THE ENDOCRINE GLANDS:

Structures and Functions

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 THYROID GLAND
O Gross Anatomy: Located in the anterior neck region adjacent
to the larynx and trachea. The Gland constitutes 2 lateral
lobes connected by isthmus (thin band)
O Histology: Consists of thyroid follicle with a wall formed by a
simple cuboidal or low columnar epithelium which surrounds
the Colloid, a gel-like mass contained within follicles.
O Follicular cells (principal cells) and Parafollicular cells (C
cells).

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 PARATHYROID GLAND
O Gross Anatomy: Located posteriorly in the thyroid tissues.
O Principal cells and oxyphil cells constitute the epithelial cells
of the parathyroid gland.
O Principal cells - regulates the synthesis, storage, and
secretion of large amounts of PTH (parathormone). Oxyphil
cells constitute a minor portion of the parenchymal cells and
are not known to have a secretory role.

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 O 1 Sup. Parathyroid
O 2 Inf. Parathyroid

POSTERIOR VIEW OF THE

THYROID GLAND.

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 THYMUS GLAND
O GROSS ANATOMY: Bilobed organ sits just posterior to the superior
sternum along the midline. It spans from the top of the sternum, to the level
of the fourth costal cartilages and sits anterior to the top of the heart.
O ACTIVE STATE: It has a reddish appearance in a living body due to rich
blood supply.
O With age: Fatty infiltrations replace the lymphoid tissue and it takes on more
of the yellowish color of the invading fat. This gives it the false appearance
of a reduction in size.
O THYMOSIN: The thymus provides the specialized environment for the
precursor T cells to develop, differentiate, and undergo clonal expansion.
O The thymus produces hormones that promote the maturation of T cells and
may help retard the aging process.

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 O 1- Thymus Gland
O 2 Thymic cortex
O 3 Thymic medulla
O 8 - Thymic corpuscle
(Hassalls
corpuscles

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 ADRENAL or SUPRARENAL
GLANDS
O GROSS: 2 yellowish Suprarenal or Adrenal glands (with thin covering) that sit
on the superior end of the kidneys.; They are not symmetrical.
O RIGHT ADRENAL GLAND: Slightly smaller and shapes a flat tetrahedron or
four-sided polygon
O LEFT ADRENAL GLAND: Wider size, more superiorly situated (bec left
kidney is higher) and shapes a semilunar form resembling a flattened
stocking hat placed on the upper end of the kidney.
O Each gland has cortex and medulla endocrine parts. The suprarenal
medulla (approximately 20% of the organ) secretes catecholamines. The
suprarenal cortex (majority of the organ), secretes a variety of steroid
hormones.
O ORIGIN: Each have different embryonic origins: The medulla arised from the
mesoderm, and the cortex arised from neural crest cells.
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 O 2 Adrenal Gland
O Cortex:
O 3-Zona glomerulosa
O 4-Zona fasciculata
O 5-Zona reticularis

O 6 Medulla

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 THE PANCREAS
O GROSS ANATOMY: About 15 cm long, a retroperitoneal organ
(posterior to the stomach) that forms as an outgrowth of the
duodenum (C-loop) on the right side and extends towards the
spleen on the left; Pinkish in color.
O It has four basic regions: a head, neck, body, and tail. Main
pancreatic duct: Wirsungs Duct. Minor pancreatic duct: Duct of
Santorini.
O Histology: Islets of Langerhans, the endocrine component, have
both sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation.
O Parasympathetic (cholinergic) stimulation: Increases insulin and
glucagon
O Sympathetic (adrenergic) stimulation: Increases glucagon release
but inhibits insulin release.

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O 1 Pancreas 3 Beta cells
O 7 Gall Bladder 4 Alpha cells
O 8 Common BD (Dark nuclei)
O 9 - Duodenum
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 THE OVARY
O GROSS ANATOMY: Ovoid-shaped about the size of an
unshelled almond and occupy the boundary zone
between the abdominal and pelvic cavities.
O Covered with white fibrous tissue embedded with
oocytes, the egg cells of the female.
O Ovarian follicular cells: supporting cells, endocrine
cells, which undergo changes during the female
menstrual cycle. They produce the female steroidal
hormones.

