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Mechanistic Modelling of Water Vapour
Condensation in Presence of
Noncondensable Gases
Doctoral Thesis
by
Krzysztof Karkoszka
School of Engineering Sciences

Department of Physics
Div. of Nuclear Reactor Technology
Stockholm, 2007
Abstract
This thesis concerns the analytical and numerical analysis of the water vapour
condensation from the multicomponent mixture of condensable and
noncondensable gases in the area of the nuclear reactor thermal-hydraulic safety.
Following an extensive literature review in this field three aspects of the

condensation phenomenon have been taken into consideration: a surface
condensation, a liquid condensate interaction with gaseous mixtures and a
spontaneous condensation in supersaturated mixtures. In all these cases
condensation heat and mass transfer rates are significantly dependent on the local
mixture intensive parameters like for example the noncondensable species
concentration.
In order to analyze the multicomponent mixture distribution in the above-mentioned

conditions, appropriate simplified physical and mathematical models have been
formulated. Two mixture compositions have been taken into account: a binary
mixture of water vapour with heavy noncondensable gas and a ternary mixture with
two noncondensable gases with different molecular weights. For the binary mixture
a special attention has been focused on the heavy gas accumulation in the near-
interface region and the influence of liquid film instabilities on the interface heat
and mass transfer phenomena. For the ternary mixture of gases a special attention
has been paid to the influence of the light gas and induced buoyancy forces on the
condensation heat and mass transfer processes.
Both analytical and numerical methods have been used in order to find solutions to
these problems. The analytical part has been performed applying the boundary
layer approximation and the similarity method to the system of film and mixture
conservation equations. The numerical analysis has been performed with the in-
house developed code and commercial CFD software. Performing analytical and
CFD calculations it has been found that most important processes which govern the
multicomponent gas distribution and condensation heat transfer degradation are
directly related to the interaction between interface mass balances and buoyancy
forces. It has been observed that if the influence of the liquid film instabilities is
taken into consideration the heat transfer enhancement due to the presence of
different types of waves is directly related to the internal film hydrodynamics and
shows up in the mixture-side heat transfer coefficient. The model developed for the
dispersed phase growth shows that degradation of the condensation heat transfer
rate, which is a consequence of degradation of the convective mass flux, should be
taken into account for highly supersaturated gaseous mixtures and can be captured
by combination with the mechanistic CFD surface condensation model.
Keywords: condensation, noncondensable gases, CFD simulation, boundary-layer

approximation, binary and ternary mixtures
III
List of papers and publications
Publications and papers included
I. Karkoszka K., Anglart H., 2006. CFD modeling of laminar film and
spontaneous condensation in presence of noncondesable gas. Archives of
Thermodynamics, Vol. 27, No. 2, 23 36.
II. Karkoszka K., Anglart H., 2005. Multidimensional multicomponent

model of consensation in presence of noncondensable gases. 11th
International Topical Meeting on Nuclear Reactor Thermohydraulics,
October 2-6, Avignon, France.
III. Karkoszka K., Anglart H., 2006. Numerical analysis of solitary wave
influence on the filmwise condensation in presence of noncondensable
gases. 14th International Conference on Nuclear Engineering, July 17-20,
Miami, Florida, USA.
IV. Karkoszka K., Anglart H., 2007. Laminar filmwise condensation of vapor
in presence of multi-component mixture of non-condensable gases. 12-th
International Topical Meeting on Nuclear Reactor Thermohydraulics,
September 30 October 4, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA, to be
presented.
V. Karkoszka K., Anglart H. Multidimensional effects in laminar filmwise

condensation of vapor in binary and ternary mixtures with non-
condensable gases. Submited to the Nuclear Engineering and Design.
Publications and papers not included

VI. Karkoszka K., Anglart H., 2004. CFD Modelling of Direct-Contact
Condensation in Presence of Non-Condensable Gases on Liquid Film
Surface. 42 nd European Two-Phase Flow Group Meeting, Genoa, Italy.
VII. Karkoszka K., Anglart H., 2005. CFD modelling of wall condensation
in presence of noncondensable gas. HEAT2005, Gdansk, Poland.
VIII. Karkoszka K., 2005. Theoretical Investigation of Water Vapour

Condesation in Presence of Noncondesable Gases. Royal Institute of
Technology, Stockholm, Sweden, licentiate thesis.
V
Contribution to papers
All papers, included and not included in the present thesis, have been written
under supervision of Assoc. Prof. Henryk Anglart. All calculations, models
and results have been developed, implemented and analyzed by the author.
Summary of included papers

Paper I describes the mechanistic modelling of forced convection water vapour
condensation from the binary mixture with air. The filmwise condensation is
investigated as well as effects of the direct-contact condensation and influence of
the spontaneous water droplets nucleation. In all cases modelling is based on the
resolution of the gaseous boundary layer in the vicinity of the liquid condensate.
Paper II is mainly focused on the forced convection direct-contact and spontaneous

condensation effects. It contains detailed discussion of the applied models as well
as discussion about the noncondesable mass fraction distribution in the vicinity of
the interface boundary layer. The most important conclusion from both Paper I and
Paper II is that a proper mechanistic CFD model is able to predict the heat transfer
degradation due to the presence of noncondensable gas.
Paper III is focused on the liquid film structure influence on the heat transfer
between gaseous and liquid phases. All calculations are performed with a two-
dimensional in-house code which has been developed in order to give required
flexibility in the film geometry modelling. This paper discuses how the film
structure disturbances in forms of sinusoidal and soliton-shaped waves influence the
local condensation heat transfer rate. It has been found that the internal vortex
present inside the wave and interface boundary conditions are directly responsible
for the enhancement of the heat transfer process.
Paper IV presents the mechanistic modelling of water vapour free convection

condensation from the ternary mixture of gases with the boundary layer
approximation. Fully coupled, through interface balances, boundary layer equations
for liquid and gaseous phases, are solved with the similarity method. Results show
how resistance to the interface heat transfer process is influenced by the presence of
noncondensable species with different molecular weights and what relations
between those species are.
Paper V is an extension of Paper IV, where also the free convection condensation
from ternary mixture of gases has been investigated. As an extension to Paper IV
both the boundary layer approximation and mechanistic modelling with the
commercial CFD code have been applied. The main conclusion from this article is
that mechanistic CFD modelling with carefully implemented interface balances
shows local physical relations between noncondensable components and local
VI
noncondensable distribution fields. Both solutions of the boundary layer equations
and mechanistic CFD model converge to each other for the binary mixture of gases.
VII
Contents
Abstract III
List of papers and publications V
Contents IX
List of figures XI
Nomenclature XV
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1 Condensation process and its applications....1

1.2 Review of research approaches.........3
1.3 Review of modelling approaches..3
1.3.1 Empirical correlations ...3
1.3.2 Analogy between heat and mass transfer...4
1.3.3 Diffusion layer model4
1.3.4 Boundary layer approximation and fully mechanistic model4
Chapter 2 Literature review 7
2.1 Empirical and theoretical investigations...7

2.2 Thin film instability............................13
2.3 Spontaneous condensation..........16
Chapter 3 Physical model and assumptions 19
3.1 Free and forced convection condensation on vertical surfaces...20

3.1.1 Modelling of forced convection condensation on a vertical surface...20
3.1.2 Modelling of free convection, gravity driven condensation
on a vertical surface......22
3.2 Forced convection condensation on horizontal surfaces23
3.2.1 Forced convection condensation on a horizontal, isothermal surface.....23
3.2.2 Direct-contact condensation on a horizontal, adiabatic surface..23
3.3 Modelling of interactions between liquid film structures
and gaseous boundary layer..25
3.4 Model of spontaneous condensation in presence
of noncondensable gases...27
Chapter 4 Mathematical models 31
IX
4.1 Film and mixture conservation equations...31
4.1.1 Liquid phase conservation equations...32
4.1.2 Conservation equations for a ternary gaseous mixture....32
4.2 Balances at the liquid-gas interface....33
4.3 Boundary layer approximation...35
4.3.1 Boundary layer conservation equations for a liquid film
and a ternary mixture of gases..35
4.3.2 Interface balances with boundary layer approximation...36
4.3.3 Modelling of buoyancy effects37
4.4 General formulation of ternary diffusivity coefficients..38
4.5 Mathematical model of spontaneous condensation39
Chapter 5 Solution methods and tools 45
5.1 Modelling of film structure.45

5.2 Solution of the boundary layer equations...46
5.2.1 Gravity driven condensation on a vertical surface...47
5.2.2 Application of similarity variables to the interface
balance equations......48
5.3 Mechanistic modelling with a Computational Fluid Dynamics code49
Chapter 6 Results and discussion 53
6.1 Forced convection condensation on a vertical surface...53

6.2 Forced convection direct-contact condensation on a horizontal,
adiabatic surface...55
6.3 Influence of spontaneous condensation......56
6.4 Film structure influence on the heat and mass transport
in the gaseous boundary layer.......57
6.4.1 Sinusoidal wave...58
6.4.1 Solitary-shaped wave...59
6.5 Similarity solution of the boundary layer equations
for free-convection gravity-driven condensation..61
6.7 Mechanistic CFD analysis of free-convection, gravity-driven condensation.....67
Chapter 7 Concluding remarks 73
Acknowledgements 77
References 79
Appendix 1 87
Appendix 2 97
Papers I-V 103
X
List of figures
Figure 3.1 Physical model of free, gravity driven and forced convection film-wise
condensation in presence of noncondensable gases on a vertical surface........21
Figure 3.2 Physical model of forced convection condensation in presence

of noncondensable gases on a horizontal, adiabatic surface........24
Figure 3.3 Condensation in presence of noncondensable gas on

a sinusoidal wave with prescribed geometry........26
Figure 3.4 Condensation in presence of noncondensable gas on

a solitary-shaped wave with prescribed geometry........26
Figure 3.5 Physical model of spontaneous condensation

in presence of noncondensable gase.....28
Figure 4.1 Interface between liquid film and gaseous mixture33
Figure 4.2 Change of free Gibbs energy as a function of droplet

diameter for supersaturation ratio S > 141
Figure 6.1 Comparison of the diffusion, mechanistic CFD model with

commonly used correlations for inlet mixture velocity 8 m/s, T = 40 K ..54
Figure 6.2 Comparison of the direct-contact diffusion model

with experimental data by Choi et al. (2002)....55
Figure 6.3 Sensitivity study of the influence of spontaneous condensation during

direct-contact condensation on a horizontally-stratified liquid film.....56
Figure 6.4 Example of the calculated temperature field within sinusoidal wave with
small amplitude (in K), air

= 0.1 ........58
Figure 6.5 Influence of the noncondensable gas on the gas-side heat transfer
coefficient for the small amplitude sinusoidal wave, air

= 0.1 , air

= 0.2 and
air

= 0.3 , respectively.59
Figure 6.6 Example of the calculated temperature field within the liquid film for
solitary-shaped wave, (in K), air

= 0.1 ......60
XI
coefficient for the solitary-shaped wave, air

= 0.1 , air

= 0.2 and air

= 0.3 ,
respectively...60
Figure 6.8 Influence of the addition of the light gas on the dimensionless mixture
velocity profile......61
Figure 6.9 Comparison of the computed degradation in the condensation heat

transfer with experimental data obtained by Al-Divany and Rose (1973),
air

= 0.015 and air

= 0.024 , respectively62

air

= 0.04 and air

= 0.068 , respectively..63

air

= 0.12 and air

= 0.19 , respectively........63

air

= 0.254 ......64
Figure 6.13 Influence of an additional light gas on the dimensionless air and helium
mass fraction profiles, additional amount of helium He

= 0.1% 64

= 0.4% 65

= 0.9% 65
Figure 6.16 Influence of an additional amount of heavy or light gas on the

degradation of the condensation heat transfer, = 0.32, air

0 = 2.4%
......66


0 = 1.5%
. 66
Figure 6.18 Comparison of the heat transfer coefficient calculated with the CFD
mechanistic model and obtained from the Dehbi et al. (1991) correlation...68
XII
Figure 6.19 Interface air mass fraction profile for an additional bulk amount of
helium He

= 0% , He

= 0.1% , He
= 0.2% and He
= 0.3% , respectively,
air

= 4% ....68
Figure 6.20 Interface helium mass fraction profile for an additional bulk amount of
helium He

= 0% , He
= 0.1% , He

= 0.2% and He
air

= 4% 69
Figure 6.21 Comparison of the average interface air mass fraction obtained by a
solution of the boundary layer equations for vertical surface and by the mechanistic
CFD model with the corner-type geometry, air
= 4% .....70
Figure 6.22 Comparison of the average interface helium mass fraction obtained by
a solution of the boundary layer approximation for vertical surface and by the
mechanistic CFD model with the corner-type geometry, air

= 4% .... 70
Figure 6.23 Prediction of the heat transfer degradation due to addition of helium in
bulk mixture for air

= 4% . ..71
Figure A1.1 Transformation from the physical to the computational domain89
Figure A1.2 Compass notation................................................................................92
Figure A2.1 The physical model of forced convection condensation from the binary
mixture with noncondensable gas on a horizontal, isothermal surface97
Figure A2.2 Comparison of results obtained with the film thickness model given by
Equation (A2.37) and results obtained by Sparrow et al. (1967) for the Schmidt
number 0.55................................102
XIII
Nomenclature
a heat diffusivity (m2/s)
Cp specific heat (J/kg/K)
d diameter (m)
D diffusivity coefficient (m2/s)
f dimensionless stream function
h specific enthalpy (J/kg)
hfg latent heat (J/kg)
g, g gravity acceleration and gravity vector (m/s2)
G change in Gibbs free energy (J)
j diffusive mass flux (kg/s/m2)
Ja Jakob number
k heat conductivity (W/m/K)
k Boltzmann constant (m2 kg s-2 K-1)
m mass flow rate (kg/s)
M molecular mass (kg/kmol) or mass (kg)
n mass flux (kg/s/m2)
N number of droplets
p pressure (Pa)
q, q heat flux and heat flux vector (W/m2)
Pr Prandtl number
R universal gas constant (kJ/K/kmol)
R = ( L L M M )
1/ 2
in Appendix 2
S supersaturation ratio
Sc Schmidt number
t time (s)
T temperature (K)
u, v velocity components (m/s)
XV
u velocity vector
V volume (m3)
x coordinate (m) or molar fraction
y coordinate (m)
Greek symbols
volume fraction
, expansion coefficients
mass transfer term (kg/s)
film thickness (m)
dimensionless distance
normal unit vector
dimensionless temperature
mean free path (m)
dynamic viscosity (kg/m/s)
kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
constant in equation (2.81) (m3/4)
density (kg/m3)
surface tension (N/m)
, shear stress and shear stress tensor (N/m2)
tangential unit vector
mass fraction
dimensionless mass fraction
Subscripts
A noncondensable mixture component

B noncondensable mixture component
crit critical
XVI
C condensable mixture component
He helium
L liquid
M mixture
w at wall
V water vapour
at the interface
tangential
Superscripts
far-field location
sat saturation condition
out outlet location
Other
gradient vector
scalar product
dyadic product
XVII
Chapter 1 Introduction
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Condensation process and its applications

Condensation is a thermodynamic, egzoenergetic nonequilibrium process of phase
transition from the gaseous into the liquid phase. Because of this nature its
industrial applications have been investigated for many years. There exists a variety
of heat exchanger designs whose function is based on this phenomenon. The most
common one, present almost in every home, is the condenser in a refrigerator.
Among its industrial applications, condensation is very often concerned in the
energy sector. In conventional (coal) power plants, condensation of flue gases and
spontaneous condensation of steam in the turbine condensers can be a source of
very serious problems.
In nuclear power plants condensation has important safety implications. For

example during loss of coolant accident (LOCA) in the primary system of a water-
cooled nuclear reactor large amount of water vapour can be released into the reactor
containment. As a result integrity of the containment can be seriously threatened
(SOAR report, 1999). There are several aspects which have to be taken into account
during such events. One of these is the possibility of high over-pressurization of the
reactor containment. In such condition it is very important to condense released
steam as quickly as possible. There exist several types of systems which role is to
provide fast condensation of water vapour. Containment spray systems and passive
containment cooling systems (PCCS) can be considered as the examples. In both
cases, efficiency of these systems depends not only on the type of condensation
1
Krzysztof Karkoszka Mechanistic Modelling of Water Vapour Condensation
(from a thermodynamic point of view) but also on the composition of the gaseous
phase, which usually contains a significant amount of noncondensable gas
(Paladino 2004).
Released water vapour during loss of coolant accident creates together with air or
nitrogen (which are present for example in PWR reactor containments during
normal operation conditions) mixture of gases. Additionally, if the reactor core
during such event becomes uncovered, steam can react with very hot fuel pins
cladding. Due to this reaction, a significant amount of hydrogen can be created.
Another example where condensation from the mixture with noncondensable gases
must be investigated is the hydrogen and oxygen accumulation in the nonvented
parts of the boiling water reactor (BWR) pipeline system. Due to the radiolysis of
water molecules in the reactor core, some amount of hydrogen and oxygen is
always present in the coolant. It has been found that these two components can
accumulate in the nonvented geometries due to the water vapour condensation on
the imperfectly insulated internal structures. This is a long-term process, however
recent investigations show (Stevanovic et al., 2005), that integrity of the pipeline
system can be seriously threatened, because after many months, or even years,
explosive mixture can be created.
Even small amounts of noncondesable gases can strongly deteriorate the

condensation heat and mass transfer process. Heavy, noncondensable gases tend to
accumulate near the liquid-gas interface due to its impermeability to these
components. Such behaviour creates an additional resistance to the mass transfer,
because the condensable gas has to diffuse through the mixture gaseous layer. As
results from nuclear safety analyses, the distribution of mixtures of light and heavy
gases is also strongly coupled with the condensation process. As it is shown in this
thesis the accumulation of noncondensable gases near the cold structures is driven
by the interface impermeability for noncondensable components, as well as by the
multicomponent diffusion and buoyancy effects. In such conditions, all these
driving forces are strong functions of the local mixture composition.
The condensation in presence of noncondensable gases is a very complex

phenomenon. Justification which effects are important is rather difficult. However,
as it has been deduced from the literature review presented in the next chapter, three
different aspects can be considered because of theirs direct impact on the
condensation heat and mass transfer process and applicability to the nuclear power
safety analysis. These aspects are namely: the filmwise free and forced convection
condensation from binary and ternary mixtures, the interaction between liquid film
structure and diffusion mixture layer and the spontaneous condensation. All of these
effects can play an important role during water vapour release into the reactor
containment. They can also influence the performance of the passive containment
cooling systems and the accumulation of explosive mixtures in the nonvented
elements of BWR pipeline systems.
2
1.2 Review of research approaches

