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Cylinder Performance

Cylinder Performance

Reciprocating
Compressors
Condition Monitoring & Diagnostics

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

By understanding the basic theory behind compressor processes, we can evaluate


measured cylinder pressure and volume relationships by comparing them to
theoretical conditions. In practice, analytical software calculates theoretical P-V
overlay curves for the expansion and compression processes based on measured
initial conditions and accepted thermodynamic models. We can then detect
problems with any individual cylinder or chamber by comparing the measured P-V
curves with these theoretical overlays.

- Changes in the shape of P-V and P- plot curves can indicate specific compressor
problems.

- Calculated performance indicators provide important clues about the condition of


key compressor components (clearance pockets, piston rings, pressure packing,
valves, etc.).

Rev 0. November, 2007 1


Cylinder Performance

Presentation Contents

Thermodynamics
Compressor Processes
Design Factors
Plot Evaluation
Performance Indicators

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

Thermodynamics This scientific discipline allows us to characterize physical


properties of gases under various conditions of temperature and pressure.

Compressor Processes We can use diagnostic software to model the processes in


the compression cycle. Then, by comparing theoretical values of gas properties with
actual measured values, we can detect anomalies that indicate the presence of
specific component failure modes.

Design Factors The design options that are specified for a particular compressor
can have significant impacts on its thermodynamic performance.

Plot Evaluation Visual displays of dynamic pressure data provide a powerful


diagnostic tool for detecting fault symptoms.

Performance Indicators These parameters help us to evaluate the thermodynamic


performance of a monitored cylinder.

Rev 0. November, 2007 2


Cylinder Performance

Thermodynamics

Equations Of State (EOS) characterize the properties of matter


under various conditions (solid, liquid, gas, plasma).

Ideal Gas Laws are Equations Of State that describe


relationships of Pressure, Temperature and Volume for gases
at relatively high temperatures and low pressures.

Advanced EOS models improve accuracy, but require more


complex calculations than simpler models.

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

Equations Of State (EOS): These equations describe the relationships of pressure,


temperature and volume for matter in various states. For most compressor
applications, we are concerned with matter in the gaseous state. Exception: It is
sometimes possible that gases with relatively high boiling points can condense in
process piping, producing slugs of liquid which must be removed from the system to
prevent damaging compressor components.

Ideal Gas Laws: These are the most basic equations of state, and they are
reasonably accurate for real gases at relatively low pressures and high temperatures.
Even when more advanced EOS models are used, the ideal gas laws are useful for
initial design estimates and rough diagnostic calculations.

Advanced EOS Models: Ideal gas laws become less accurate at lower temperatures
and higher pressures. More advanced models have been developed to more closely
characterize process gases in real-world conditions. No single EOS is appropriate for
every gas in every situation.

Note: The selection and use of advanced EOS models for specific applications is
beyond the scope of this course.

Rev 0. November, 2007 3


Cylinder Performance

Ideal Gas Laws


Thermodynamics

Boyles Law Charles Law


P1V1 = P2V2 T 1 / V 1 = T 2 / V2
P = pressure (absolute) T = temperature (absolute)
V = volume V = volume
Constant temperature & mass Constant pressure & mass

Example 1: Find V2, given P1 = 100 psia, Example 2: Find T2, given: T1 = 60 F,
V1 = 200 ft3 and P2 = 300 psia. V1 = 200 ft3 and V2 = 300 ft3.

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

A gas can be considered to be ideal when its pressure is relatively low, and its
temperature is much higher than its critical temperature (it is well above the
temperature where the gas begins to condense to liquid form). Boyles Law and
Charles Law assume that a given mass of ideal gas is being compressed or
expanded with no leakage in or out of the thermodynamic system.

Example 1: Boyles Law


P1V1 = P2V2, so V2 = P1V1/P2
V2 = (100 psia)(200 ft3) / (300 psia) = 66.7 ft3

Example 2: Charles Law


T1 = 60 deg.F + 460 = 520 deg.R
T1/V1 = T2/V2, so T2 = T1V2/V1
T2 = (520 deg.R)(300 ft3) / (200 ft3) = 780 deg.R
780 deg.R - 460 = 320 deg.F

Rev 0. November, 2007 4


Cylinder Performance

Ideal Gas Laws


Thermodynamics

Amontons Law General Law


P2 / T2 = P1 / T1 P1V1 / T1 = P2V2 / T2
P = pressure (absolute) P = pressure (absolute)
T = temperature (absolute) V = volume
Constant volume & mass T = temperature (absolute)
Constant mass
Example 3: Find P2, given: T1 = 60 F,
T2 = 120 F and P1 = 100 psia. Example 4: Find P2, given: T1 = 60 F,
T2 = 180 F, P1 = 60 psia, V1 = 200 ft3
and V2 = 20 ft3.