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 O 1 Ovary 7 Secondary follicle
O 11 Uterus 8 Z. pellucida
(12 Vagina) 9 Corona radiata
O 13 Urinary Bladder 5 - Antrum
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 OVARIAN HORMONES
O Estrogens:
O Promotion of growth and maturation of internal and external
sex organs
O For expression of female sex characteristics that develop at
puberty.
O On mammary glands: Promotion of breast development by
stimulating ductal and stromal growth and accumulation of
adipose tissue.
O Progestogens
O Prepare the internal sex organs, mainly the uterus, for
pregnancy by promoting secretory changes in the
endometrium.
O Prepare the mammary gland for lactation (promotes lobular
proliferation).
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 THE TESTIS
O Covered by Scrotal sac: Oval-shaped organs about 2 inches (5
cm) long and 1 inch (2.5 cm) wide.
O Tunica albuginea: tough and fibrous internal capsule separating
testes from external tissues. Inner part of the capsule, is Tunica
vasculosa, invested with blood vessels. The T. albuginea projects
inward as CT bands creating numerous small testicular
compartments occupied by Seminiferous tubules.
O Mediastinum Testis: A posterior, thickened portion of tunica
albuginea that projects inward, with blood and lymphatic vessels
and genital excurrent ducts that enter and exits the testis.
O Seminiferous tubules: Thin & highly coiled structures, vital site of
spermatogenesis.
O Interstitial cells (Leydig cells): Located between seminiferous
tubules, which secrete the male steroidal hormones.
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 Testosterone
O Peripheral testosterone levels have the following effects:
Differentiation of the central nervous system (CNS) and the
genital apparatus and genital excurrent duct system
Growth and maintenance of secondary sexual characteristics
(such as the beard, male distribution of pubic hair, and low-
pitched voice)
Growth and maintenance of the accessory sex glands (seminal
vesicles and prostate and bulbourethral glands), genital excurrent
duct system, and the external genitalia (mainly byproducts of
testosterone conversion to DHT)
Anabolic and general metabolic processes, including skeletal
growth, skeletal muscle growth, distribution of subcutaneous fat,
and kidney function
Behavior, including libido
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 Endocrine Regulation
O The steroidogenic and spermatogenic activities of the testis are
regulated by hormonal interaction among the hypothalamus,
anterior lobe of the pituitary gland, and gonadal cells (i.e., Sertoli,
spermatogenic, and Leydig cells).
O The Adenohypophysis produces three hormones involved in this
process: luteinizing hormone (LH), which in the male is
sometimes referred to as interstitial cellstimulating hormone
(ICSH); follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH); and prolactin (PRL).
O In response to LH release by the pituitary, Leydig cells produce
increasing amounts of testosterone.
O PRL acts in combination with LH to increase the steroidogenic
activity of Leydig cells.
O Because FSH and testosterone receptors are found in Sertoli
cells, these cells are the primary regulators of spermatogenesis.
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OTHER ORGANS WITH SECONDARY
ENDOCRINE FUNCTION
O Stomach: Tissues in the wall of the GIT that produce
hormones such as gastrin and secretin, for stimulating
the release of digestive enzymes.
O Kidney: Produces renin and erythropoietin, to raise BP
O Atrium of the heart: Produces atrial natriuretic peptide, to
lower BP
O Placenta: Produces human chorionic gonadotropin,
estrogens, and progesterone, for regulating reproductive
cycles
O Adipose tissue: produces leptin for appetite suppression.

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 Sources:
O Greenspans Basic & Clinical Endocrinology.
8th Ed.
O Ross MH and Pawlina W. 2011. Histology: A
Text and Atlas, 6th Ed. Lippincott Williams
and Wilkins
O Nielsen M and Miller S. 2011. Human
Anatomy Atlas. USA:Wiley and Sons
O Guyton AC and Hall JE. 2016. Medical
Physiology.

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