The literature review indicates that research on aspects related to the water vapour
condensation in presence of noncondensable gases follows two main paths. These
paths are, however, strongly coupled together. The first type of research is directly
linked with industrial applications. Thus, the developed models are as simple as
possible and easy to implement into engineering calculations. However they need
to include enough information about the investigated phenomenon and especially
about limitations of their applicability. Such models are usually based on the
experimental investigations and are given in forms of correlations. The most
important parameter, from the heat transfer point of view, is the heat transfer
coefficient. This coefficient is usually obtained by the heat flux measurements and
the knowledge of boundary conditions. Heat transfer coefficient usually determines
further design of the given, engineering device. An extension of this approach is
based on the inclusion of more fundamental knowledge, based on the physics, into
the correlation development process. Application of the heat and mass transfer
analogy can be given as an example.
Further generalization of the research process is directed to the more fundamental

studies. Besides of its industrial importance, this research also contributes to the
fundamental knowledge about thermodynamics and multi-component diffusion
effects in gaseous mixtures. There are two concepts which lie behind this approach.
The first one is called the diffusion layer model (DLM) with its variation, which
sometimes is called the thermal resistance model (TRM). The second approach is
based on the solution of the fully coupled, liquid and mixture, conservation
equations. These equations can also be simplified by the order of magnitude
analysis and given in forms of so called boundary layer equations. With this
approximation, different solution methods can be applied and even an analytical
solution can be obtained.
Application of numerical methods allows to solve two or even three-dimensional,

fully coupled system of conservation equations for both liquid and gaseous phases.
Both the boundary layer approximation and numerical methods permit to construct
mechanistic models of the condensation phenomenon.
1.3 Review of modelling approaches
1.3.1 Empirical correlations
Experimental data obtained from measurements are usually correlated and

presented in forms of the average heat transfer coefficients or Nusslet numbers.
These relations are usually functions of such parameters as the Reynolds number,
3
the Prandtl number, the noncondensable mass fraction, etc. In the nuclear reactor
containment safety analysis, where condensation from the mixture with multiple
noncondensable gases must be taken into consideration, the most widely used
correlations have been developed by Uchida, Tagami, Kataoka and Dehbi (Herranz
et al., 1998). Unlike other correlations, the Dehbis correlation does not depend
only on the noncondensable gas mass fraction, but also takes the effect of pressure
into account. All these correlations are given for air-water vapour mixtures and are
developed for reactor containment conditions during postulated sever accidents.
Dehbi et al. (1991) performed a set of experiments where also the ternary mixture
of water vapour, air and helium has been considered. The correlation for the
average heat transfer coefficient has been given as a function of both
noncondensable gases mass fractions and pressure of the system. Helium has been
used as the simulant of hydrogen. Equivalence of helium and hydrogen in the
process has been recently analysed by Peterson (2000), where based on the DLM,
physical similarities between these two gases have been theoretically verified.
1.3.2 Analogy between heat and mass transfer
The heat and mass transfer analogy is based on the similarity between heat and
mass fraction transport equations. Two important dimensionless relations are
characterized, namely the Nusselt number and the Sherwood number. Based on the
analogy between transport processes, relation between them is given. Basically,
knowledge of one dimensionless number allows determination of the other one.
If also similarity between heat, mass fraction and momentum equation is taken into
consideration, then the whole analysis can be based on so called Chilton-Colburn
analogy (Bird et al., 2002).
1.3.3 Diffusion layer model

The diffusion layer model is an extension of the heat and mass transfer analogy. In
this approach a more physical description of the mass transfer process is
considered, based on the solution of mass fraction transport equation at the liquid-
gas interface. Another variation of this model is the thermal resistance model -
TRM. This methodology is based on the similarity between heat transfer resistance
network and mass transfer in the gaseous boundary layers (Herranz et al. 1998).
1.3.4 Boundary layer approximation and fully

mechanistic model
The next level of generalization is based on the solution of the system of

conservation equations, for both liquid film and gaseous mixture phases. These
4
equations describe conservation of mass, momentum, energy and additional species.

Together with adequate balances at the liquid-gas interface, boundary conditions
and equations of state, in principle, they can be solved in general applying different
numerical methods.
General conservation equations together with interface balances can also be

simplified. Applying the order of magnitude analysis, they can be written in the
form of, so called, boundary layer equations. Together with simplified interface
conditions, such system of equations can be solved analytically, for example with
the similarity method. This approach is very general and doesnt need to rely on any
empirical correlations. It can also be applied to different types of fluids, until they
are considered to satisfy continuity requirements. Despite of its generality, this
analysis is limited to simple geometries and definitions of applied similarity
variables. Moreover, it is difficult to analyze complicated processes such as
diffusion in the ternary mixture of gases, where significant amount of the light gas
has been introduced. In such case strong buoyancy and multicomponent diffusion
effects create complicated velocity fields.
However this method can be applied to the binary mixtures of heavy gases and
ternary mixtures with a small amount of light gas. Such analysis, as it is shown in
the present thesis, can give interesting results and reasonable estimates of the
fundamental, governing processes.
Recent fast development of numerical methods and tools gives even more general
capabilities of detailed investigation of governing process, which play important
role during condensation from the multicomponent mixture of gases. In principle
the fully coupled, unsteady, three dimensional system of conservation equations
with adequate interface and boundary conditions can be solved, for example with
the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) methods. These methods are based on
discretization of conservation equations in time and space with finite difference,
finite element or finite volume approximations. However, because of significantly
long computational time, very often only steady-state and two-dimensional
calculations are considered. Despite of these simplifications, complicated solutions
can be obtained and even such effects as the ternary mass diffusion, interactions
between wavy film and diffusion boundary layer as well as spontaneous
condensation effects, can be investigated. With some experience, results can be
properly analysed, understood and fundamental conclusions about physical
transport phenomena can be drawn.
Summary
The above introduction to the applications and modelling approaches of the
condensation phenomenon from the mixture of condensable and noncondensable
gases gives a general overview of the industrial problems and research methods.
Empirical correlations and solutions of the boundary layer equations for the binary
5
mixture of gases have been applied for almost fifty years. However, recently
developed more advanced techniques and tools, like for example CFD methods,
give real possibility of detailed investigation of physical processes which govern
the condensation phenomenon.
The next chapter contains a literature review. It shows chronologically how

research concepts of the condensation phenomenon modelling have been growing
in time and what is the current state-of-the-art in this subject.
6
Chapter 2 Literature review
Chapter 2
Literature review
Introduction
In this chapter a literature study of the condensation phenomenon from the
multicomponent mixture of condensable and noncondensable gases has been
presented. To start with, a general, chronological literature overview of the
theoretical and experimental investigations is given. In the following, research on
the specific aspects, such as the influence of the wavy flow hydrodynamics on the
condensation heat and mass transfer, is discussed. This chapter also includes the
literature review dealing with the spontaneous condensation from a binary mixture
of gases. Finally, general summary and conclusions are presented.
2.1 Empirical and theoretical investigations

Fundamentals of pure water vapour condensation as well as the basics of heat and
mass transfer can be found for example in Chapman (1984) and Incropera and
Dewitt (1996). The standard handbooks give an introduction to the field and present
the Nusselt theory, which was the first attempt to study the laminar film-wise
condensation. Basic discussion of the influence of noncondensable gases on the
heat transfer is given in such books as Whalley (1996), Bird et al. (2002) and Baehr
and Stephan (2006).
One of the first articles, connected to the present subject, has been authored by Koh
et al. (1961). It presents a solution of the gravity driven pure water vapour
condensation boundary layer equations with the similarity method. Both liquid and
7
Krzysztof Karkoszka - Mechanistic Modelling of Water Vapour Condensation
gaseous phases are coupled through interface mass and momentum balances. In
order to find an analytical solution to this problem, the so called similarity variables
have been applied. These variables permit simplification of the system of partial
differential equations to the system of ordinary differential ones.
Minkowycz and Sparrow (1966) present solution of the gravity driven boundary
layer equations for condensation from a binary mixture of gases. Again similarity
variables have been applied, in order to solve the coupled system of equations for
both, liquid and gaseous phases. Degradation of the heat transfer process due to the
presence of noncondesable gas has been noticed and discussed.
Sparrow et al. (1967) investigate forced-convection condensation on a horizontal

surface from a binary mixture with noncondensable gas. Boundary layer equations
are solved with the similarity method. Results show that heat transfer degradation
due to the presence of noncondensable gas is much lower when the forced
convection condensation is considered. This has been found to be in contrast to the
gravity driven free convection condensation where reduction of the heat transfer
rate in such situation is significant.
Minkowycz and Sparrow (1969) show theoretical studies on the mixture

superheating effect. It has been found that mixture superheating is more important
for the gravity driven free convection condensation problems. Taitel and Tamir
(1969) study direct contact condensation on the falling liquid sheet of water. The
binary mixture of water vapour and air has been taken into consideration and
theoretical model has been built based on the similarity method and integral
solutions of the boundary layer equations. It has been noticed that the water sheet-
mixture interface temperature decreases with the increase of the amount of the
noncondensable gas, especially in the near leading edge region.
Felicione and Seban (1973) solve boundary layer equations for the binary mixture
of gases with the integral approach. Both the similarity solution and the integral
method are found to give very similar results. Very important, experimental studies
on the condensation phenomenon from the binary mixture of gases are performed
by Al-Dwany and Rose (1973). Laminar free convection condensation from the
steam-air mixture is investigated. Special attention is paid to preserve free
convection conditions, because it has been found that the forced convection
significantly increases the value of the heat transfer coefficient. Good agreement of
experimental results with boundary layer solutions has been also reported.
Sage and Erstin (1976) present similarity solution for the condensation from a
ternary mixture of alcohol vapours. A limitation of these studies results from the
fact that diffusivity coefficients are defined as constant values and the influence of
noncondensable gas is not taken into consideration. However, overview of the
ternary diffusion problem has been presented.
8
Jackson (1977) theoretically investigates diffusion of ternary mixture components.

In order to calculated ternary diffusivity coefficients, Stefan-Maxwell equation has
been employed.
Prosperetti (1979) studies in detail boundary conditions at the liquid-gas interface.

A generic equation, which takes into account the interface balances of mass,
momentum, energy and any number of additional species, has been presented with a
clear, mathematical formalism.
Garimella and Christensen (1990) build an experimental setup for investigations of

the steam-air mixture behaviour in a small enclosure. It has been found that the heat
transfer coefficient significantly depends on the initial amount of noncondensable
gas only when this amount is small. For large initial values of noncondensable gas
this dependence has been found to be less important. Chan and Yuen (1990) deduce
the heat transfer coefficient from the measurements of the direct contact
condensation from the air-steam mixtures on the horizontally stratified liquid water
sheet. It has been noticed that for high condensation rates, the presence of
noncondensable gas significantly reduces the heat transfer coefficient.
Dehbi et al. (1991a, 1991b) present experimental investigations of the free

convection condensation from steam-air and steam-air-helium mixtures. Based on
the boundary layer approximation, correlations for the condensation heat transfer
coefficients have been developed. These correlations are functions of the
noncondensable mass (or molar) fractions and pressure value. While conducting the
experiments, stratification and separation effects have been noticed and deliberately
avoided by introduction of high amount of heavier gas.
Siddique et al. (1993) investigate steam-air or steam-helium mixtures during

condensation inside a vertical pipe. Influence on the heat transfer coefficient has
been found to be dependent on the ratio between air-to-helium mass fractions. As
the main conclusion it has been found that if the ratio between air and helium mass
fractions is equal to unity, helium has the most dominant influence on the heat
transfer degradation. However if molar fractions of these gases are equal to one, the
dominance relies on the air side.
Hassan and Banerjee (1996) show implementation of the six-equation model for
condensation from a binary mixture of gases based on the heat and mass transfer
analogy. It has been found that the heat and mass transfer analogy approach predicts
value of the average condensation heat transfer coefficient more precisely than
previously used correlations. Yao et al. (1996) discuss implementation of the
transient, one-dimensional model based on the Couette flow, in the
RELAP5/MODE3 code. One-dimensional transient system of equations has been
closed by the correlations developed for prediction of the condensation heat transfer
coefficients as well as by the heat and mass transfer analogy. Peterson (1996),
based on the diffusion layer model, shows that commonly used Uchida correlation
9
can produce significant errors. Future, mechanistic modelling has been

recommended.
George and Singh (1996) implement a nine-equation model based on the Uchida
and Gido-Koestel correlations into the GOTHIC code. This code is specially
developed for aerosol behaviour investigations in the reactor containment geometry.
From the numerical results, based on the average values of the heat transfer
coefficients for binary mixtures, has been concluded that the Gido-Koestel
correlation, which is based on the mechanistic approach, works better than the
empirical Uchida correlation.
Kuhn et al. (1997) perform number of experiments with a vertical tube. Pure steam,
steam-air and steam-air-helium mixtures are considered. Based on the Couette flow
model a more mechanistic correlation has been presented in form of the degradation
factor. Such degradation factor has been split and written as a product of the steam-
air and steam-helium factor. Both elements introduce degradation of the heat
transfer rate due to the additional presence of particular gases. Karl and Weiss
(1997) show an experimental approach for determination of the condensation heat
transfer coefficients during condensation from binary mixtures, from the knowledge
of nonconensable mass fraction profiles. This useful method can also be applied in
order to determine temperature profile inside the liquid layer. Dehbi and Guentay
(1997) show a numerical investigation of the condensation heat transfer to the
secondary systems (for example coolants) based on the heat and mass transfer
analogy. Such approach allows estimation of the condensation heat and mass
transfer rates without knowledge of the condensation surface temperature, what
normally is required by commonly used correlations. Also importance of the
secondary system influence on the condensation heat transfer rate has been
discussed.
Anderson et al. (1998) investigate experimentally behaviour of the steam-air-helium

mixture in the scaled AP600 containment geometry. During performance of this
experiment, rolling waves and film structures on the vertical surface have been
observed. It has been concluded that for a high amount of very light gas (like
hydrogen or helium) stratification and separation of the mixture components can
also occur. Such process can lead to the local accumulation of the light gas. Future,
mechanistic modelling has been recommended. Chin et al. (1998) apply the finite
volume numerical method in order to investigate the condensation heat transfer in
the binary mixture of gases on inclined surfaces. Relation between an inclination
angle and the heat transfer degradation factor has been discussed. Chen et al. (1998)
employ the similarity method for investigation of the influence of noncondensable
gas in the binary mixture on the condensation heat transfer rate to a vertical fin.
Again it has been found that even a small amount of noncondensable gas
significantly reduces the heat transfer rate between gaseous mixture and the fin
surface. Herranz et al. (1998) present an improved diffusion layer model which is
based on the analogy between heat and mass transfer for condensation from air-
steam and air-steam-helium mixtures. Special application of this model addresses
10
the AP600 nuclear reactor containments and can be applied for prediction of the
average heat transfer coefficient in this particular geometry.
Park et al. (1999) investigate experimentally the influence of noncondensable gas in

the Passive Containment Condenser (PCC) geometry. Experiments with single,
vertical pipe have been performed and results correlated with the degradation factor
approach. The degradation factor in this case is just a ratio between the total,
experimental heat transfer coefficient and the film heat transfer coefficient deduced
from the Nusselt theory. The final correlation has been given as the function of the
Jakob number, the film Reynolds number and the air mass fraction. Dehbi et al.
(1999) study experimentally mixtures of air, steam and helium, again for the PCC
geometry. For this purpose, experimental facility with a vertical pipe has been built.
Based on the experimental data and the boundary layer approximation, empirical
results have been correlated.
Srzic et al. (1999) investigate separation effects during condensation from a binary
mixture of water vapour with a very light gas. Boundary layer equations are solved
with the finite volume method. It has been found that light gases tend to separate.
However the main conclusion is that light gases reduce condensation heat and mass
transfer rates more significantly than heavy species. Cobo et al. (1999) present
development of the simple model of condensation from the binary mixtures of gases
that can be implemented into engineering codes. Condensation inside and outside of
a vertical pipe has been investigated and adequate correlations have been written
based on both, the degradation factor and the integral methods.
Liu et al. (2000) perform set of experiments with condensation of steam-air-helium

mixtures in a vertical tube. It has been noticed that the most notable correlations for
containment applications are those by Uchida (1965), Gido and Koestel (1983) and
Dehbi (1991). However the most important mechanistic approaches rely on the
diffusion layer model by Herranz et al. (1995) and Peterson (1993). All these
models, as a result, give average heat transfer coefficients. Experimental results
obtained during these studies have been correlated and deduced heat transfer
coefficients have been found to be in a good agreement with the diffusion layer
model. Such conclusion can be treated as a proof that further modelling should be
based on the mechanistic analysis. Peterson (2000) performs fundamental research
on the diffusion mass transport in the multicomponent mixtures of gases. Extension
and application of the diffusion layer model, based on the heat and mass transfer
analogy, for multicomponent mixtures, has been discussed. This approach is based
on the so called effective diffusivity coefficient. It has been noted that this
coefficient for mixtures of light and heavy gases is mainly governed by the
diffusivity of the heavy component.
No and Park (2002) investigate condensation of water vapour from the binary
mixture with air. Developed model has been based on the heat and mass transfer
analogy and takes into account such effects as the entrance length and the waviness
of the liquid film through empirical correlations. Siow et al. (2002) show numerical
11
investigations of the condensation from binary mixtures of steam-air and refrigerant

