 150
Mller, Harald, 70, 139, 140, 142
Mller, Thorsten, 23, 95, 139
Namibia, 65, 135
Napoleonic Wars, 26, 32, 55, 56
National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA), US, 186
Nazi regime, 45, 49, 195, 204
neo-protectionism, 40
Netherlands, the, 43, 95
Neuhold, Hanspeter, 31
New Arrangements to Borrow, IMF, 164
Neyer , Jrgen, 155
Nixon, Richard M., 44
242 Index

Non-Governmental Organizations ozone layer, 6, 7, 53, 54, 86, 103, 115,

(NGOs), 22, 23, 46, 47, 76, 77, 82, 116, 1817, 190
84, 85, 116, 136, 152, 175, 177, 178, Ozone Layer Bulletin, 185
181, 185, 192, 197, 198, 199, 201,
202, 207 pacta sunt servanda (treaties must be
norm orientation, 22 observed), 63, 110
North American Free Trade Agreement Pagnucco, Ron, 22, 85
(NAFTA), 40, 43 Pakistan, 140, 144
North Atlantic Treaty Organization Pan American Sanitary Bureau, 35
(NATO), 3, 7, 17, 23, 29, 30, 31, 32, Paris Convention for the Protection of
130, 131, 132 Industrial Property, 37, 39
North Korea, 128, 144 Parker, Robert A. C., 41
North, Douglass C., 21 parliamentary assemblies, 756, 834
NorthSouth divide, 49 parliaments, national, 66, 75, 83, 90, 107,
not-for-profit organizations, 9 159
nuclear non-proliferation, 7, 143, 144 Parson, Edward A., 182, 183, 184
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), Pauly, Louis W., 44, 161
8, 108, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143 Peace of Westphalia, 25, 44
nuclear technology, 80, 140, 141, 143 peacekeeping, 4, 29, 99, 108, 127, 1336,
Nugent, Neill, 68, 69, 70, 85, 154, 155, 137, 138
169 Perman, Roger, 181
Nuremberg, 202 Peters, Guy B., 91
Nye, Joseph S., Jr, 16, 18, 80 Peters, Ingo, 31
Petersberg Tasks, 31
Oberthr, Sebastian, 190 Peterson, M. J., 181
Obstfeld, Maurice, 43, 44 Pilat, Joseph F., 109
Ohloff, Stephan, 152 Pinochet, Augusto, 195
oil, 80, 103, 112 plenary organs, 6671
Olsen, Johan P., 21 Pol Pot, 195
operational activities, 10613 Poland, 65
operational decisions, 97100 policy programmes, 1026
Oppermann, Thomas, 110, 111, 157 political systems, international
Organization for Economic Cooperation organizations as, 6377
and Development (OECD), 10, 115, Pollack, Mark A., 82
175 Porter, Gareth, 54, 81, 181, 184
Organization for Security and Cooperation Porter, Tony, 9
in Europe (OSCE), 10, 11, 12, 23, 31, Portugal, 65, 81, 95
32, 75 Portuguese hegemony, 16
Organization for the Prohibition of post Washington Consensus, World Bank,
Chemical Weapons, 144 178
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Potter, Pitman B., 5
Countries (OPEC), 10, 11, 12, 52, 80, Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility
188 (PRGF), IMF, 164
Organization of African Unity (OAU), 29, Price, Richard, 28
32 principled beliefs, 22
Organization of American States (OAS), 9, Prisoners Dilemma, 19, 20
29, 32 problem condition, 19, 25, 26, 27, 28, 33,
Osiander, Andreas, 26, 28 40, 42, 45, 49, 53
Ott , Hermann E., 188, 190 programme decisions, 926
outputs of international organizations, 13, public health, 35, 39, 150
60, 61, 78, 87, 88, 10217, 136, 143, Putnam, Robert D., 93
153, 158, 166, 171, 178, 186, 192,
203, 207, 208 quasi-actors, 7
Owen, David (Lord), 133 quest for power, 14
Oxfam, 136
Oye, Kenneth A., 214 radioactive waste, 54

railways, 38
rational choice model of decision-making,
90, 92, 97, 98, 99, 112, 113, 169,
175
realist school of international
organizations theory, 1416
Redmond, John, 26, 27, 28
reflexive concept of action, 20
Regelsberger , Elfriede, 73
Reichman, Nancy, 182, 183, 185, 186
Reinhardt, Eric, 152
Reinsch, Paul S., 5
Rhine Navigation Act, 33
Rhine River Commission, 5, 38
Riggirozzi, Maria Pia, 178
Risse, Thomas, 21, 22, 193, 194, 196,
198, 203
Risse-Kappen, Thomas, 110
Rittberger, Berthold, 76, 83
Rittberger, Volker, 6, 14, 19, 123, 137,