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

Amonton's Law describes the relationship between pressure and temperature for a
fixed mass of ideal gas in a fixed volume. The general law applies to a constant mass
of an ideal gas undergoing a process where pressure, volume and temperature can
all be variable.

Example 3: Amontons Law


T1 = 60 deg.F + 460 = 520 deg.R
T2 = 120 deg.F + 460 = 580 deg.R
P2/T2 = P1/T1, so P2 = P1T2/T1
P2 = (100 psia)(580 deg.R) / (520 deg.R) = 111.5 psia

Example 4: General Law


T1 = 60 deg.F + 460 = 520 deg.R
T2 = 180 deg.F + 460 = 640 deg.R
P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2, so P2 = P1V1T2/T1V2
P2 = (60 psia)(200 ft3)(640 deg.R) / (520 deg.R)(20 ft3) = 738.5 psia

Rev 0. November, 2007 5


Cylinder Performance

Ideal Gas Laws


Thermodynamics

Avogadros Law THE Ideal Gas Law


PV / T = R* PV = nR*T
P = pressure (absolute) n = number of moles
V = volume n = mass / molecular weight
T = temperature (abs) For any number of moles.
R* = universal gas constant
For exactly one mole of gas
Compressibility Correction
PV = ZnR*T
Z term corrects for deviation of real
gas from ideal characteristics.
6

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

Avogadros Law is based on the concept that equal volumes of different ideal gases
contain the same number of molecules, provided that both systems have the same
temperature and pressure. This law can be generalized for any number of moles of
gas by introducing the term n which stands for the number of moles. This version of
Avogadros law is often simply called THE Ideal Gas Law even though there are
actually several ideal gas laws, as we have seen.

The Ideal Gas Law may be applied more accurately to a real gas by including a
compressibility factor, Z. This is a volume ratio indicating the deviation of the actual
gas volume from the value predicted by the ideal gas law. Values for Z vary with
pressure, temperature and volume. They are available in published data tables of
physical properties for various gases.

Rev 0. November, 2007 6


Cylinder Performance

Advanced EOS Models


Thermodynamics

Benedict, Webb, Rubin (BWR)


Benedict, Webb, Rubin, Starling (BWRS)
Peng-Robinson
Redlich-Kwong
Soave-Redlich-Kwong, etc.

Many different models have been developed as


thermodynamics has evolved over the years. Every
model has its own advantages and disadvantages.

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

This short list includes several of the more popular advanced equations of state.
Some of these models are prohibitively complex to use for manual calculations, so
they are most commonly used with powerful diagnostic software.

BWR EOS contains six constants and is generally more accurate than two-constant
equations, such as the Redlich-Kwong equation.
BWRS EOS was developed to obtain more accurate values of the thermodynamic
properties of hydrocarbons and related compounds. Accommodates liquid, gas, and
dense fluid states.
Peng-Robinson EOS is useful for liquids and real gases. Includes an acentric
factor to accommodate differences in molecular shape and polarity.
Redlich-Kwong EOS is useful for real gases at the liquid-vapor line. Empirical
modification to the Van der Waals equation to include attractive forces.
Soave-Redlich-Kwong EOS - is a modification of the Redlich-Kwong equation to
include the acentric factor and temperature effects. Useful for predicting vapor
pressures of pure components.

Rev 0. November, 2007 7


Cylinder Performance

Compressor Processes

Compression & Expansion Suction & Discharge


Theoretical pressure values are Theoretical pressure values are
calculated based on specified EOS assumed to be constant at the
and measured starting point. measured starting point.

Starting
Starting pressure
pressure for
for expansion
expansion
process
process at
at 0%
0% volume
volume

Constant pressure discharge curve

Compression curve
Expansion curve calculated per EOS
calculated per EOS

Constant pressure suction curve

P-V Plot Starting


Starting pressure
pressure for
for compression
compression
process
process at
at 100%
100% volume
volume

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

This illustration shows how EOS models allow us to calculate projected theoretical P-
V values for both the expansion and the compression processes. Condition
monitoring and diagnostic software typically performs these calculations from a
starting point of measured pressure at 0% volume for the expansion process curve
and at 100% volume for the compression process curve. To complete a theoretical
cycle overlay, the software also adds horizontal lines representing constant pressure
suction and discharge processes.