R134a-air, on a horizontal surface. The fully coupled numerical approach has been
applied to the film and mixture boundary layer equations. Also main differences
between these two mixtures have been reported. Simultaneously, Choi et al. (2002)
present experimental data from the investigation of direct contact condensation in a
horizontally stratified flow with and without noncondensable gas. It has been found
that existing models in the RELAP5 code significantly over-predict experimental
results when the presence of noncondensable gas is taken into consideration.
Suggestions how to improve these models have been discussed.
Shepel (2003) implements the Gido-Koestel correlation into a commercial CFD

code. Results have been compared with TOSQAN experimental data. TOSQAN is a
small-scale containment facility where condensation from binary and ternary
mixtures of gases can be studied. Obtained numerical results have been found to be
in good agreement for prediction of the total pressure transients during injections of
the air-helium-water vapour mixtures.
Maheshwari et al. (2004) study theoretically the heat transfer coefficient for a wide
range of the film and gas Reynolds numbers in a vertical pipe. The analogy between
heat and mass transfer has been applied in order to compute the condensation mass
flux. It has been found that for low Reynolds numbers the mixture-side resistance to
the heat transfer plays a dominant role. However, this situation is opposite for high
Reynolds numbers, where the main resistance to the heat transfer processes relies
on the liquid side. Slow et al. (2004) present numerical investigations of the heat
transfer process during condensation from the binary mixture with air flowing
between two, parallel vertical surfaces. It has been found that the heat transfer
process and the liquid film thickness are strongly dependent on the inlet amount of
noncondensable gas.
Martin et al. (2005) investigate film condensation models for a large reactor
containment geometry, implemented in a CFD code. These models rely on the
degradation factor approach, available empirical correlations, the Hilton-Colburn
heat-mass transfer analogy and the diffusion layer model. It has been concluded that
correlations do not work properly behind their ranges and the heat-mass transfer
analogy doesnt work well for condensation on horizontal surfaces.
Recently Stevanovic et al. (2005) develop a simplified mechanistic CFD model for
the prediction of condensation from a ternary mixture of steam with hydrogen and
oxygen in a closed at the top vertical pipe, where gaseous mixture has been
introduced from the bottom side. Qualitative results are presented and transient
mixture components propagation has been observed. However, physical relations
between mixture components have not been discussed. Anyway, these
investigations showed that fundamentals of the ternary mixture diffusion can be
deeper understood through a fully mechanistic modelling. Stephan (2006) studies a
forced-convection condensation from a binary mixture of condensable and
12
noncondensable gases. Based on the solution of boundary layer equations, a new

correlation for the heat transfer coefficient has been proposed.
Oh and Revankar (2006) investigate the condensation of water vapour from a

binary mixture with air inside a vertical pipe. Relying on the heat and mass transfer
analogy, an adequate correlation for the heat transfer coefficient has been developed.
However it has been found that such correlation underestimates the value of heat
transfer coefficient in the wavy region. Further studies of the wavy film flow region
have been recommended. In the meantime Stevanovic et al. (2006) numerically
investigate condensation of water vapour from the mixture with hydrogen and
oxygen in complex pipeline geometry. Qualitative results of the noncondensable
gas distribution have been shown and discussed. The main conclusion is that a
mechanistic CFD approach can be used for future investigations of such
fundamental effects like the ternary mixture diffusion and the stability of the thin
liquid films.
Siow et al. (2007) apply the finite volume method in order to solve the fully
coupled system of boundary layer equations for condensation from binary mixtures
of gases in an inclined, rectangular channel. It has been found that the most
important parameter, affecting condensation heat transfer process, is the film
Reynolds number.
2.2 Thin film instability

As ones of the first, Banerjee et al. (1967) theoretically investigate influence of the
wave hydrodynamics on the mass transport phenomena. It has been pointed out that
increase of the interfacial area cannot explain the fact that mass transfer is enhanced
by the presence of wavy structures.
Sofrata et al. (1980) theoretically study film-wise condensation with wave initiation
by extension of the basic Kapitza analysis. A new dimensional number, which has
been proven to be a control parameter, based on the relation between Weber and
Reynolds numbers, has been introduced.
Alekseenko et al. (1985) derive, based on the integral method, one-dimensional

unsteady wave equation.
Maron et al. (1989) study thin liquid film flow patterns. They employ both the finite
element and the finite difference methods in order to find solution to the momentum
conservation and interface momentum balance equations. Relations between wave
velocity, amplitude and internal hydrodynamics have been investigated.
Patnail and Perez-Banco (1995) solve two-dimensional mass, momentum, energy

and species conservation equations and show that the mass transfer enhancement is
strongly dependent on the internal wave hydrodynamics. In the same year
13
Karapantsios and Karabelas (1995) study direct-contact condensation of water

vapour-air mixtures on the periodically fed liquid films, falling on a vertical surface.
It has been evidently observed that creation of the surface waves increases
condensation heat and mass transfer rates. Karapantsios et al. (1995) measure local
condensation rates during the direct-contact condensation of water vapour from a
mixture with air. Influence of the film Reynolds number has been discussed. It has
been noticed that increase of the film Reynolds number increases the condensation
heat transfer coefficient. The opposite behaviour has been found with an increase of
amount of the noncondensable gas. Further studies on the influence of liquid film
structures on the diffusion layer region have been recommended.
Park et al. (1996) investigate influence of the film Reynolds number and film
surface structures on the heat transfer process during condensation of water vapour
from a mixture with air. Vertical, rectangular channel is taken into consideration. It
has been found that interaction between surface waves has very important influence
on the mass transfer in the near-interface region. This interaction plays significant
role for low film and mixture Reynolds numbers. It has been also speculated that
the heat transfer process in the vicinity of wavy liquid film is enhanced due to the
mixing phenomenon in the diffusion region. Yoshimura et al. (1996) study
experimentally mass and heat transfer enhancements due to the presence of two-
dimensional waves. Absorption of the additional gas into the liquid film has been
investigated. The evidence of existence of the internal hydrodynamic structures
inside the solitary wave has been presented. Additionally, Nosoko et al. (1996)
investigate complex wave dynamics and waves coalescence.
Park et al. (1997) study experimentally the influence of wavy interface on the water
vapour-air condensation on the vertical surface. Based on the analogy between heat
and mass transfer, a correlation for the heat transfer coefficient has been developed.
It has also been noticed that the heat transfer process depends on both film and
vapour Reynolds numbers. Enhancement of the heat transfer coefficient increases
with increase of the film Reynolds number and decreases with increase of the
mixture velocity. Jayanti and Hewitt (1997a) calculate with a commercial CFD
code hydrodynamics and heat transfer processes in the wavy liquid films in the
prescribed, wavy geometries. Obtained heat transfer coefficients and influence of
the internal film hydrodynamics have been discussed. However, presence of the
gaseous phase has not been considered during these studies. In another study,
Jayanti and Hewitt (1997b) investigate wave hydrodynamics and the heat transfer
applying again a CFD approach. Using the low Reynolds number k- turbulence
model, they show that flow between waves can be considered to be laminar,
however, inside wavy structures, effects of turbulence can appear.
Karimi and Kawaji (1998) prove by the experimental observation of wavy falling
liquid films that the simple Nusselt theory is not adequate for such problems,
because empirically obtained velocity profiles highly deviate from the Nusslet
description. Yang and Jou (1998) investigates theoretically wavy film influence on
the heat and mass transfer process during condensation from the binary mixture of
14
air and water vapour. Correlations for the Nusselt and Sherwood numbers have
been derived. Again, it has been noticed that wavy film structures increase
condensation heat and mass transfer rates and presence of a noncondensable gas
degrades this process.
Miyara (2001) investigates with numerical methods the heat and mass transfer
enhancement during condensation of pure water vapour due to the presence of two-
dimensional waves. It has been concluded that main mechanisms that are
responsible for this effect are film thinning and convection effects inside the waves.
Kit et al. (2001) employ the integral method in order to solve two-dimensional
Navier-Stokes equations with the interface momentum balance. Wavy dynamics
inside the vertical tube is taken into consideration and some results, like for
example two-dimensional velocity fields, have been presented.
Gao et al. (2003) study numerically two-dimensional instabilities in free-falling

liquid films. The direct numerical simulation of Navier-Stokes equations has been
performed and the volume of fluid method has been employed for the liquid surface
reconstruction. It has been found that low frequency inlet perturbations tend to
create solitary-shaped wavy structures with circulation zones inside. However high
frequency inlet disturbances develop low amplitude sinusoidal waves. It has been
also noticed that these instabilities are dependent on the gravity, viscosity and
surface tension effects. All these effects are included in the nondimensional relation,
called the Kapitza number, which shows which effects dominate for given flow
conditions. Park and Nosoko (2003) show experimental observations of transition
from two-dimensional, regular waves to three-dimensional structures. It has been
found that these structures significantly influence transport phenomena processes
and further numerical investigations have been recommended.
Drosos et al. (2004) investigate experimentally flow dynamics of the falling liquid
films with high Kapitza numbers (such liquids as water, butanol, etc). It has been
shown that for these fluids, flowing with the film Reynolds number over 200, the
wave structure is only a weak function of the film Reynolds number.
Kunugi and Kino (2005) investigate theoretically two and tree-dimensional waves.
By performing the direct numerical simulation of Navier-Stokes equations, it has
been found that there exist circulation zones between capillary and solitary waves,
which significantly increase heat and mass transfer transport processes. Very
similar structures to those investigated experimentally by Park and Nosoko (2003)
have been obtained. Alekseenko et al. (2005) perform number of experimental
observations in order to study in details wave hydrodynamics of falling liquid films
with low Reynolds numbers. Aktreshev and Alekseenko (2005) deduce, from the
linear stability theory, that stability of the free-falling liquid films in a long wave
film region, during condensation of pure vapours, is improved by the mass transfer
condensation effects.
15
2.3 Spontaneous condensation

Young (1991, 1993) investigates theoretically, based on the irreversible
thermodynamics analysis, process of spontaneous condensation and evaporation of
the small liquid droplets in the supersaturated pure water vapour and mixture of
water vapour with noncondensable gas. It has been shown how to calculate
evolution of droplets diameters in time and what the most important parameters for
this process are.
Fox et al. (1997) perform qualitative studies on the fog formation in water vapour-
air mixtures. Condensation on the walls of vertical enclosure has been taken into
consideration and the whole process of fog formation has been investigated based
on the kinetic theory of gases.
Kaufmann and Hilfiker (1999) investigate theoretically a fog formation in mixtures

with inert gases. The importance of heterogeneous condensation has been shown
and methods of its prevention discussed. Kang and Kim (1999) investigate
numerically and empirically the film water vapour condensation from the mixture
with air. They found that for small temperature differences between the cooling
surface and gaseous phase, mixture can be treated as a superheated gas. However
for large temperature differences fog formation should not be neglected. Karl and
Hein (1999) study effects of spontaneous condensation from binary mixtures of
water vapour with air or nitrogen. Importance of the influence of fog formation on
the heat and mass transfer rates has been discussed. It has been noticed that when
intensive formation of dispersed phase is observed, the convective heat and mass
transfer to the cooling surfaces is significantly reduced. In such conditions the heat
transport process is governed mainly by the conduction through the noncondensable
gas layer.
Manthey and Schaber (2000) show experimentally and numerically that local
effects during the spontaneous condensation of humid air cannot be neglected for
the highly supersaturated mixtures. Karl (2000) performs experimental
investigations on the spontaneous condensation in gaseous boundary layers. It has
been found that the most important parameter is the interface temperature. It has
also been noticed that effect of the additional, noncondensable gas cannot be
neglected in the future investigations.
Summary
Literature studies on the problem of condensation from multicomponent mixtures of
gases have been presented in this chapter. It can be noticed that most of research
has been directed to the condensation of water vapour from the binary mixture with
heavy, noncondensable gas. The main results are usually shown in the form of
correlations for an average heat transfer coefficient.
16
Different approaches have been also employed in the literature: pure empirical
correlations, the analogy between heat and mass transfer, the diffusion layer model
(based on the Couette flow) and finally the fully mechanistic approach with mass,
momentum and energy balances at the liquid-gas interface. Unfortunately, only in
few cases, condensation from the ternary mixture has been considered. Also the
mechanistic modelling has been applied very rarely in the citied investigations.
However, many researchers are aware of the fact that only the fully mechanistic
modelling can lead to the deeper understanding of fundamental relations governing
the multicomponent mixture distribution and condensation heat and mass transfer
processes.
In the above literature review, the importance of such effects as wavy liquid film
interaction with the gaseous boundary layer and spontaneous condensation
appearance in the supersaturated mixtures has been discussed. All these effects,
together with the surface condensation are expected to exist during severe accident-
conditions mentioned in the introduction. Because of such formulation of the
problem, in the next chapters the above effects have been investigated in details
using the mechanistic approach and applying different solution methods.
17
Chapter 3 Physical models and assumptions
Chapter 3
Physical models and
assumptions
Introduction
This chapter contains a description of physical models, together with most
important assumptions and simplification applied in the present thesis. It begins
with a physical description of the free and forced convection condensation on a
vertical wall in presence of a multicomponent mixture of noncondensable gases. In
the next section, the direct-contact condensation from a binary mixture of gases on
a horizontally stratified liquid film has been presented. Further, a physical model of
wavy film flow and its interaction with the gaseous boundary layer has been
described. Chapter ends with a description of a model of spontaneous condensation
from a binary mixture with noncondensable gas. The physical models have been
graphically illustrated and important assumptions and simplifications have been
clearly listed for each of them.
Based on the literature review presented in Chapter 2, three aspects of the

condensation process, which should be considered in the nuclear safety analysis,
have been chosen as the object of present studies. These aspects can be classified as
follows:
free and forced convection condensation on vertical and horizontal

surfaces,
influence of liquid film structure on the condensation from
multicomponent mixture of gases,
19
Krzysztof Karkoszkak - Mechanistic Modelling of Water Vapour Condensation
influence of spontaneous condensation on the heat and mass transfer

process in the supersaturated mixtures with noncondensable gas.
Additionally, two variants of the forced convection condensation on the horizontal

surface have been distinguished:
condensation on the isothermal surface,

condensation on the liquid film sheet flowing along adiabatic surface.
Further, the similarity method applied in this thesis uses the liquid film thickness as
a boundary condition instead of the bulk mixture temperature. Main reason for this
is the much shorter computational time. The model of condensation on the
horizontal, isothermal surface has been used in this context in order to show that
this concept is equivalent to the specification of the bulk mixture temperature as the
boundary condition. It has also been compared with previous, theoretical
investigations found in the literature (Chapter 5 and Appendix 2).
3.1 Free and forced convection condensation on

vertical surfaces
The first model described in this chapter is dealing with the film-wise condensation
from a multi-component mixture of gases on a vertical, smooth surface. With regard
to flow conditions, two situations have been considered: forced convection
condensation and free convection, gravity driven condensation.
3.1.1 Modelling of forced convection condensation on a

vertical surface
The schematic of the model has been shown in Figure 3.1 (wavy region is not
considered). Since a number of assumptions and simplification has been applied,
they have been listed separately for the liquid film, the gaseous phase and
geometry. Additionally, a method of solution has been pointed out for each model
in order to clarify further analysis of the solution methodology performed in
Chapter 5.
20
Forced convection
u M
y, v
Saturated mixture of
x, u condensable and
noncondensable gases
v M
A + B + K + N = 1
g
TW T Free
Temperature
convection
profile
V TM