145, 180, 193, 211, 212, 213, 214
river navigation, 38
Rivlin, Benjamin, 73
Roberts, Adam, 28, 29
Roman Catholic Church, 9
Roosevelt, Franklin D., 45
Ropp, Stephen C., 196
Rosenau, James N., 214
Rothermund, Dietmar, 41
Rowlands, Ian, 187, 191
Rudolph, Christopher, 202
Ruggie, John Gerard, 41, 147
Russia/Russian Federation, 48, 71, 103,
111, 144, 162, 165, 166, 189, 190,
208
Rwanda, 47, 112, 128, 130, 135, 202
Saint-Pierre, Abb de, 26
sanctions, 11012
Sandholtz, Wayne, 82, 84, 158
Saudi Arabia, 80, 103
Schanz, Kai-Uwe, 42, 149, 150
Schirm, Stefan A., 165
Schlotter, Peter, 31
Schmidt, Helmut, 167
Schmitz, Hans-Peter, 203
Schmuck, Otto, 68
Schoenbaum, Thomas J., 147
Schrogl, Kai-Uwe, 103
Schubert, Klaus, 60
Schcking, Walther, 5
Seattle, WTO Ministerial Conference, 3,
55, 153
Second World War, 4, 6, 28, 32, 34, 36,
41, 43, 45, 49, 56, 160, 195, 202,
203, 209
Index 243
security, 12344
security communities, 17, 18
security dilemma, 15, 25, 27, 28, 123, 124,
137, 138, 143
Seidl-Hohenveldern, Ignaz, 63, 64, 65
Senghaas-Knobloch, Eva, 36
Senti, Richard, 42, 55, 147, 150
Serbia and Montenegro, 128, 130
Sharma, Madhava K., 181, 182, 183, 184,
185, 186
Shepsle, Kenneth A., 21
Shiite population of Iraq, 126
Siddiqi, Javed, 35
Sierra Leone, 130, 202
Sikkink, Kathryn, 22, 85, 193, 194, 198
Simma, Bruno, 65
Simmons, Alan, 205
Slaughter , Anne-Marie, 75, 109, 206
slavery, 46, 196
Slovakia, 65
Slovenia, 65
smallpox, 35
Smith, Jackie, 22, 85
Smithsonian Agreement, IMF, 162
Snidal, Duncan, 19
social interests, representation of, 767
social movements, 22, 85
Somalia, 29, 47, 85, 112, 126, 128, 130,
134, 135, 201
South Africa, 47, 111, 128, 129, 130, 193,
195, 201
South East Asia Treaty Organization
(SEATO), 29, 32
South Korea, 128
sovereignty, 6, 7, 11, 12, 27, 41, 44, 45,
60, 66, 83, 129, 159, 171, 213
Soviet Union, see USSR
Spain, 65, 81, 95
Spar, Debora L., 35
Special Drawing Rights (SDRs), IMF, 44,
71, 162, 168
specification of operational activities, 107
Spector, Leonard, 141
Spero , Joan Edelman, 160, 161, 162, 173
Sprinz, Detlef, 187, 189
Squire, Lyn, 177
stag hunt, 19
standard operating procedures model of
decision-making, 901, 92, 97, 99,
113
Stand-By Arrangements (SBA), IMF, 163
Stein, Arthur A., 19
Steiner, Henry J., 199, 205
Stoltenberg, Thorvald, 133
Stone Sweet, Alec, 157
Stone, Diane, 177, 178
244 Index

Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START), Truman, Harry S., 41

109, 140
Strategic Concept, NATO, 30
Straubhaar, Thomas, 214
Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAP),
World Bank, 175
struggle for power, 15
Sudan, 73, 130, 201
Supplemental Reserve Facility (SRF), IMF,
164
supranational organization, 17
Sweden, 65
Switzerland, 80
Tajikistan, 134
Tallberg, Jonas, 74, 156, 157
Talmon, Stefan, 96
tariffs, 42, 43, 145, 146, 149, 160
Taylor, Paul, 26, 72
technological progress, 17
telegraphic networks, 34, 38
territorial inviolability, 137
Tetzlaff, Rainer, 71, 173, 175
Thatcher, Margaret, 94
theories of international organizations,
1424
Thomas, Daniel C., 198
Thomas, George M., 197
Tiananmen Square, 195
Tokyo Round, GATT, 149, 150
Toronto Group, on CFCs, 182
torture, 46, 196
Toye, John, 176
trade barriers, 41, 42, 113, 147, 149,
150
trade policy, 24, 52, 94, 152, 153, 154,
156, 159
Trade Policy Review Body (TPRB), WTO,
151
Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual
Property (TRIPs), 37, 39, 40, 42, 147,
149, 150
trade relations, 413
trade unions, 36, 76, 84, 85
TRAFFIC, monitoring body for CITES,
116
transnational organizations (TNOs), 8, 9
transnational umbrella organizations, 8
transparency, 123, 124, 138, 142, 144,
145, 146, 166, 180, 181, 185, 190,
194, 200, 207
Transparency International, 8, 76
transport, 33, 34, 35, 38, 99, 175
Treaty of Brussels, 31
Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in
Europe (CFE), 109
Tussie, Diana, 178
Uganda, 195
Underdal, Arild, 108
unemployment, 36, 104, 113, 115, 165
Union of Industrial and Employers
Confederations of Europe (UNICE), 8,
9
UNITA, Angola, 72
United Kingdom, 27, 28, 33, 40, 41, 57,
60, 64, 65, 71, 79, 80, 94, 95, 103,
139, 160, 168, 175
United Nations
Agenda for Peace, 82, 135
Brahimi Report, 137
Charter, 6, 28, 29, 31, 41, 42, 45, 47,
63, 64, 65, 69, 72, 76, 84, 103,
105, 109, 110, 111, 125, 126,
127, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 135,
137, 138, 195, 198, 201, 202
Childrens Fund (UNICEF), The State of
the Worlds Children, 114
Commission on Human Rights, 45, 46,
49, 91, 109, 110, 116, 195203
Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED), 86
Conference on the Law of the Sea
(UNCLOS), 96
Conference on Trade and Development
(UNCTAD), 52, 64, 114
Common Fund, 52
General Customs Preferential System,
52
Integrated Commodities Programme,
52
Trade and Development Report, 114
Convention Against Torture and other
Forms of Cruel, Inhuman or
Degrading Treatment or
Punishment, 46, 197, 200
Convention on the Elimination of all
Forms of Discrimination against
Women, 46, 197, 200
Convention on the Elimination of All
Forms of Racial Discrimination,
46, 197, 199, 200
Convention on the Prevention and
Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide, 197
Convention on the Rights of the Child,
46, 197
Decade for Human Rights Education,
203
Development Programme (UNDP), 51,
52, 104, 113, 114, 184, 190

United Nations continued
Human Development Report, 113,
114
Economic and Social Council
(ECOSOC), 41, 45, 46, 47, 71, 72,
76, 84, 195, 198, 199, 200
Economic Commission for Europe
(ECE), 53, 54
Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO), 79, 114
World Education Report, 114
Eighteen-Nation Committee on
Disarmament, 139
Environment Programme (UNEP), 53,
54, 86, 114, 115, 18192
Coordinating Committee on the
Ozone Layer (CCOL), 185
Ozone Trends Panel, 186
The State of the Environment, 114
The State of the World Environment,
114
Food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO), 35, 39, 114
World Food Report, 114
Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC), 54, 86, 89,
188, 190
General Assembly, 52, 54, 64, 67, 68,
69, 72, 73, 75, 81, 89, 96, 99, 105,
110, 111, 125, 126, 129, 137, 138,
139, 188, 192, 196, 199, 200
Global Compact, 82
good offices, 132, 133
High-Level Panel on Threats, Challenges
and Change, 137
Human Rights Study Series, 203
Industrial Development Organization
(UNIDO), 52, 53, 64, 79, 104
Intergovernmental Negotiating
Committee (INC) on climate
change, 188
International Atomic Energy Agency
(IAEA), 7, 8, 10, 80, 108, 1404
International Covenant on Civil and
Political Rights (the Civil Pact), 45,
196, 199
International Covenant on Economic,
Social and Cultural Rights (the
Social Pact), 46, 196, 197
International Criminal Tribunal for
Rwanda (ICTR), 202
International Criminal Tribunal for the
Former Yugoslavia (ICTY), 202
Military Staff Committee, 130, 131
ONUC, peacekeeping mission in Congo,
135
Index 245
Peace Building Commission (proposed),
138
Rio de Janeiro, Conference on the
Environment and Development, 54,
89, 188, 191
Security Council, 6, 28, 29, 30, 47, 60,
64, 65, 69, 71, 72, 73, 75, 85, 99,
100, 105, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111,
112, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130,
131, 132, 133, 134, 137, 138, 142,
143, 201, 202, 213, 214
non-permanent members, 27, 71, 72
P5 (five permanent members), 29, 71
Special Commission on Iraqi nuclear
weapons, 142
Specialized Agencies, 3, 4, 10, 55, 72,
105, 108
Stockholm, Conference on the Human
Environment, 54
UNIIMOG, IranIraq peacekeeping
mission, 134
UNMIBH, peacekeeping mission in