This theoretical overlay can then be superimposed on a P-V plot of measured


conditions, and the difference between measured and calculated curves can be used
to diagnose symptoms of component failures. This concept will be discussed in more
detail in the Plot Evaluation section (page 19).

Rev 0. November, 2007 8


Cylinder Performance

Isothermal Assumption
Compressor Processes

Isothermal Gas temperature is constant during the process.


This assumption is not the most accurate for real-world
compressors, but it provides a useful maximum value for
theoretical process efficiency.

PERFECT heat
PERFECT heat transfer
transfer through
through chamber
chamber walls
walls

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

The term isothermal describes a process that occurs at a constant temperature.


This assumption applies most closely to a compressor process that occurs very
slowly, in a cylinder that has very conductive walls and a large constant temperature
mass surrounding it.

With no change in gas temperature during the cycle processes, the only work done
on the gas is the flow energy that goes into changing the pressure and volume of the
gas. In real-world compressors, there is usually a significant temperature increase
during the compression process and decrease during the expansion process.

This process is the most efficient of the three assumptions that are most often used
to evaluate theoretical cylinder performance. The other two are the polytropic and
adiabatic assumptions described on the following pages. Even though it is not
usually the closest approximation to performance of an actual compressor cycle, the
isothermal assumption provides a useful bounding value for the maximum possible
efficiency that any defined compressor cycle could theoretically attain.

Rev 0. November, 2007 9


Cylinder Performance

Polytropic Assumption
Compressor Processes

Polytropic The process follows the relation, P1V1n = P2V2n .


P = pressure, V = volume, n = polytropic index.
This assumption usually provides a closer fit to real compressor
performance than the isothermal assumption does.

SOME heat
SOME heat transfer
transfer through
through chamber
chamber walls
walls

10

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

The term polytropic describes any process that can be described by the relation,
P1V1n = P2V2n. Observe that this equation looks like Boyles Law, only with the addition
of the polytropic index, n. This exponent is a property of the specific machine
design and operating conditions, rather than of the gas itself.

Several special cases occur when the exponent in this general equation is specified in
certain ways. An isothermal process is described when n = 1, and an isobaric
(constant pressure) process is described when n = 0. For a reversible adiabatic
process (described on the following two pages), the exponent in this general equation
can be calculated from the ratio of specific heat values of the process gas. For such
a case, the exponent is usually referred to as k or (gamma), which is also known
as the isentropic exponent.

Note: The polytropic index for a compressor usually falls about midway between the
values of 1 and k for the process gas being considered. Example: The specific heat
ratio for ordinary air at 100 deg.F is 1.400. A typical polytropic index for an efficient
air compressor design is roughly 1.25 to 1.30.

Rev 0. November, 2007 10


Cylinder Performance

Adiabatic Assumption
Compressor Processes

Adiabatic No heat energy crosses the boundary of the


thermodynamic system during the process (which is also
assumed to be reversible).
This assumption is reasonably accurate for use with most real-
world reciprocating compressor processes.

NO heat
NO heat transfer
transfer through
through chamber
chamber walls
walls

11

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

The term adiabatic describes a process where no heat is transferred across the
boundary of the thermodynamic system being evaluated. This assumption is
applicable to many real compressors, since the compression and expansion
processes happen so quickly that there is not time for significant heat transfer to
occur through the walls of the chamber.

Adiabatic processes are categorized into isentropic (reversible) or isenthalpic


(throttling) processes. No real process is exactly isentropic, but compression and
expansion processes are much more nearly reversible than many other processes.

Since no heat crosses the system boundary, the energy added by forcing the gas
molecules closer together during compression causes pressure to increase more
quickly than it would with isothermal conditions. Similarly, the energy that is removed
from the gas by expanding the molecules further apart causes pressure to drop more
quickly than it would with isothermal conditions. These effects result in more area
inside the P-V curve so more power is required to perform the process and it is less
efficient than it would be for isothermal conditions.

Rev 0. November, 2007 11


Cylinder Performance

Adiabatic Assumption
Compressor Processes

Constant Specific Heats Model:


P1V1k = P2V2k
T1V1(k-1) = T2V2(k-1)

k is the isentropic exponent


k = cp / cv, the ratio of specific heat values
For ideal gas, reversible process, no energy losses
Acceptable accuracy for many applications

12

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

These equations apply to an adiabatic, reversible (isentropic) process for an ideal gas
with constant specific heats. They provide a simple way to calculate temperature
and pressure values as a function of volume. No real gas fits these equations exactly.
However, these expressions predict performance with acceptable accuracy over a
wide range of conditions for real-world compressors.