V
Water vapour mass
fraction profile
Figure 3.1 Physical model of free, gravity driven and forced convection film-wise
condensation in presence of noncondensable gases on a vertical surface.
Assumptions and simplifications with regard to the liquid film
flow of the liquid phase is laminar,

interface velocity is set to the wall velocity and calculated from the Nusselt
model,
there is no slip between liquid and gaseous phases,
film temperature is equal to the wall temperature,
heat of condensation is totally transferred through the liquid film,
film interface is impermeable to noncondensable component,
liquid film properties are assumed to be constant.
Assumptions and simplifications with regard to the gaseous phase
binary mixture of water vapour and air,

mixture enters the physical domain with a fully developed velocity profile,
mixture is in the saturation state at the liquid-gas interface,
21
flow of the mixture can be laminar or turbulent,

only water vapour diffusion process drives condensation heat and mass
transfer,
there is no spontaneous creation of the water droplets in the gaseous phase,
bulk amount of noncondensable gas and bulk mixture temperature are
known and uniform,
mixture components are in dynamic and thermal equilibrium.
Assumptions and simplifications with regard to geometry
vertical, smooth, isothermal wall.
Solution method
two-dimensional steady-state CFD computations with implemented

mechanistic condensation model, which is based on the resolution of the
near-wall boundary layer.
3.1.2 Modelling of free convection, gravity driven

condensation on a vertical surface
Schematic of the model has been shown in Figure 3.1. Again a number of
assumptions and simplification has been applied and those which have direct
influence on the description of this model have been presented below.
film flow is assumed to be laminar,

film flow is driven by the gravity forces,
film thickness is considered to be proportional to x 1 / 4 based on the order
of magnitude analysis, for both the boundary layer solution and the CFD
calculations,
there is no slip between the liquid film and the gaseous phases,
heat of condensation is totally transferred through the liquid film,
film interface is impermeable to noncondensable components,
binary or ternary mixture of water vapour, air and helium,

flow of the mixture is laminar,
mixture flow is driven by the interfacial shear, buoyancy forces and
condensation effects,
22
bulk amount of noncondensable gases and bulk mixture temperature are

known and are uniform.
with the boundary layer approximation, ternary diffusivity coefficients
have been calculated with respect to the bulk mixture composition (see
chapter 4),
with CFD calcualtions, ternary diffusivity coefficients have been
calculated as local functions of the mixture composition applying the
Maxwell-Stefan equation,
smooth, vertical wall,

additional, horizontal surface bounding the vertical wall from the top is
considered in CFD calculations in order to investigate the effect of
geometry on the noncondensable gas accumulation.
Solution method
similarity solution of the fully coupled boundary layer equations for both
liquid and gaseous phases,
two-dimensional, CFD, pseudo-transient calculations with implemented
mechanistic condensation model.
3.2 Forced convection condensation on

horizontal surfaces
3.2.1 Forced convection condensation on a horizontal,
isothermal surface
Detailed description of the physical and mathematical models of forced convection

condensation on a horizontal, isothermal surface can be found in Appendix 2. This
model generally has been applied in order to prove the assumption that specification
of the liquid film thickness (see Chapter 5) is equivalent to the specification of the
wall temperature as a boundary condition. Obtained results have been found to be in
very good agreement with the analysis performed by Sparrow et al. (1967).
3.2.2 Direct-contact condensation on a horizontal,

adiabatic surface
The model of direct-contact condensation on a horizontally flowing, subcooled

liquid film sheet from the binary mixture of gases, has been drawn schematically in
23
Figure 3.2. Because of the given experimental database by Choi et al. (2002) this
model has been mainly applied for empirical validation of the implemented
mechanistic approach. As in the previous section, the most important assumptions
and simplifications have been listed below.
Saturated mixture of condensable and

y, v noncondensable gases
A + B + K + N = 1
x, u V
TM
u M
Temperature Water vapour mass
profile fraction profile
W
V
TL
in =0
y
Figure 3.2 Physical model of forced convection condensation in presence of

noncondensable gases on a horizontal, adiabatic surface.
Assumptions and simplification with regard to the liquid film
entering liquid film sheet is fully developed and has thickness in and
given, known temperature,
flow of the liquid film is laminar,
during calculations thickness of the liquid film has been neglected and its
velocity has been approximated with the wall velocity,
there is no slip between film and gaseous phases,
wall is insulated and film temperature is assumed to be uniform in y
direction,
condensation heat flux increases only the internal energy of the liquid film,
Assumptions and simplification with regard to the gaseous phase
binary mixture of water vapour with atmospheric air,

flow of the mixture can be laminar or turbulent,
24
mixture inflow velocity is uniform and equal to the film interface velocity,
mixture flow is driven by the entrance velocity, the interfacial shear and
condensation effects,
condensation is driven by the diffusive mass flux in the vicinity of the
liquid-gas interface boundary layer,
known and uniform,
Assumptions and simplification with regard to geometry
smooth, horizontal, adiabatic wall.
Solution method
two-dimensional, steady-state CFD calculations with implemented

mechanistic condensation model.
3.3 Modelling of interactions between liquid film

structures and gaseous boundary layer
A physical model of the wavy film interaction with the gaseous boundary layer is
based on the free convection condensation model. The difference is that the liquid
film enters the physical domain with a prescribed wavy shape. This shape is
assumed to be sinusoidal or similar to the typical solitary wave profile. Based on
the literature review in Chapter 2, both types of waves have been confirmed to exist
in the laminar wavy flow region.
Both sinusoidal and solitary-shaped film models are shown schematically in Figures
3.3 and 3.4. Also the most important assumptions and simplifications have been
listed below.
25
0.02 Binary, saturated

mixture of gases
0.015
x - direction [m]
g
0.01 V
0.005
V
0
0 1 2
y - direction [m] -4
x 10
Figure 3.3 Condensation in presence of noncondensable gas on a sinusoidal wave

with prescribed geometry.
V
0.06
0.05 Binary, saturated

V
mixture of gases
0.04
x - direction [m]
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
0 1 2 3 4
x 10
Figure 3.4 Condensation in presence of noncondensable gas on the solitary-shaped

wave with prescribed geometry.
Assumptions and simplification with regard to the liquid film
film flow is laminar-wavy,

film flow is driven by buoyancy forces,
film thickness it given by the prescribed geometry of the wave,
wall temperature is given and is uniform,
26
binary mixture of water vapour with atmospheric air,

flow of gaseous phase is laminar,
mixture flow is driven by the interfacial shear, buoyancy and condensation
effects,
known and are uniform,
Assumptions and simplification with regard to geometry
smooth, vertical, isothermal wall.
Solution method
in-house developed, two-dimensional, pseudo-transient code with

implemented, mechanistic condensation model (see Appendix 1 for
detailed description of the model implementation).
3.4 Model of spontaneous condensation

The spontaneous condensation model is based on the nucleation of small water
droplets in the supersaturated pure vapours or mixtures. Formation of such
dispersed phase can lead to a significant reduction in heat and mass transfer rates to
cooling surfaces. These reductions are mainly governed by the degradation of the
convection mass transfer rates due to the nucleation of the dispersed phase (as
pointed out in the literature review). For very high supersaturation ratios this
convective mass transfer can even vanish. Additionally, if some amount of
noncondensable gas is present in the gaseous phase, the whole condensation process
is governed by the water vapour diffusion through the region in the vicinity of the
droplet interface. Physical model which takes this aspect into consideration has
been schematically shown in Figure 3.5.
27
Supersaturated mixture of
Nucleated water
condensable and
droplets
noncondensable gases
d
V
VS
Figure 3.5 Physical model of spontaneous condensation in presence of

noncondensable gase.
Only qualitative studies have been performed on this model. For this purpose,
previous concept of direct-contact condensation on the horizontally flowing liquid
film sheet has been extended, in order to include spontaneous condensation effects.
There are several assumptions and simplifications to this model which have been
listed below.
Assumptions and simplification with regard to the dispersed phase
critical droplet diameter is calculated from the equilibrium conditions for

free Gibbs energy,
all water droplets are assumed to have the same dimensions,
the size distribution of the water droplets is Gaussian,
droplet surface pressure has been assumed to be equal to the water vapour
partial pressure .
binary, supersaturated mixture of water vapour and air,

condensation heat and mass transfer is driven by the water vapour
diffusion through the gaseous boundary layer in the vicinity of the liquid
droplet surface,
28
Solution method
two-dimensional steady-state CFD calculations with implemented surface

condensation model and additional volume mass sources.
Summary
Physical models, based on the different aspects of condensation from the
multicomponent mixture of gases, have been presented in this chapter. In order to
give clear picture of applied models, the most important assumptions and
simplifications have been listed. Also solution methodology has been pointed out
for each model.
All described above effects can naturally exist simultaneously. However, such,
separate studies facilitate better understanding of the particular processes which are
important for given, physical conditions.
In the next chapter, the mathematical formulation of the physical models presented
above has been described.
29
Chapter 4 Mathematical models
Chapter 4
Mathematical models
Introduction
In this chapter a general mathematical description of physical models, discussed in
the previous section, is presented. First fundamental laws, which are governing
transfer of mass, momentum and energy in both liquid and gaseous phases, are
described. In the next section mass, momentum and energy balances at the liquid-
gas interface have been written in the most general form. Further on, using the order
of magnitude analysis, the system of conservation equations and interface balances
are simplified to, so called, boundary layer equations. Next section gives a
mathematical description of the buoyancy effects and the modelling of
multicomponent diffusivities. Chapter ends with description of a mathematical
model of the spontaneous condensation in the supersaturated, binary mixture of
gases.
4.1 Film and mixture conservation equations

Conservation equations for liquid and gaseous phases have been described in this
section. These relations come from the general conservation laws for mass,
momentum and energy with the assumptions that both fluids can be treated as
Newtonian fluids and pressure tensor satisfies the Stokes hypothesis.
31
4.1.1 Liquid phase conservation equations
Liquid phase conservation equations are described by the following relations:
Conservation of mass of the liquid phase
L
+ ( L u L ) = 0 . (4.1.1.1)
t
Conservation of momentum of the liquid phase
L uL
+ ( L u L u L ) = L g p L + L . (4.1.1.2)
t
Conservation of energy of the liquid phase
hL
+ (h L u L ) = (q L ) . (4.1.1.3)
t
4.1.2 Conservation equations for a ternary gaseous

mixture
The system of conservation equations for the gaseous phase has been formulated for
the mixture which is a composition of three gases. All variables with subscript M
are related to the mixture, A letter has been related to the heavy noncondensable
gas (e.g. air), B letter to the light noncondensable gas (e.g. helium) and C letter
to the condensable gas (water vapour).
With the above notation, conservation equations for the gaseous phase are described
by the following relations:
Conservation of mass of gaseous phase
M
+ ( M u M ) = 0 . (4.1.2.1)
t
Conservation of momentum of gaseous phase
M uM
+ ( M u M u L ) = M g p M + M . (4.1.2.2)
t
32
Conservation of energy of gaseous phase
hM
+ (h M u M ) = (q M ) . (4.1.2.3)
t
Conservation of A-component of gaseous phase
M A
+ ( M u M A ) = (D11 A ) + (D12 B ) . (4.1.2.4)
t
Conservation of B-component of gaseous phase
M B
+ ( M u M B ) = (D 21 A ) + (D 22 B ) . (4.1.2.5)
t
Mass fraction of C-component can be calculated from the following constrain:
C = 1 A B . (4.1.2.6)
4.2 Balances at the liquid-gas interface

In order to close the system of conservation equations, in addition to boundary
conditions and equations of state, the interface mass, momentum and energy
balances must be specified. Figure 4.1 schematically shows a flux of any scalar or
vector quantity through the liquid-gas interface. It is assumed that the interface can
be described by the following equation:
y = (x, t ) . (4.2.1)
flux vector

Mixture - M

Liquid - L
y = (x, t )
Figure 4.1 Interface between liquid film and gaseous mixture.
33
Generally equation (4.2.1) can be written as a certain function F, which is

dependent on time and position (in two-dimensional space). This function can be
given in the following form:
F(x, y, t ) = y (x, t ) . (4.2.2)
With the above definition tangential and normal vectors and at any point of the
interface can be calculated as:
F F 1
, = F , F F 1
. (4.2.3 4)
= ,- F x y
y x
Using these vectors, the mass, momentum, energy and species interface balances
are described by the following relations:
Interface mass balance
M (u M u ) + L (u L u ) ( ) = 0 . (4.2.5)
Interface momentum balance
( M u M (u M u ) + PM ) + ( L u L (u L u ) + PL ) ( ) = 0 . (4.2.6)
Interface energy balance
( M h M (u M u ) + q M ) + ( L h L (u L u ) + q L ) ( ) = 0 . (4.2.7)
Interface balance of species A
( M A (u M u ) + j AM ) + ( L A (u L u ) + j AL ) ( ) = 0 . (4.2.8)
Interface balance of species B
( M B (u M u ) + jBM ) + ( L B (u L u ) + jBL ) ( ) = 0 . (4.2.9)
Because of the impermeability of the liquid film surface to noncondensable

components, species balances are reduced to the following forms:
( M A (u M u ) + jAM ) = 0 , (4.2.10)
( M B (u M u ) + jBM ) = 0 . (4.2.11)
34
4.3 Boundary layer approximation

Conservation equations given in section 4.1.1 can be simplified using the boundary
layer approximation. Applying the order of magnitude analysis, it can be found that
some terms in the boundary layer region can be neglected. This is very useful
approach because it allows finding the analytical solution of the system of boundary
layer equations.
4.3.1 Boundary layer conservation equations for a liquid

film and a ternary mixture of gases
With the assumption of constant properties, boundary layer equations for the liquid
phase can be written as follows:
Mass conservation
u L v L
+ =0. (4.3.1.1)
x y
Momentum conservation
uL uL M 2 u L , pL
uL + vL = g x 1 + L
= 0. (4.3.1.2)
x y L y 2
y
Energy conservation
TL TL 2 TL . (4.3.1.3)
uL + vL = aL
x y y2
Boundary layer equations for the ternary gaseous mixture can be written as follows:
Mass conservation
u M v M
+ = 0. (4.3.1.4)
x y
Momentum conservation
uM uM 2 u M , pM
uM + vM = g x 1 M + M = 0. (4.3.1.5)
x y M y 2
y
35
Energy conservation
TM TM 2 TM . (4.3.1.6)
uM + vM = aM
x y y2
Conservation of species A
A A A
2
B .
2
(4.3.1.7)
uM + vM = D 11 + D 12
x y y2 y2
Conservation of species B
B B A
2
B .
2
(4.3.1.8)
uM + vM = D 21 + D 22
x y y2 y2
All ternary diffusivity coefficients in Equations (4.3.1.7) and (4.3.1.8), have been
defined with respect to the bulk mixture composition.
Mass fraction of condensable component C can be found from Equation (4.1.2.6).