Bosnia-Herzegovina, 134
UNMIK, peacekeeping mission in
Kosovo, 135
UNMOT, peacekeeping mission in
Tajikistan, 134
UNMOVIC, Special Commission on
Iraqi nuclear weapons, 100
UNOSOM, peacekeeping mission in
Somalia, 134, 135
UNPREDEP, military mission in
Macedonia, 134, 135
UNPROFOR, Protection Force in
Bosnia-Herzegovina, 131, 135
UNSCOM, Special Commission on Iraqi
nuclear weapons, 100
UNTAG, peacekeeping mission in
Namibia, 135
World Economic and Social Survey, 114
World Health Organization (WHO), 4,
11, 35, 39, 114
World Health Report, 114
United States, 4, 5, 6, 17, 18, 21, 27, 28,
29, 41, 43, 44, 45, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57,
64, 71, 79, 80, 81, 85, 103, 112, 124,
126, 131, 132, 133, 139, 149, 150,
153, 160, 161, 162, 164, 170, 173,
174, 175, 182, 183, 184, 186, 188,
189, 190, 192, 212
Universal Declaration of Human Rights,
45, 47, 49, 196, 197
Universal Postal Union (UPU), 34, 35, 39
Urquhart, Brian, 29
Uruguay Round, GATT, 37, 42, 52, 148,
149, 150
246 Index
USSR, 27, 28, 29, 30, 45, 64, 124, 127,
131, 139, 144, 182, 198
van der Wee, Hermann, 41
Vance, Cyrus, 133
Varwick, Johannes, 127, 135, 136, 202
Victor, David G., 190, 192
Vienna Convention for the Protection of
the Ozone Layer, 54, 103, 115, 182,
184
Vines, David, 172, 173, 175, 177
violent self-help, 12438
von Urff, Winfried, 99
Wallace, Helen, 74, 76, 91, 100, 155, 157,
158
Wallace, William, 32, 74, 155, 157
Wallander, Celeste A., 26, 30
Waltz, Kenneth N., 15, 210
Wapenhans Report, World Bank, 175, 176
war and power politics, 15, 21, 2532, 47,
55, 56, 57, 85, 108, 126, 127, 134,
135, 143, 172, 202
war crimes, 47, 202
war crimes tribunals, 47
wars of unification, German and Italian,
26
Warsaw Treaty Organization (WTO)
(Warsaw Pact), 29, 30, 32
Weber, Albrecht, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37
Wegner, Manfred, 168
weighting of votes, 68, 69, 70
weights and measures, 33, 34, 38
Weiss, Thomas, 28, 133, 135
welfare and economic relations, 14579
welfare state, 104
Wendt, Alexander, 21
Weser River Commission, 38
Wessels, Wolfgang, 155
Western European Union (WEU), 31, 130
Wettestad , Jrgen, 181, 182, 184, 185,
188, 189, 190, 191
whaling, 80, 85, 108
Wilkinson, Rorden, 147, 148, 150, 151
Williamson, John, 175
Wilson, James Q., 88, 89, 96
Wilson, Woodrow, 21, 27
Wolf , Dieter, 158, 168, 169, 171
Wolf , Klaus Dieter, 96, 103
Wolf, Dieter, 94
Wolfensohn, James D., 175
Wolfrum, Rdiger, 68, 69
Woods, Ngaire, 175
World Bank (IBRD), 3, 9, 41, 50, 51, 52,
69, 70, 85, 91, 104, 107, 113, 114,
1718
Annual Report, 177
World Climate Conference, 191
World Conference on Human Rights, 47,
197
World Council of Churches (WCC), 8, 9
World Development Report, World Bank,
113, 114, 177
world economic crises, 3744, 56
World Economic Outlook, IWF report,
114, 166
world hegemony, 21213
World Intellectual Property Organization
(WIPO), 37, 39
World Meteorological Organization
(WMO), 53, 54, 86, 18192
World Plan of Action for the Ozone Layer,
182
World Trade Charter, 41
World Trade Organization (WTO), 3, 8,
11, 23, 24, 29, 37, 40, 41, 42, 43, 52,
53, 55, 85, 103, 114, 14653, 154,
156, 158, 159, 171, 178, 212
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF),
116
World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), 35,
39
Woyke, Wichard, 127
Yamin , Farhana, 190
Yearbook of International Organizations,
4, 56
Young, Oran R., 110
Yugoslavia, former, 30, 47, 128, 130, 132,
133, 135, 202
Zacher, Mark, 28
Zanders, Jean Pascal, 144
Zangger, Claude (Zangger Committee,
IAEA), 140
Zangl, Bernhard, 6, 19, 24, 75, 80, 93, 94,
108, 109, 137, 152, 168, 171, 185,
213, 214
Zelikow, Philip, 88, 90
Zimbabwe, 3, 47, 129
Zolberg , Aristide R., 214
Zrn, Michael, 19, 24, 75, 83, 123, 145,
180, 193, 212, 214
Zysman, John, 82, 84, 158