Pressure gradient terms in Equations (4.3.1.2) and (4.3.1.5) have been combined
with gravity effect with the assumption that pressure field in both fluids is given by
the value of the hydrostatic pressure.
4.3.2 Interface balances with boundary layer

approximation
Assuming a stationary shape of the liquid-gas interface:
F(x, y, t )
= 0, (4.3.2.1)
t
and performing again the order of magnitude analysis, it can be found that interface
balances with the boundary layer approximation can be simplified to the following
forms:
Mass balance

d d
L v L u L = M v M u M = n v . (4.3.2.2)
dx dx
36
Momentum balance

u u ,
p L = p M . (4.3.2.3 4)

L L = M M
y y
Energy balance

T TL T TM . (4.3.2.5)
h n + k L L

L

v = h V n v + k M M
x x y x x y
Impermeability condition imposed on the flux of component A

A B

A v M u M + M D 11 + D 12 = 0 . (4.3.2.6)
x y y
Impermeability condition imposed on the flux of component B

A B
B v M u M + M D 21 + D 22 = 0 . (4.3.2.7)
x y y
Relations (4.3.2.2) through (4.3.2.7) represent simplified form of the interface

conservation equations. Additional relation can be written assuming that both
phases have the same tangential velocity components at the liquid-gas interface.
Assuming that the gradient of liquid film thickness is very small, this
approximation simplifies just to the following relation:
u L = u M . (4.3.2.8)
4.3.3 Modelling of buoyancy effects

The first term on the right hand side of Equation (4.3.1.5) contains buoyancy forces
and an approximation that pressure is equal to the hydrostatic one in both liquid and
gaseous phases. It can be shown that this term for the ternary mixture of gases can
be rewritten as the following sum (Karkoszka and Anglart, 2007):
M
1
M
( ) (
= A A + B B ,) (4.3.3.1)
37
where constants , are referenced as the ternary expansion coefficients of the

mixture components A and B, respectively. Taking into account the ideal gas
law, these coefficients can be written in the following forms:
(M B M C M A M B ) , (4.3.3.2)
=
(M A M B M B M C ) A + (M A M B M A M C ) B M A M B
(M A M C M A M B ) . (4.3.3.3)
=
(M A M B M A M C ) A + (M A M B M A M C ) B M A M B
4.4 General formulation of ternary diffusivity

coefficients
Expressions describing ternary diffusivity coefficients ( D11 and D 22 ) as functions
of the local mixture composition can be found from the Maxwell-Stefan equation
(Bird et al., 2002). This expression relates molar fraction gradients of any
component i to the differences between diffusive mass fluxes of the mixture
components:
1 N x i x j ( j j ji )
xi SM
=
M

i =1 D ij
. (4.4.1)
Both noncondensable diffusive fluxes in one dimension can be described by the

following equations:
A B , (4.4.2)
j A = M D11 + D12
y y
A B . (4.4.3)
j B = M D 21 + D 22
y y
Molar fraction of i component of the mixture in terms of mass fractions can be

defined as:
i /M i . (4.4.4)
xi = N

j=1
j /M j
38
Combining both expressions (4.4.1) and (4.4.4) and taking into account the
following relations between mixture components mass fractions and diffusive
fluxes:
N N
i = 1 and
i =1
j
i =1
i = 0, (4.4.5 6)
the ternary diffusivity coefficients can be calculated as functions of local mass

fractions of both noncondensable mixture components:
(
D11 = f A , B ) ( )
, D12 = f A , B , (4.4.7 8)
( ) (
D 21 = f A , B , D 22 = f A , B . ) (4.4.9 10)
It has been noticed that cross-diffusivity effects described by diffusivity coefficients

with subscripts 12 and 21 are around two orders of magnitude smaller than the
main diffusivities. Thus the following relations can be written:
D11 >> D12 , D 22 >> D 21 . (4.4.11 12)
With the above, diffusive fluxes can be simplified to the following forms:
A , B . (4.4.13 14)
j A = M D 11 j B = M D 22
y y
Full description of these coefficients can be found in Appendix attached to Paper

IV.
4.5 Mathematical model of spontaneous

condensation
Spontaneous (or volume) condensation process can be described as the mass
transfer from the vapour phase to the dispersed phase. Assuming a spherical shape
of water droplets, mass of a single droplet Md is just a function of its diameter dd
(Karkoszka and Anglart 2005):
M d = f(d d ) . (4.5.1)
Thus transport of mass to a single droplet (i.e. its growth in time) due to the
nucleation process can be described as follows (McCallum et al. 1999):
39
dM d dVd 1 d
= d = d d d2 (d d ) . (4.5.2)
dt dt 2 dt
In the above expression d and Vd denote density and volume of a single droplet,
respectively.
Taking relation (4.5.2) into account the total mass flow rate to the dispersed phase -
assuming that dispersed water droplets have the same diameters - can be calculated
as follows:
N dV
dM tot d N
(d d, j ) .
N
1 d
= d Vd, j = d d (4.5.3)
d, j
= d 2
d, j
dt dt j=1 j=1 dt 2 j=1 dt
As can be seen, the total condensation mass flow rate is a function of the number of
droplets N, and droplet evolution:
d(d d ) . (4.5.4)
M total = f N,
dt
In order to find value of the volumetric condensation rate, estimation of number of

nucleated droplets and theirs growth in time is required.
A critical diameter, above which water droplet is allowed to grow by condensation

process, can be found from the Gibbs free energy defined as:
G = dd2 nkTv ln(S) , (4.5.5)
where , k, Tv, S are droplet surface tension, Boltzmann constant, local vapour
temperature and supersaturation, respectively.
Symbol n is the number of molecules within a single droplet and can be

calculated from:
Vd . (4.5.6)
n=
V1 molecule
In the above expression Vd and V1 molecule are volume of a single droplet and volume
of a single droplet molecule, respectively.
Gibbs free energy described by Equation (4.5.5) is just a difference between energy
which is required to form a spherical surface and isothermal compression of vapour
described by the supersaturation ratio (Kaufmann et al. 1998):
pv , (4.5.7)
S=
p sat
40
where pv and psat denote a water vapour partial pressure and saturation pressure,
respectively.
There exists a critical value of the droplet diameter dcrit, referred to as the Kelvin-
Helmholtz diameter, which will continue growing due to the condensation process.
This value can be calculated from the following equilibrium condition for the Gibbs
free energy:
d
(G ) = 0 . (4.5.8)
d(d d )
From the above relation, the critical droplet diameter can be calculated as:
4 V1 H 2 O
d crit = . (4.5.9)
kTln(S)
Solution of Equation (4.5.8) has also been shown graphically in figure 4.2.
G crit
G [J ]
d [m]
d crit
Figure 4.2 Change of free Gibbs energy as a function of droplet diameter for
supersaturation ratio S > 1.
If the nucleated droplet diameter is below the critical value it will evaporate
immediately. Inserting this critical value into Equation (4.5.5) it is possible to
calculate the critical change of the Gibbs free energy G crit required to create the
droplet which can grow due to the condensation process.
Following the classical theory of homogenous nucleation, the rate of formation of

new droplets described by number of droplets N, can be calculated assuming the
Gauss distribution of the dispersed phase:
41
N = N 0 exp( G/kT ) . (4.5.10)
In the above expression, N0 is a factor which can be calculated from the following
equation:
2 2 2
N0 = v . (4.5.11)
d M 13H O
2
Number of droplets of the critical size can be calculated with consideration that
change in the free Gibbs energy must be equal to the critical one:
N crit = N 0 exp ( G crit /kT ) . (4.5.12)
Due to the Kelvin effect, a higher partial pressure is required to maintain mass
equilibrium for the curved surface as compared to the flat one. Using the Kelvin
equation, the supersaturation ratio at the droplet surface can be calculated as
follows:
S K = exp[4 M V /( d RTd d )] . (4.5.13)
In the above equation R describes the universal gas constant.
Because S K = p d /p sat , it is now possible to calculate the steam partial pressure at

the droplet surface:
p d = p sat exp[4 M V /( d RTd d )]. (4.5.14)
Applying the diffusion layer theory and assuming that water droplet diameter is
larger than the mean free path of vapour molecules given by:
1
3 v RT 2 , (4.5.15)
=
pv 8
growth of the water droplet can be calculated from the following expression:
d 4 D M (p p )
(d d ) = AV V v sat , (4.5.16)
dt d d d RT
where DAV is the binary diffusivity coefficient.
42
With the above, it is possible to calculate the time interval which is required for a
droplet to growth from diameter d crit to diameter d 2 :
d
t d RT 2
0 4 D AC M V (p p sat ) d d d d(d d )
dt = (4.5.17)
crit
d2
t=
d RT d2
4 D AC M V (p V p sat ) 2
=
d RT
8 D AC M V (p V p sat )
( )
d 22 d crit
2 . (4.5.18)
d crit
Having the above expression, it is possible to approximate the average growth of

droplet in the following way:
dM d m d m d 2 m dcrit 1 d 3 3 .
md =
dt
=
t
=
t
=
6 t
d 2 d crit ( ) (4.5.19)
Defining value m d as the average condensation mass flow rate due to the droplet
growth, the total mass flow rate in the unit volume can be calculated from the
following relation:
m d, total 1 N
= m d, i . (4.5.20)
V V i =1
Summary
In the present chapter a mathematical description of the previously developed
physical models has been presented. Beginning with the general form of
conservation equations for both liquid and gaseous phases, the system of
conservation equations has been simplified with the boundary layer approximation.
The same procedure has been applied to the general form of interface mass,
momentum and energy balances. In the following sections the modelling of
buoyancy effects with boundary layer approximation as well as general derivation
of the ternary diffusivity coefficients has been described. Finally this chapter ended
with derivation of the spontaneous condensation model, which lends itself to the
multidimensional CFD analyses.
Next chapter contains descriptions of solution methods (mentioned in Chapter 3)

and short presentation of tools which have been applied in present calculations.
43
Chapter 5 Solution methods and tools
Chapter 5
Solution methods and tools
Introduction
This chapter contains description of solution methods and tools. Firstly the
modelling of the interface interactions between wavy film and multicomponent
gaseous mixtures is described. Next, the application of the similarity method to the
coupled system of boundary layer equations - for the liquid and gaseous phases - is
presented. Finally the application of a commercial CFD code to the mechanistic
modelling of condensation is described.
5.1 Modelling of film structure

A two-dimensional pseudo-transient CFD code has been developed in order to
model the interactions of the wavy liquid film with binary mixtures. The interface
temperature, which is the same for both liquid and gas domains, has been calculated
from first principles with the application of the energy balance equation. This
equation can be in general written as follows:
q L = q M . (5.1.1)
It has been assumed that liquid-gas interface is impermeable to noncondensable

component. Mathematically, this condition has the following form:
45
n A = 0 . (5.1.2)
Assuming that A << where A is the wave amplitude and the wave length, the
energy balance can be simplified to the following form:

T TM . (5.1.3)
kL L = n h fg k M

V
y y
Following the above assumption, the interface mass flux of the condensed vapour
can be calculated as:

D V . (5.1.4)
n = M AV

1 V y
V

Both liquid and gaseous domains are computed separately and linked through the
above interface conditions by the iteration process. Within this process, firstly the
initial temperature for the liquid-gas interface is guessed. Then its value is updated
during iterations, until the interface balances for energy and mass fractions are
satisfied within a given tolerance.
More details about the implementation of the numerical scheme can be found in
Appendix 1.
5.2 Solution of the boundary layer equations

In order to solve analytically the coupled system of boundary layer equations for
liquid and gaseous phases, the similarity method has been employed. Details
concerning application of this method to the free convection gravity driven
condensation problem have been presented below. The same method has been used
in order to find a solution of the problem of forced convection condensation from
the binary mixture on a horizontal, isothermal wall. The calculations have been
performed in order to prove that method of specification of the liquid film thickness
= 1x1/2 for the horizontal wall and = 2x1/4 for the vertical wall is equivalent to
the specification of the wall temperature as a boundary condition. Therefore,
description of the method of analytical solution of the forced convection
condensation on the horizontal surface and prove of the above assumptions by
comparison with previous theoretical studies found in the literature, have been
included in the Appendix 2.
46
5.2.1 Gravity driven condensation on a vertical surface

In order to find an analytical solution of the system of boundary layer equations,
partial differential equations have to be transformed to the system of ordinary
differential equations. Therefore, the following similarity variables have been
introduced for the liquid phase:
cL y , TL T ,
L = 1 / 4 L = L c L x f L ( L ) L = W
, (5.2.1.1 3)
3/ 4
x T T
where , f, are dimensionless distance, dimensionless stream function and

dimensionless temperature, and constant c includes fluid properties.
Applying the above relations, the liquid phase momentum equation can be
now written in the following form:
2
d 3f L d 2f L df
4 3 + 3 f L 2 2 L + 4 = 0 . (5.2.1.4)
dL dL dL
Mass conservation equation has been automatically satisfied by the definition of the
stream function and doesnt need to be considered any longer.
For the ternary mixture of gases, similarity variables have been defined as follows:
c M (y ) , TM T ,
M =
3/ 4
( )
M = c M M x f M M M = W
, (5.2.1.5 7)
x1/ 4 T T
A ,
A = B = B . (5.2.1.8 9)
A

B
With these relations the mixture momentum and A and B mass fraction
transport equations can be transformed to the following relations:
2
d 3f M d 2f M df
4 + 3fM 2 M + 4 A ( A 1) + 4 B ( B 1) = 0 , (5.2.1.10)
d 3M d 2M d M
d A 4 d 2 A , d B 4 d 2 B
3fM = 0 3fM = 0, (5.2.1.11 12)
d M Sc11 d 2M d M Sc 22 d 2M
where Sc is the Schmidt number calculated with the bulk state the reference.
47
The boundary conditions expressed in terms of the similarity variables become as

follows:
W
df L
= 0 , fL = 0 , L = 1,
W W
(5.2.1.13 15)
d L

df M
= 0 , M = 0 , A = 1 , B = 1.

(5.2.1.16 19)
d M
5.2.2 Application of similarity variables to the interface

balance equations
The interface balance equations of mass, momentum, energy and concentrations of
species A and B can be written as follows:
1/ 2
L M
(L L ) 1/ 2
f L = ( M M )
1/ 2
f M , (5.2.2.1)
L
1/ 2
L M df L df
= M , (5.2.2.2)
L d L d M
1/ 2
L M d 2f L 2
1/ 2 d fM
( L L ) 1/ 2
2
= ( M M ) 2
, (5.2.2.3)
L dL dM
3
PrL f L
4 TW T , (5.2.2.4)

= C PL = Ja
d L k M c M d M h fg

d L k L c L d M

1 d A 3 , 1 d B 3 . (5.2.2.5)
=

A f M B = fM
Sc11 dM 4 Sc 22 d M 4
In Equation (5.2.2.4) symbol Ja denotes the Jakob number. Calculating this

number together with application of the ideal gas law, the temperature difference
T = T T w can be obtained with the assumption that the whole condensation
48
heat flux in the liquid phase is transported to the cold wall by conduction. This is a
reasonable approximation because the liquid film thickness, as considered in these
studies, is very small.
5.3 Mechanistic modelling with a Computational

Fluid Dynamics code
Numerical methods employing the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) approach
are not limited to the boundary layer approximation. Instead, general unsteady
conservation equations, with proper boundary conditions, can be solved for a given
geometry in the discrete space. In the present work both liquid and gaseous domains
are modelled separately and are linked together through interface conditions. The
basic assumption pointed out in Chapter 3 is that the mixture of gases is in the
saturation state and can be treated as an ideal gas.
For modelling of the liquid film and the mixture the separate domain approach can
be applied. In this model the mass conservation equations for the liquid and gaseous
phases are as follows:
( L L ) + [ L ( L u L )] = , (5.3.1)
t
( M M ) + [ M ( M u M )] = , (5.3.2)
t
where is the mass transfer term which is equal to zero everywhere except at the
interface, and L , M are volume fractions of the liquid film and mixture,
respectively. The volume fractions satisfy the following condition L + M = 1 .
Because it has been assumed that only one phase can exist in every computational
domain, L = 1, M = 0 for the liquid film domain and L = 0, M = 1 for the
mixture domain, respectively. The main advantage of such formulation relies on
parallel computations of both domains.
Based on the order of magnitude analysis, it has been assumed that the liquid film
thickness - for the gravity driven flow - can be described by the following
expression:
(x ) = x 1 / 4 , (5.3.3)
where is related to the liquid properties. The same methodology has been applied
with the analytical solution to the boundary layer equations, as shown in Appendix
49
2. With this assumption, the condensation mass flux can be calculated using a
simple Nusselt solution of the following form:
dm g L ( L M ) 2 d . (5.3.4)
= =
dx L dx
Effect of the interface shear stress in Equation (5.3.4) has been neglected because of
low velocities of liquid film and vapour.
Unsteady momentum equations for the liquid and mixture domains can be written
in the following two-dimensional form:

( L L u L ) + ( L L u L u L ) = L p + L L g + , (5.3.5)
t
+ ( L L ) + u L

( M M u M ) + ( M M u M u M ) = M p + M M g + . (5.3.6)
t
+ ( M M ) u M
Assuming that the gaseous phase behaves like the ideal gas, local mixture density
can be calculated as a function of the local composition of the mixture:
pM . (5.3.7)
M =
N
RTMsat i
i =1 M i
The gaseous mixture has been also assumed to be in the saturated state. That means
its temperature can be evaluated with the following relation:
TMsat = f (p sat ) , (5.3.8)
where the saturation pressure for the ternary mixture is described by the following
expression:
p sat =
(
M A M B PM C A + B ) . (5.3.9)
( ) ( )
M AM B C A + B + M AMC B 1 C + M BMC A 1 C ( )
Neglecting cross-diffusivity effects, unsteady transport equations for the mixture
components A and B can be written in the following forms:
50
( M M A ) + [ M M ( A u M D11 A )] = 0 , (5.3.10)
t
( M M B ) + [ M M ( B u M D 22 B )] = 0 . (5.3.11)
t
The mass fraction of component C is then defined by the following constrain:
C = 1 A B . (5.3.12)
Mixture density and diffusivity coefficients D11 and D 22 depend on the local
mixture composition and generally can be defined as (see also Chapter 4):
M = f ( A , B ) , D 11 = f ( A , B ) , D 22 = f ( A , B ) . (5.3.13 15)
Boundary conditions are given by no-slip conditions for the liquid film at the wall
and composition of the mixture in the bulk:
= v LW = 0 , A , B .
W
uL (5.3.16 18)
Because mixture flow is driven by the falling liquid film as well as condensation
effects and buoyancy forces, the von Neumann boundary conditions have been
imposed on the gaseous domain. The amount of mixture flowing into and out of this
domain is calculated from the overall mass balance given by the following relation:
m M = m + m out
M
, (5.3.19)
where m M , m and m out

M
are respectively: mass flow rate from the bulk mixture
towards the cold wall, interface mass flow rate between gaseous and liquid domains
due to the phase change and total mixture mass flow rate at the outlet from the
mixture domain. The applied CFD code imposes for scalar variables the Dirichlet
boundary conditions at the inlet and the von Neumann boundary conditions at the
outlet. However, for the buoyant flow some of the mixture - due to the presence of
very light gas - can also enter the mixture domain through the outlet and therefore
all scalar gradients in such region are approximated with the assumption of fully
developed flow (i.e. zero gradients).
Summary
Methods of solution of the boundary-layer equations and a mechanistic set of
conservation equations have been described in this chapter. The results of
prediction with the present models are presented and discussed in the next chapter.
51
Chapter 6 Results and discussion
Chapter 6
Results and discussion
Introduction
This chapter discuses computational results which have been obtained with models
described in the previous chapters. It begins with solutions of the forced convection
condensation problem on a vertical surface. Next, a comparison of the diffusion
CFD model with experimental data for forced convection direct-contact
condensation on an adiabatic horizontal surface is presented. Further, qualitative
investigations of the influence of the spontaneous condensation on the condensation
heat transfer coefficient have been included. In the following section the influence
of the wavy film flow on the heat transfer coefficient for condensation from binary
mixtures has been studied. The chapter ends with a discussion of the results
obtained from the boundary layer modelling with the similarity method and the
mechanistic modelling using the CFD framework. Finally the results of calculations
are summarized and analysed.
6.1 Forced convection condensation on a vertical

surface
The physical model of forced convection condensation from the binary mixture of
water vapour and air on a vertical, isothermal surface has been described in Chapter
3. A mixture of water vapour and air flows downwards and condenses on a cold
surface. It has been assumed that whole condensation process is driven by the
53
diffusion of water vapour through the near-interface boundary layer. As it has been
mentioned in the previous chapters, such boundary layer exists, because liquid-gas
interface is almost impermeable to the noncondensable gas. Because only water
vapour crosses the liquid-gas interface, noncodensable species tends to accumulate
in this region. This process creates additional resistance to the condensation heat
and mass transfer and results in the reduction in the heat transfer coefficient.
Because in the experimental studies for PCCS water vapour condenses inside
vertical pipes, a vertical wall can be viewed as its two-dimensional equivalent. This
allows a comparison of the commonly used empirical correlations, developed for
the pipe geometry, with present, numerically-obtained results. Condensation model
based on the resolution of the boundary layer has been implemented into a
commercial CFD code (AEA Technology, 2000) through user subroutines. It
calculates condensation heat and mass transfer fluxes at the liquid-gas interface
from the heat and mass balance equations.
Comparison of calculations of the average heat transfer coefficient with correlations

given by Uchida, Tagami, Kataoka and Dehbi is shown in Figure 6.1. As can be
observed, the numerical result follows trends given by these expressions. It means
that the diffusive mass flux calculated by the code in the mechanistic way
corresponds to the physical results, if the average values are taken into
consideration.
heat transfer coefficient [W/m2/K]
7000
Uchida correlation
6000 Tagami correlation
Dehbi correlation
diffusion model
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
inlet noncondensable mass fraction
Figure 6.1 Comparison of the diffusion, mechanistic CFD model with commonly
used correlations for inlet mixture velocity 8 m/s, T = 40 K .
Results depicted in Figure 6.1 show that, at least for this simple geometry, the heat
transfer degradation processes due to the presence of noncondensable gas can be
investigated and predicted with the purely mechanistic approach, without any
correlations. Additional resistance created by the accumulation of the
noncondensable gas along the cold surface is quite uniform (except the region near
54
to the leading edge). This brings about a possibility of the numerical prediction of
the experimentally correlated heat transfer coefficients.
6.2 Forced convection direct-contact

condensation on a horizontal, adiabatic surface
Geometrical conditions create the necessity of investigation of behaviour of the
mechanistic model for different geometrical configurations. Horizontal surface can
be considered as one of the examples. Modelling of the condensation from the
binary mixture of water vapour and air by solving boundary layer equations has
been described in Appendix 2. In this section CFD studies are performed on the
modelling of the water vapour condensation on a horizontally-stratified liquid-water
sheet flowing along an adiabatic wall. Physical model of this phenomenon and
important simplifications have been pointed out in Chapter 3.
As it has been done in the previous section, a model based on the proper resolution
of the near-interface boundary layer and interface heat and mass balances, have
been implemented in the commercial CFD code CFX. The most important
assumption is that the whole heat of condensation is converted into the internal
energy of the flowing liquid phase. A simple energy balance (described in Paper I)
and obtained numerically mass flux of condensing vapour at the interface can be
applied, to produce results shown in Figure 6.2.
5000
Choi et al. 2002
4500 DC diffusion model
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
0 0.5 1 1.5
channel length [m]
Figure 6.2 Comparison of the direct-contact diffusion model with experimental

data by Choi et al. (2002).
Average, measured heat transfer coefficient by Choi et al. (2002) has been
compared with computational results. Even if the calculated heat transfer
coefficient is slightly under-predicted, still application of the mechanistic model
seems to give reasonable results. This is an important conclusion since - as it has
55
been pointed out in the literature review - existing correlations in the engineering
codes as well as models based on the heat and mass transfer analogy tend to give
inadequate results in such conditions.
6.3 Influence of spontaneous condensation

A physical and mathematical model of the spontaneous condensation from a binary
mixture of gases has been described in Chapters 3 and 4. This model, in analogy to
the surface condensation, is also based on the resolution to the diffusion boundary
layer near the liquid drop-gas interface. Based on the kinetic theory of gases and the
equilibrium condition for existence of the dispersed water droplets, condensation
rates have been described as sinks to the equation of the mass conservation.
Experimental data which could be compared with computational results could not
be found. However, a sensitivity study has been performed to verify the over-all
performance of the model. Figure 6.3 presents the degradation of the heat transfer
coefficient along a cold surface where a large temperature difference between the
bulk mixture and the cold surface has been applied.
3000

DC, air = 0.1

DC + SC, = 0.1
air
2500
DC, air = 0.2

DC + SC, = 0.2
air
2000
1500
1000
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
channel length [m]
Figure 6.3 Sensitivity study of the influence of spontaneous condensation in direct-

contact condensation on a horizontally-stratified liquid film.
It can be concluded that inclusion of the spontaneous condensation model can lead
to a slight reduction of the heat transfer coefficient degradation for highly
supersaturated binary mixtures. As it has been found from the literature review in
Chapter 2, degradation of the condensation heat transfer relies on the decrease of
the convection mass flux towards the cold surface. The predicted degradation of the
heat transfer coefficient shown in Figure 6.3 is a result of this effect.
56
6.4 Film structure influence on the heat and mass

transport in the gaseous boundary layer
Literature review indicates that the heat and mass transfer process associated with
the surface condensation is highly dependent on the flow conditions. If only liquid
film phase is taken into consideration, it has been found by many researchers that
its structure is highly influencing the condensation heat and mass transfer rates.
This effect is especially pronounced for very thin liquid films, low mixture flows
and low noncondensable mass fractions in the multicomponent gaseous mixture.
From the literature review and the present studies it has been found that there exist
three processes which are responsible for the heat and mass transfer increase. The
first one is strongly coupled with the liquid film hydrodynamics. Internal velocity
fields, which are dependent on the wave structure, determines enhancement of the
mass transfer within the wave. This process has been also observed experimentally
several times. The other process is coupled with the existence of the gaseous
boundary layer. Film irregularities create nonuniform accumulation of the
noncondensable species at the liquid-gas interface. Third mechanism is connected
with the liquid film thinning due to the creation of the wavy structures.
Physical model of the film structure influence on the condensation process from
binary mixture of gases has been described in Chapter 3. In order to model wavy
film shapes in a convenient way, an in-house CFD code has been developed.
Details about the implementation of the mathematical model can be found in
Appendix 1. Shapes of the waves have been prescribed in such a way that both
types of structures, discussed in the literature review, have been investigated.
Unfortunately there is a lack of detailed experimental database with which the

results presented below could be compared. Such experimental measurements could
be based for example on the Raman Spectroscopy Method (Karl and Weiss, 1997)
which could be employed for the film temperature field measurements. However,
even if the present studies are kept only on a qualitative level, they tend to confirm
general empirical observations found in the literature.
From the experimental observation of the thin wavy film flows it has been found
that two types of film structures can be distinguished. The first type of waves has a
simple sinusoidal shape. These waves are characterised by small amplitudes and
short wavelengths. The second type of waves sometimes is called a roll wave. They
are similar to the solitary structures and characterised by large amplitudes and long
wavelengths.
57
6.4.1 Sinusoidal wave

Computed temperature field within the sinusoidal wave has been presented in
Figure 6.4. On both sides of the computational domain (low and high x), periodic
boundary conditions have been specified. On the one hand the velocity and the
coupled temperature fields are distorted because the falling wave has larger velocity
than the rest of the liquid film. Higher temperature on the trailing edge of the wave
has been observed. Because of the existence of the internal disturbances of the film
velocity field, the thermal energy resulting from the water vapour condensation is
evidently faster convected towards the cold surface in the upper part of the wavy
domain (red arrow in Figure 6.4 shows schematically this process). On the other
hand, the velocity field observed in the lower region tends to convect cold liquid
from the wall towards the gas-liquid interface (blue arrow). The net effect of the
mixing is an enhanced convective heat transfer within the wave are.
336.5
0.018
336
0.016
0.014 335.5
x - direction [m]
0.012 g
335
0.01
0.008 334.5
0.006 334
0.004
333.5
0.002
0 1 2
x 10
Figure 6.4 Example of the calculated temperature field within sinusoidal wave with
small amplitude (in K), air

= 0.1 .
In Figure 6.5 the gas-side heat transfer coefficient, defined in Paper 3, has been
plotted along the wave surface. Because of the higher temperature and the fact that
gaseous mixture exists in the saturation state, the value of the heat transfer
coefficient is higher at the trailing edge (red ellipse) of the wave as compared with
the leading edge (blue ellipse). Because the interface conditions are given by the
saturated state of the gaseous mixture, the higher temperature is responsible for the
lower amounts of noncondensable gas at the liquid-gas interface. In this way, the
effect of noncondensable gas accumulation, which creates the main resistance to the
mass transfer process, is lower at the trailing edge as compared with the leading
edge of the wave. From both Figures 6.4 and 6.5 it can be concluded that the heat
transfer process caused by the wavy film hydrodynamics and presence of
noncondensable gas is more enhanced in the trailing region of the wave.
58
550
500

450
400
350
wave profile
300

gas - side
air
= 0.1
250
g = 0.2
air
200
= 0.3
air
150
100
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02
x - direction [m]
coefficient for the small amplitude sinusoidal wave, air

= 0.1 , air

= 0.2 and
air

= 0.3 , respectively.
6.4.2 Solitary-shaped wave
All conclusions from the previous section hold for the large amplitude solitary-
shaped wave modelling. However, in this condition the existence of both higher and
lower temperature convective fluxes is more evident. Temperature filed within such
wave is shown in Figure 6.6. It can be noticed that - in a similar way as for the
sinusoidal wave - the higher temperature exists in the trailing part of the wave. The
distortion of the film velocity field is much more evident for large-amplitude waves
and an internal vortex can be observed. This vortex is responsible for an
enhancement of the heat transfer flux in the trailing edge of the wave. In Figure 6.7
the gas-side heat transfer coefficient has been plotted. Its behaviour can again be
explained by higher amounts of the water vapour in the higher-temperature region,
which decreases the noncondensable gas degradation effect.
59
338
0.05 337.5
337
x - direction [m] 0.04 336.5

336
g
0.03
335.5
335
0.02
334.5
0.01 334
333.5
0 1 2 3
x 10
Figure 6.6 Example of the calculated temperature field within the liquid film for
solitary-shaped wave, (in K), air

= 0.1 .
700

air = 0.1
600

transfer coefficient [W/m2/K]
= 0.2
air
500 wave profile

air = 0.3
400
gas - side heat
300
g
200
100
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
x - direction [m]
coefficient for the solitary-shaped wave, air

= 0.1 , air

= 0.2 and air

= 0.3 ,
respectively.
60
6.5 Similarity solution of the boundary layer

equations for free-convection gravity-driven
condensation
Physical and mathematical models of the free-convection, gravity-driven
condensation from the multicomponent mixture of condensable and
noncondnesbale gases have been described in detail in Chapter 3 and 4. In Chapter
5 two methods, which can be applied to obtain a solution of this problem, have been
presented. The first one rests on the boundary layer approximation for which an
analytical solution can be obtained using the similarity method. This method has
been applied by many researchers and can lead, as it is shown further, to very
interesting conclusions.
In these calculations it has been assumed that the thickness of the liquid film can be
approximated with the relation given by Equation (5.3.3). With such approximation
the wall temperature has been calculated and this approach has been proved to be
equivalent to the specification of the wall temperature as the boundary condition
(see Appendix 2).
In the following calculations the condensation from binary and ternary mixtures has
been considered. In Figure 6.8 dimensionless mixture velocity profiles have been
plotted as function of dimensionless distance from the liquid-gas interface, for 1.5%
of air mass fraction and 0.1% to 0.9% of helium mass fraction, respectively. It can
be observed how an addition of the light gas influences buoyancy forces. In
particular, for mass fractions of helium higher than 0.7 %, some amount of the
mixture moves against the gravity forces.
= 1.5%, = 0.34
air0
-0.02
0.02
f' ()
M

He
= 0, 0.1- 0.9%
0.04
g
0.06
0.08
0 1 2 3 4 5

M
Figure 6.8 Influence of the addition of the light gas on the dimensionless mixture
velocity profile.
61
In Figures 6.9 through 6.12 the calculated degradation of the condensation heat flux
has been compared with experimental data obtained by Al-Diwany and Rose (1973)
for a binary mixture of water vapour and air. It can be noticed that analytical results
obtained with the boundary layer approximation fits well to the experimental data.
Adequate explanation of such behaviour is that buoyancy forces in the mixture of
water vapour with heavy gas like air acts in such a way that both phases move
downwards. In these conditions the boundary layer approximation with
mechanistically specified interface balances seems to be a very good approximation
of the physical problem.
In Figures 6.9 through 6.12 the interface heat flux has been normalised to the heat
flux obtained from the Nusselt analysis. This approach shows how the condensation
heat transfer flux is degraded by the presence of noncondensable gas with respect to
the pure water vapour condensation for the same temperature difference. Another
conclusion which can be drawn from the graphs is that the degradation of the
condensation heat flux is more pronounced for small amounts of noncondensables.
For high noncondensable mass fractions the heat transfer degradation effect
becomes much smaller. Such behaviour has also been observed by several
researchers as indicated in the literature review.

= 1.5 %
air
1
boundary layer approx. with film model
qcal/qNu
Al - Diwany and Rose 1973

0.5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
W
T -T

= 2.4 %
air
1
qcal/qNu
Al - Diwany and Rose 1973

0.5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
W
T -T

air

= 0.015 and air

62

air = 4 %
0.4
qcal/qNu
Al -Diwany and Rose 1973
0.2
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
W
T -T

air = 6.8 %
0.2
qcal/qNu
0.1
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
W
T -T

air

= 0.04 and air


= 12 %
air
0.2
qcal/qNu

0.1
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
W
T -T

= 19 %
air
0.15 boundary layer approx. with film model
qcal/qNu
0.1
0.05
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
W
T -T

air

= 0.12 and air

63

air
= 25.4 %
0.12
0.1
0.08
Nu
/q
0.06
cal
q
0.04
0.02
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
T - T W
air

= 0.254 .
Dimensionless profiles shown in Figures 6.13 through 6.15 allow studying relations
between heavy and light noncondensable gases. Dimensionless air and mass
fraction profiles have been shown in such manner that the influence of the light gas
on the heavy one can be compared with the situation in which only the heavy gas is
present. It can be noted that addition of the light gas results in the higher interface
accumulation of the heavy gas. This process is governed by two main forces which
are strongly coupled. The first one is the buoyancy force, which pushes the mixture
upstream with reference to the liquid phase. The second effect is coupled to the
impermeability of the liquid-gas interface, which forces the noncondensable mass
fractions and the corresponding gradients to satisfy the interface mass balances.

air0 = 1.5 %, = 0.34
50

, =0.1 %
air air0 He
40

, =0.1 %
air0 He
He
air, He
30
+ 0.1 %, =0
air air0 He
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
M

= 0.1% .
64

= 1.5 %, = 0.34
air0
50

, =0.4 %
air air0 He
40

, =0.4 %
He air0 He
He
30
+ 0.4 %,
,
=0
air air0 He
air
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
M

= 0.4% .

air0 = 1.5 %, = 0.34
70

, =0.9 %
60 air0 He
air

50 , =0.9 %
air0 He
He
He
40
+ 0.9 %,
,
=0
air air0 He
air
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
M

= 0.9% .
In Figures 6.16 and 6.17 the degradation of the condensation heat transfer process
has been plotted. Figure 6.16 shows the relationship between the additional amount
of air or helium, which is introduced to the mixture, and the corresponding increase
of the temperature difference between the bulk and the wall. Initially the mixture
consists of water vapour and air with air

0 = 2.4%
. Introduction of 1% of helium
causes an increase of temperature difference T T0 by 20 K. If instead 1% of air
65
is introduced, the increase of the temperature difference will be around 9 K. Thus,

the heat transfer degradation is smaller in the latter case.

= 0.32, = 2.4 [%]
air0
1.4
1.2
1
air, He, [%]
0.8

0.6

0.4

air
0.2
He
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
T - T0


0 = 2.4%
.
From both Figures 6.16 and 6.17 can be noticed that this behaviour is not linear and
the difference between bulk and cold wall temperature due to addition of air or
helium increases almost exponentially. This nonlinear behaviour can be explained
by previously mentioned interface impermeability conditions and interactions with
the buoyancy forces. This behaviour has also been noticed by several researchers,
as pointed out in the literature review. Experimental investigations show that light
gases act more destructively on the condensation heat flux than the heavier ones.

= 0.34, = 1.5 [%]
air0
1
0.8
air, He [%]
0.6

0.4

0.2
air

He
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
T - T0


0 = 1.5%
.
66
Figures 6.16 and 6.17 have been plotted for two different dimensionless film
thicknesses given by the constant . It can be noticed that reduction of the
condensation heat flux is more significant if high condensation mass fluxes are
taken into consideration.
6.7 Mechanistic CFD analysis of free-convection

gravity-driven condensation
The free-convection gravity-driven condensation has also been investigated with
the computational fluid dynamics approach. A ternary mixture of water vapour, air
and helium has been taken into consideration. Water vapour condenses on a
vertical, cold surface, which additionally has been bounded on the upper side by a
horizontal wall. It has been assumed that there is no condensation on this surface.
Flow of the liquid film is totally driven by the buoyancy forces. Gaseous phase is
driven by the momentum transfer from the liquid phase and by condensation
effects. Mechanistic model, which rely on the mass, momentum and energy
balances at the liquid-gas interface, has been implemented into a commercial CFD
code (see Chapter 5). Both liquid and gaseous phases are driven by free convection
condensation effects. The film thickness is calculated from Equation (5.3.3), (by
analogy with the boundary layer analysis). Mixture of gases has been assumed to be
in the saturated state. With an assumption that it satisfies the ideal gas law, the
mixture temperature can be calculated with the knowledge of the partial pressure of
the water vapour.
Example of the solution is shown in Figure 6.18. The heat transfer coefficient has
been calculated with the assumption that the condensation heat is transferred
through the liquid phase by the conduction. This approximation is valid for thin
films, where the convection effects are negligible. The heat transfer coefficient
shown in Figure 6.18 has been obtained for bulk mixture composition of 4% of air
and 0.1% of helium. The temperature difference T T W has been obtained by
variation of the liquid film thickness. Qualitative comparison with the experimental
correlation obtained by Dehbi et al. (1991) has also been presented. The adjective
qualitative is used here since the Dehbi correlation has been developed for
mixtures with larger amounts of noncondensable gas. Unfortunately, as it results
from the literature study, this is the only correlation which has been found for
ternary mixtures of gases. Even if Dehbis experimental data have been obtained for
reactor containment conditions, free convection conditions have been preserved and
therefore these measurements can be used as a qualitative reference for validations
of the mechanistic CFD calculations.
67

= 4%, = 0.1%
air He
3000
Dehbi et al., 1991
Heat transfer coefficient [W/m2/K]

mechanistic CFD model
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
10 20 30 40 50 60
w
T -T
Figure 6.18 Comparison of the heat transfer coefficient calculated with the CFD
mechanistic model and obtained from the Dehbi et al. (1991) correlation.
In Figures 6.19 and 6.20 the interface mass fraction profile has been plotted for air
and helium components along the liquid-gas interface. It can be noticed that this
profile is nonuniform and high accumulation of the noncondensable gases occurs in
the upper part of the vertical wall. This is caused by the additional, horizontal
surface which bounds the vertical wall from the top. In this way corner-type
geometry has been created and the geometry influence on the noncondensable gas
accumulation has been captured.
0.1
from outlet (0), upstream [m]
Distance along film interface
0.08
0.06
High concentration
region
0.04
He 0%
He 0.1%
0.02
He 0.2%
He 0.3%
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Air mass fraction
Figure 6.19 Interface air mass fraction profile for an additional bulk amount of
helium He

= 0% , He

= 0.1% , He

= 0.2% and He
air

= 4% .
68
0.1
He 0%
from outlet (0), upstream [m]

He 0.1%
Distance along film interface

0.08 He 0.2%
He 0.3%
High
0.06 concentration
region
0.04
0.02
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
Helium mass fraction
Figure 6.20 Interface helium mass fraction profile for an additional bulk amount of
helium He

= 0% , He
= 0.1% , He

= 0.2% and He
air

= 4% .
Figures 6.21 and 6.22 show the average interface mass fraction profiles of air and
helium. Comparison between results obtained from the boundary layer analysis and
CFD calculations has been shown. Both methods converge to each other when the
amount of additional light gas in the bulk mixture decreases. The explanation of this
behaviour is as follows. The presence of only heavy gas creates more uniform
noncondensable mass fraction profiles, and velocity fields calculated by both
models are similar. However, with an increasing amount of the light gas, the
geometry effect and buoyancy forces together with previously-mentioned
impermeability conditions cause large differences in prediction of the interface air
and mass fraction values. Unfortunately both methods have not been compared
within the same geometry because of the difficulties with an adequate specification
of the von Neumann boundary conditions in CFD calculations, which require fully
developed flow conditions.
69
0.8
boundary layer approximation
0.7
Average air mass fraction

mech. CFD model
0.6
1/NAiri
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
He [%]
Figure 6.21 Comparison of the average interface air mass fraction obtained by a
solution of the boundary layer equations for the vertical surface and by the
mechanistic CFD model with corner-type geometry, air

= 4% .
0.05
boundary layer approximation
Average helium mass fraction
mech. CFD model

0.04
0.03
1/N Hei
0.02
0.01
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
He [%]
Figure 6.22 Comparison of the average interface helium mass fraction obtained by
a solution of the boundary layer approximation for the vertical surface and by the
mechanistic CFD model with corner-type geometry, air

= 4% .
In Figure 6.23 the CFD prediction of the condensation heat transfer degradation due
to the additional presence of the light gas has been shown. The obtained results can
be explained as follows. As it has been mentioned in the previous section, there
exists strong relation between accumulation of both noncondensable gases at the
liquid-gas interface. This relation is given by the interaction between interface,
noncondensable mass balances and buoyancy effects. As it was observed with the
70
similarity method and also with the CFD approach (Figures 6.19 and 6.20), addition
of the light gas to the binary mixture is responsible for the increase of amount of
heavy gas at the liquid-gas interface. In this way, addition of the light gas to the
binary mixture with heavy one has indirect influence on the degradation of the
interface condensation heat flux.

Mech. CFD = 4%, = 0.1%
air He

Mech. CFD = 4%, = 0%
air He
0.25
qcal/qNu
0.2
0.15
0.1
10 20 30 40 50 60
W
T -T
Figure 6.23 Prediction of the heat transfer degradation due to addition of helium in
bulk mixture for air

= 4% .
Summary
This chapter describes the major results obtained in this thesis as well as
summarises and extends the conclusions presented in the attached papers. It has
been shown that the fully mechanistic approach (without correlations) can be
applied for the fundamental research into the condensation from the
multicomponent mixtures of condensable and noncondensable gases. It has also
been shown that mechanistic approach in combination with the numerical methods
can be used for fundamental studies of the influence of the wavy film structure on
the condensation heat transfer enhancement.
Similarity solutions of the boundary layer equations, fully coupled through the
interface balances, give possibility to study and understand the physical processes
which govern noncondensable components accumulation in the ternary mixtures of
gases. Fundamental relations between both species have been noticed. They are
given by the impermeability conditions at the liquid-gas interface for the
noncondensable components and by buoyancy effects. The buoyancy effects are
also responsible for the counter-current flows of the mixtures if a proper amount of
very light gas is introduced.
71
Mechanistic modelling of the gravity-driven condensation from the ternary mixture

of gases with the CFD approach gives better understanding of relations between
noncondensable species. Local effects can be studied in details. For example, the
influence of the ternary diffusivity coefficients and given geometry on the
noncondensable gas accumulation can be investigated. The most important
conclusions from the boundary layer analysis and CFD studies are that both
approaches converge to each other for the binary mixtures, however for the ternary
mixture the CFD approach allows to predict local phenomena such as the
nonuniform accumulation of the noncondensable gas at the interface. It has also
been found that both methods predict the influence of an addition of the light gas on
the behaviour of the heavy one. Because the interface balances must be satisfied the
forces created by the addition of the light gas cause higher accumulation of the
heavy gas. In this way the addition of the light species is indirectly responsible for
the further degradation of the condensation heat flux.
Other theoretical and experimental observations, found in the literature review,

have been depicted in the present studies. It has been found that the addition of the
light gas has a more destructive influence on the condensation heat flux than the
heavy gas.
The analysis of the influence of the wavy film structure on the condensation heat
transfer in binary mixtures confirms previous investigations that enhancement of
the heat transfer coefficient is determined by the wave hydrodynamics. However, it
has also been found that this process is more significant for the gas-side heat
transfer coefficient.
Qualitative studies have also been performed on the influence of the spontaneous
condensation on the heat and mass transfer process in the binary mixture of air and
water vapour. By implementation of a model for the dispersed phase growth, the
phenomenon of the reduction of the convective mass flux has been predicted. These
results show that such process should be taken into consideration if very high
supersaturation conditions are expected to exist in the gaseous mixture. The above
calculations also show the ability of combination of the mechanistic surface
condensation models with models predicting the dispersed phase growth.
72
Chapter 7 Concluding remarks
Chapter 7
Concluding remarks
The research presented in this thesis has been concerned with studying various
aspects of water vapour condensation in presence of noncondensable gases. Such
phenomena have important implications in the safe performance of nuclear power
plants and both better understanding and improved modelling capabilities are
required. The present research has contributed to both above-mentioned areas. In
particular, the influence of the spontaneous condensation, the wavy film structure
and the multi-component mixtures on the condensation rates has been studied in
detail and the underlying physical processes have been elucidated. To this end
mechanistic models have been developed and implemented in the commercial CFD
code CFX, as well as in CFD software developed for the purpose of the present
research.
To study the forced-convection condensation, a mechanistic diffusion model has

been developed and implemented into the CFX code. The model employs the low
Reynolds k- model for turbulence in order to resolve the near-interface region and
to allow for detailed modelling of the interfacial mass, momentum and energy
transfer. The model has been applied to predict the condensation rates from binary
mixtures on vertical and horizontal walls, which are either isothermal or adiabatic.
It has been demonstrated that the mechanistic model is able to capture the heat
transfer degradation phenomenon and the mean calculated heat transfer coefficient
is in good agreement with existing correlations and available experimental data.
The spontaneous condensation model has been implemented into the commercial
CFD code and combined with the model for the forced-convection condensation.
The objective has been to study the influence of the spontaneous condensation on
heat and mass transfer rates. The calculations indicate that the heat transfer
73
coefficient at the cold wall is slightly lower (that is the degradation level is higher)
when the spontaneous condensation occurs. This effect is due to the reduction of the
convective mass flux towards the cold wall surface. Even though the obtained
results are qualitatively correct, further validation of the model is required once
proper experimental data are available.
The influence of the wavy film structure on condensation has been investigated
with CFD software developed for that purpose. Using prescribed wave shapes (both
sinusoidal and soliton-shaped waves have been investigated), detailed distributions
of velocities, temperatures and concentrations have been obtained in the liquid film
and the mixture regions. The results reveal several mechanisms of the enhancement
of heat transfer. On the mixture side the heat transfer coefficient is influenced by
the local concentration of noncondensable gas and it increases on the trailing part of
the wave. In the liquid film region a vortex is developed inside the wave and
contributes to the convective heat transfer between the cold wall and the interface.
Finally, in the valley region between two wave crests the conductive heat transfer is
increased due to thinner water film.
The influence of multi-component mixtures on condensation heat transfer has been

investigated both analytically and numerically. In the analytical approach the
conservation equations have been cast into the boundary layer approximation form
and solved using the similarity method. For that purpose proper linearization
assumptions have been necessary. In the numerical approach, generally formulated
conservation equations and balance conditions at the interface have been
implemented and solved with the commercial CFD code. The validity of both
models has been confirmed against experimental data obtained by Al-Divany and
Rose (1973).
The analytical model has been used for parametric studies of the influence of light
gas in a ternary mixture on the heat transfer rates. It has been observed that even
small amount of the light gas causes higher accumulation of the heavy gas at the
interface. The process is influenced by both the buoyancy effects as well as by the
impermeability of the interface to noncondensable gases. The parametric study
indicates that heat transfer degradation increases exponentially with the increase of
the gas concentration, and that the increase is much faster in case of lighter gases. It
has been also observed that if the concentration of the light gas is higher than a
certain threshold value, the gas moves upwards due to buoyancy forces and
separates from the mixture.
For binary mixtures and ternary mixtures with low gas concentrations both the
analitycal and the numerical models coincide and are in good agreement with
experimental data. However, with increasing concentration of gases in ternary
mixtures a discrepancy between the two solutions is observed. The reason for the
discrepancy is the neglect of the dependence of diffusion coefficients on
concentration distributions. This dependence is fully included in the mechanistic
CFD model. Based on the numerical studies, it is concluded that the boundary layer
74
Chapter 7 Concluding remarks
approximation approach tends to under-predict the effect of the heat transfer

degradation in ternary mixtures with significant concentrations of noncondensable
gases.
Present research indicates that mechanistic modelling of condensation in presence

of noncondensable gases is feasible and lead to better understanding of the
governing phenomena. Future research should focus on extension of present models
to turbulent and transient flows, and on extensive validation of the models against
detailed experimental data. Since there is a lack of high quality experimental
database, it is recommended that more experiments are performed with focus on
measurement of local parameters in the vicinity of the interface.
75
Acknowledgements
First of all I would like to thank my supervisor Professor Henryk Anglart for the
technical support during this project.
I would also like to acknowledge Svenskt Krntekniskt Centrum (SKC) and my

Reference Group for the financial support and technical suggestions.
A special thanks to my fiance, family and friends for so important spiritual

support.
77
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86
Appendix 1
Appendix 1
Numerical implementation of the model of wavy
film flow interaction with binary mixture of
gases
A1.1 Numerical scheme
Two-dimensional conservation equations, for both liquid and gaseous phases, in the
general coordinate system can be written in the following, vector form:
q n
+ Fn + Gn =
t (A1.1)
S n
2 2
= n n 2 q n + q n + 2
q n +
J J J J
where n = L, M, denotes liquid or gaseous phase, respectively.
Symbol S n in the above equation can be understood as a contribution vector to the

transport equations and is a source term. In this case Sn contains buoyancy forces,
which result from the nonuniformity in the noncondensable mass fraction field:
[ (
S n = 0 g A A ) 0 0 0 , ]
T
(A1.2)
where is given by the following relation:
(M A M V ) A . (A1.3)
=
M A (M A M V ) A
Further in the text, bold notation for vectors and matrices has been omitted.
Vectors q n , Fn , G n are given by the following relations:

Fn + Gn
q n , x y 2

qn = Fn = + n n q n , (A1.4)
J J J
87

Fn + Gn
x y 2
G n = + n n q n . (A1.5)
J J
Vectors q n , Fn , G n and contain unknown variables and fluid properties.

Including matrix n, vectors q n , Fn , G n can be written as follows:
p a 2u a2v
u 2
u + p/ uv (A1.6 - 8)
q n = v , Fn = uv , G n = v 2 + p/

T uT vT
A u v
n A n A n
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0
. (A1.9 10)

n = , n = 0 0 1 0 0

a 0 0 0 1 0
D AC 0 0 0 0 1 n
n
Because the nonstaggered grid has been applied, checkerboard problem has been
avoided by the so-called artificial compressibility method. This method has been
used successfully in many fluid dynamics computations (Perrin and Hu 2006) and is
based on the pseudo-transient formulation of the mass conservation equation.
Therefore, the continuity equation has been written in the following form:
p u v
+ a 2 + = 0 . (A1.11)
t x y
With such expression, solution of the system of conservation equations doesnt

have physical meaning until the steady-state is reached. Coefficient a can be
interpreted as the speed of sound in the medium if it was compressible.
In order to perform such pseudo-transient calculations, Euler implicit scheme has

been applied:
{( )}
q m +1 = q m + f t m +1 , q m +1 t , (A1.12)
where m is the m-th time step.

Schematically the transformation from the physical to the computational domain is
shown in the Figure A.1:
88
Appendix 1
y physical computational
domain domain
transformation
Figure A1.1 Transformation from the physical to the computational domain.
Between these two domains the following transformation coefficients are given:
x x j+ 2,k +1 x j,k +1 , x x j+1,k + 2 x j+1,k , (A1.13 14)

j+ 2,k +1 j,k +1 j+1,k + 2 j+1,k
y y j+ 2,k +1 y j,k +1 , y y j+1,k + 2 y j+1,k . (A1.15 16)

j+ 2,k +1 j,k +1 j+1,k + 2 j+1,k
With the above relations, the Jacobian of the transformation can be calculated from
the following expresion:
x y x y. (A1.17)
J =

Coefficients , , , in two-dimensional space, have the following forms:
2 2
, , (A1.18 19)
= + = 2 +
x y x x y y
2 2
, (A1.20)
= +
x y
where
89
y x y x

, .
= = 1 , = 1 , = (A1.21 24)
x J 1 y J x J y J 1
Laplacians of , can be expressed as:
x y y x
2 2

2 J 2 2
= +
J J 1
, (A1.25)
x y x 2 y y 2 x
( y ) ( x )
J J 2 2
+ +
J 1 J 1
y x x y
2 2

2 J 2 2
= 1
+
J J
. (A1.26)
y x y 2 x x 2 y
( x ) ( y )
J J 2 2
+ +
J 1 J 1
Because of the structure of vectors Fn and Gn, the following relations can be written:
F G
Fn = q n (u q )n , G n = q n (v q )n , (A1.27 28)
q
n q n
where F and G are so called flux Jacobian matrices given as:

q q
n n
90
Appendix 1
0 a2 0 0 0
1 / 2u 0 0 0
F , (A1.29)
= 0 v u 0 0
q n
0 T 0 u 0
0 A 0 0 u
n
0 0 a2 0 0
0 v u 0 0
G . (A1.30)
= 1 / 0 2v 0 0
q n
0 0 T v 0
0 0 A 0 v
n
Expanding into Taylor series about the m-th time level, F m +1 and G m +1 can be
approximated by the following expression:
m m
F G
F m +1
= F +
m
q m +1 , G m +1 = G m + q m +1 , (A1.31 32)
q q
m
q
q m +1
= q +
m
q m +1 , (A1.33)
q
where:
q m +1 = q m +1 q m . (A1.34)
In order to compute derivatives of the transformation coefficients, the following,

second order approximations have been applied:
2 x x j, k +1 2 x j+1, k +1 + x j+ 2, k +1 , (A1.35)

2 ( )2
x x +x x
(x ) j+ 2, k + 2 j, k + 2 j, k j+ 2, k , (A1.36)
4
2 x x j+1,k 2 x j+1,k +1 + x j+1,k + 2 , (A1.37)

2 ()2
91
2 y y j, k +1 2 y j+1, k +1 + y j+ 2, k +1 , (A1.38)

2 ( )2
y y +y y
(y ) j+ 2, k + 2 j, k + 2 j, k j+ 2, k , (A1.39)
4
2 y y j+1, k 2 y j+1, k +1 + y j+1, k + 2 . (A1.40)

2 ()2
Approximations of mixed derivatives with the five-point formula have been
performed by employing additional coefficients in the following way:

{ n } =

1
= ( NE SE NW + SW )n = , (A1.41)
4
1
= {a 1 ( N + E P ) a 2 ( N + W P ) +
4
a 3 ( S + E P )}n
where: n = q n .
J
Symbols NE, NS, etc. represent the so-called compass notation and gives addresses
of the grid points (Figure A.2):
SW W NW
S
P N
SE E NE
Figure A1.2 Compass notation.

m m +1
An example of approximation of coefficients a ql and a q
l
is presented below:
92
Appendix 1
m qm m m m , (A1.42)
q
J = a 1
q
J + J q J q
NE N E P
m +1 q m + 1
J q = a 1
q m +1 + q m +1 q m +1 , (A1.43)
NE J N J E J P
m
J q
qm NE , (A1.44)
a1 =
m m m
J q + J q J q
N E P
n +1
J q
a1
q n + 1
= NE , (A1.45)
n +1 n +1 n +1
J q + J q J q
N E P
where: q m +1 q m q m +1 is used only in order to calculate mixed derivatives

coefficients and should not be mixed with the time derivative.
A1.2 Solution method

In order to write a discrete form of the generic conservation equation (Equation
A.1), the five-point formula with compass notation has been applied. The whole
system of equations has been written in the following form:
A ij j = Q i , (A1.46)
where A ij is the matrix of coefficients, j is the vector of unknowns and Q i is the

vector of remaining coefficients.
In a discrete form the previous equation becomes:
A P nk,+l 1 + A E nk ++11,l + A W nk +1,1 l + A N nk,+l +11 + A S nk,+l 11 = Q nk,l . (A1.47)
Such system of equations has been solved with the Matlab code by inversion:
j = (A ij ) 1 Q i . (A1.48)
93
Coefficients of matrix A ij , with the compass notation, are given by the following
expressions:
1. W (west)
1 x y 2
J P t A + B + +
2 J J J , (A1.49)
+

2 +
( ) J 4 J
(

a4 a2 )

2. S (south)
1 x y 2
J P t A + B + +
2 J J J , (A1.50)
+

2
+

(
a4 a3
() J 4 J
)

3. P (central)

1 ij + 2 t +
t

2
(
)
a 2 + a 3 a1 a 4 ,
(A1.51)
( ) () 4
2
4. N (north)
1 x y 2
J P t A + B + +
2 J J J , (A1.52)

2

(
a1 a 2
( ) J 4 J
)

5. E (east)
1 x y 2
J P t A + B + +
2 J J J , (A1.53)

2
( ) J 4 J
(

)

a1 a 3

94
Appendix 1
with A = F and B = G .
q q
A1.3 Modeling of the boundary conditions at the liquid-

gas interface
Based on the previously presented numerical scheme, liquid and mixture domains
have been computed separately and linked by interface boundary conditions. The
interface temperature, which is the same for both liquid and gaseous domains, is
calculated with the interface energy balance as follows:

T T
kL L = n h fg k M M .

V
(A1.54)
y y
In the above expression it has been assumed that the wave amplitude is much
smaller than the wave length.
Because the system of conservation equations is solved in the general coordinate

system, this relation has been finally implemented as:

TL L TL
k L L + =
y L y L . (A1.55)

TM M TM
= n h fg k M M

+
y M
V
y M
In the same manner, the mixture mass transfer into the liquid domain can be
implemented as follows:

M D AV M V M V . (A1.56)
n =

+
1 V y M y M
V
Relation between the interface noncondensable mass fraction and the interface
temperature is given by the saturation conditions.
Gradients at the liquid-gas interface are calculated with the second-order

approximation, what is consistent with the applied numerical scheme:
.
N P
(A1.57)

95
The relation (A1.57), even if it looks as the first order approximation, is in reality
the second order one. Such result can be easily obtained by calculation of the
unknown value of at point S with a linear extrapolation using points P and N.
96
Appendix 2
Appendix 2
Boundary layer approximation
A2.1 Physical model
y, v Saturated binary mixture of condensable

and noncondensable gas
A + C = 1
x, u
u M C
TM
Temperature
profile Water vapour
mass fraction.
T profile
C
TW
Figure A2.1 The physical model of forced convection condensation from the binary
mixture with noncondensable gas on a horizontal, isothermal surface.
The model of forced convection condensation from the binary mixture of

condensable and noncondensable gas has been schematically shown in Figure A2.1.
This model is specially constructed in order to confirm assumption that both,
specification of the liquid film thickness based on the order of magnitude analysis,
and the wall temperature are equivalent.
There are several assumptions and simplifications used in this model. Most
important ones have been listed below.
flow of the liquid film is laminar,

1/ 2
film thickness is considered to be proportional to the x based on the
order of magnitude analysis,
film interface is impermeable for the noncondensable component,
liquid film properties are assumed to be constant,
97
boundary layer approximation is valid for the liquid film phase.
binary mixture of any condensable and noncondensable gas,

flow of the mixture is laminar,
mixture inflow velocity and temperature profiles are uniform,
bulk amount of noncondensable gases and the bulk mixture temperature
are known and are uniform,
boundary layer approximation is valid for the gaseous phase,
binary mixture components are in dynamic and thermal equilibrium.
smooth, horizontal, isothermal wall.
Solution method
boundary layer approximation with the similarity method.
A2.2 Liquid conservation equations

In order to find the analytical solution of the liquid-side boundary layer, partial
differential equations have been simplified to the system ordinary differential
equations.
Liquid phase velocity components, u and v, can be expressed with a definition of
the stream function as:
L , L . (A2.1 2)
uL = vL =
y x
Next, the following similarity variables can be introduced:
cL y L TL T
L = , f ( ) = , L = . (A2.3 5)
x1/ 2 L L
(U
Lx )
1/ 2
TW T
Because the mass conservation equation is automatically satisfied by the definitions

of the stream functions, the liquid-side momentum and energy equations become:
d 3f L 1 d 2f L d 2 L 1 d
3
+ fL =0, + PrL f L L = 0 . (A2.6 7)
d L 2 dn L 2 d L
2
2 d L
98
Appendix 2
where Pr is the Prandtl number.
For an isothermal surface with no-slip conditions, the above equations are subject to
the following boundary conditions:
W
df L W = 1.
= 0, f LW = 0 , (A2.8 10)
d L
A2.3 Mixture conservation equations

Gaseous phase velocity components, u and v, can be expressed with a definition of
the stream function as:
M , M
uM = vM = . (A2.11 12)
y x
Introducing the following parameters, representing the dimensionless distance, the

dimensionless stream function, the dimensionless temperature and the
noncondensable mass fraction, respectively:
c M (y ) , M
M = f M ( M ) = , (A2.13 14)
x 1/ 2
(
U M x )
1/ 2

, =A ,
TM T
M = (A2.15 16)

T TW
A
the mixture momentum, energy and mass fraction conservation equations can be
written as follows:
d 3f M 1 d 2f M , d 2 M 1 d M
3
+ fM 2
=0 2
+ PrM f M =0, (A2.17 18)
d M 2 dn M d M 2 d M
d 2 1 d
2
+ Sc M f M =0. (A2.19)
d M 2 d M
In the above relations the Prandtl and the Schmidt numbers have been defined for
the ambient conditions.
Mixture side conservation equations are subject to the following boundary

conditions:
99

df M
= 1 , M = 0 , (x, ) = 1 .

(A2.20 22)
d M
A2.4 Interface conditions

Interface conditions are based on the balances of mass, momentum, energy and
interface impermeability assumption for the noncondensable mass flux into the
liquid phase. They can be written as follows:

d d (A2.23)
L v L u L = M v M u M = n V
dx dx

u L = u M , uL uM , (A2.24 25)
L = M
y y

T T
k L L = n V h fg k M M , (A2.26)
y y
A
A vM u M M D AC =0. (A2.27)
x y
Applying similarity variables defined in the previous sections, the mass and
momentum interface balances become:
1/ 2
L L df L df
f =f ,

L

M = M , (A2.28 29)
M M d L d M
1/ 2
L L d 2f L d 2f M . (A2.30)
2
= 2
M M d L d M
Definitions of the heat conductivity of the liquid phase and the Jakob number as:
k L = a L Cp L L , Ja =
(
Cp L T T W , ) (A2.31 32)
h fg
permit to write another form of the Jakob number:
100
Appendix 2

1 d L k M c M d M . (A2.33)
Ja = PrL f L
2 d L k L c L d M
Hence the interface nondimensional temperature is given by:
d
k M c M d M

L h fg
d L k L c L d M
(
= T TM )

, (A2.34)
0.5 Cp L PrL f L
where the latent heat is approximated to be a function of the interface temperature,

only:
( )
h fg = f T . (A2.35)
With definition of the Schmidt number, the interface impermeability condition for
the noncondensable gas allows to write the interface dimensionless mass fraction in
the following form:

= A = 2

A
d
dM
(Scf M ) .
1
(A2.36)
Method of finding the wall temperature is based on the assumption that liquid film
thickness is given by the following relation:
= x 1 / 2 , (A2.37)
where in Equation (A2.37) is a constant expressed by the fluid properties.
As a result, temperature difference TM T W which satisfies the above statement is

found. This can be proved to be equivalent to the specification of the wall
temperature and finding the film thickness . The main reason of such treatment is
the fast solution of the system of ordinary, nonlinear differential equations. This
system is solved with the shooting method, where the two-sided boundary value
problem is converted to the initial value one. Comparison of this method with
solutions to the same problem obtained by Sparrow et al. (1967) is presented in
Figure A.2.2:
101
1 1 Sparrow et al. 1967

boundary layer approx.
0.9 0.9 with film model
0.8 0.8
air/air
0.7
air/air
0.7
0.6 0.6
0.5 0.5
Sparrow et al. 1967 0.4

0.4
boundary layer approx.
with film model
0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5
1/
RCp(T-T W)/(hfgPr)
Figure A2.2 Comparison of results obtained with the film thickness model given by
Equation (A2.37) and results obtained by Sparrow et al. (1967) for the Schmidt
number 0.55.
102

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Mechanistic Modelling of Water Vapour

School of Engineering Sciences

Following an extensive literature review in this field three aspects of the

In order to analyze the multicomponent mixture distribution in the above-mentioned

Keywords: condensation, noncondensable gases, CFD simulation, boundary-layer

II. Karkoszka K., Anglart H., 2005. Multidimensional multicomponent

V. Karkoszka K., Anglart H. Multidimensional effects in laminar filmwise

Publications and papers not included

VIII. Karkoszka K., 2005. Theoretical Investigation of Water Vapour

Summary of included papers

Paper II is mainly focused on the forced convection direct-contact and spontaneous

Paper IV presents the mechanistic modelling of water vapour free convection

List of papers and publications V

1.1 Condensation process and its applications....1

Chapter 2 Literature review 7

2.1 Empirical and theoretical investigations...7

Chapter 3 Physical model and assumptions 19

3.1 Free and forced convection condensation on vertical surfaces...20

Chapter 4 Mathematical models 31

Chapter 5 Solution methods and tools 45

5.1 Modelling of film structure.45

Chapter 6 Results and discussion 53

6.1 Forced convection condensation on a vertical surface...53

Chapter 7 Concluding remarks 73

Papers I-V 103

Figure 3.2 Physical model of forced convection condensation in presence

Figure 3.3 Condensation in presence of noncondensable gas on

Figure 3.4 Condensation in presence of noncondensable gas on

Figure 3.5 Physical model of spontaneous condensation

Figure 4.1 Interface between liquid film and gaseous mixture33

Figure 4.2 Change of free Gibbs energy as a function of droplet

Figure 6.1 Comparison of the diffusion, mechanistic CFD model with

Figure 6.2 Comparison of the direct-contact diffusion model

Figure 6.3 Sensitivity study of the influence of spontaneous condensation during

Figure 6.9 Comparison of the computed degradation in the condensation heat

Figure 6.10 Comparison of the computed degradation in the condensation heat

Figure 6.11 Comparison of the computed degradation in the condensation heat

Figure 6.12 Comparison of the computed degradation in the condensation heat

Figure 6.16 Influence of an additional amount of heavy or light gas on the

Figure 6.17 Influence of an additional amount of heavy or light gas on the

Figure A1.1 Transformation from the physical to the computational domain89

Figure A1.2 Compass notation................................................................................92

A noncondensable mixture component

1.1 Condensation process and its applications

In nuclear power plants condensation has important safety implications. For

Even small amounts of noncondesable gases can strongly deteriorate the

The condensation in presence of noncondensable gases is a very complex

1.2 Review of research approaches

Further generalization of the research process is directed to the more fundamental

Application of numerical methods allows to solve two or even three-dimensional,

1.3 Review of modelling approaches

1.3.1 Empirical correlations

Experimental data obtained from measurements are usually correlated and

1.3.2 Analogy between heat and mass transfer

1.3.3 Diffusion layer model

1.3.4 Boundary layer approximation and fully

The next level of generalization is based on the solution of the system of

equations describe conservation of mass, momentum, energy and additional species.

General conservation equations together with interface balances can also be

The next chapter contains a literature review. It shows chronologically how

2.1 Empirical and theoretical investigations

Sparrow et al. (1967) investigate forced-convection condensation on a horizontal

Minkowycz and Sparrow (1969) show theoretical studies on the mixture