Note: cp is the specific heat for the process gas at constant pressure, while cv is the
specific heat at constant volume. Since pressure and volume change during the
expansion or compression processes, the specific heat values also change. Standard
practice when using this model is to use an average specific heat value that is
between the values at the process endpoints.

Rev 0. November, 2007 12


Cylinder Performance

Measured & Calculated P-V Curves


Compressor Processes

TDC
10000

Adiabatic
Adiabatic
8000

Isothermal
Isothermal
Pressure (PSIG)

6000
Polytropic
Polytropic

4000

Indicated
Indicated Consumed Power
(measured)
(measured) Process
(HP / kW)
2000 Indicated 953 / 711
Adiabatic 902 / 673
Polytropic 858 / 640
Isothermal 790 / 589
0
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Displaced Volume (%)


13

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

This P-V plot shows four distinct curves for a compressor cylinder in good condition:
indicated (measured) pressure, and calculated pressure using isothermal, polytropic
and adiabatic assumptions for measured pressure conditions at 0% and 100%
displaced volume.

The small table shows the calculated power required for each curve (the area
enclosed by each process curve on the P-V plot). Observe that the measured curve
represents the highest power requirement largely due to the extra work that is
required to overcome flow resistance in the suction and discharge paths (observe
that the actual pressure is below the theoretical constant suction pressure line and
above the theoretical discharge pressure line).

The isothermal curve represents the lowest power requirement, as expected, since it
is the most efficient theoretical cycle. Of the three assumptions used to calculate
theoretical overlays, the adiabatic assumption is the closest fit to the actual
measured curve.

Rev 0. November, 2007 13


Cylinder Performance

Design Factors

Compression Ratio
Clearance Volume
Isentropic Exponent
Intercooling
So many choices

There are many compromises to consider when specifying the


design options for a compressor. These factors can have significant
effects on the thermodynamic performance of a compressor.

14

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Compression Ratio is the ratio of the discharge pressure of a compression stage to


the suction pressure. Sometimes called pressure ratio. Compression Ratio usually
remains fairly constant for a compressor that is operating in steady-state conditions.

Clearance Volume is the unswept volume that remains in the chamber when the
piston has reached TDC. If installed, clearance pockets can be used to adjust the
clearance volume during compressor operation.

Isentropic Exponent is the k value that is used when calculating expansion or


compression curves with the adiabatic assumption. This exponent can change
during compressor operation if the process gas composition changes.

Intercooling is the application of a process gas cooler between the discharge of a


low-pressure compression stage and the suction of a high pressure stage. This
cooling process can result in significant savings in power required for the high
pressure stage of the process.

Rev 0. November, 2007 14


Cylinder Performance

Compression Ratio
Design Factors

Compression
Compression Ratio
Ratio == 44

Volumetric
Volumetric Efficiency
Efficiency (VE)
(VE)
varies
varies significantly
significantly with
with
changes
changes inin compression
compression ratio.
ratio.

Compression
Compression Ratio
Ratio == 22

15

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Compression ratio is defined as the discharge pressure divided by the suction


pressure of the compressor stage being evaluated. The design compression ratio
depends on how many stages will be used and the required pressure conditions for
the supported process. The compression ratio has a large effect on the shape of the
P-V cycle curves for each compressor stage. The actual compression ratio for any
given chamber changes somewhat during normal operation, based on typical
fluctuating conditions of suction & discharge pressure.

This example compares P-V cycle curves for two different compression ratios, both of
which start from the same suction pressure conditions. The shape of the
compression curve does not change as compression ratio changes, but the
volumetric efficiency is reduced significantly as the compression ratio increases.
Also, the shape of the expansion curve changes slightly due to changes in the initial
pressure conditions of the expansion process.

Note: Volumetric Efficiency (VE) is the ratio of swept volume in either the suction or
discharge process compared to the entire 100% volume that is displaced by the
piston over a full stroke. VE is described more completely on pages 31 and 32.

Rev 0. November, 2007 15


Cylinder Performance

Clearance Volume
Design Factors

Clearance
Clearance == 22%
22% Clearance
Clearance == 11%
11%

Smaller
Smaller clearance
clearance
volumes
volumes produce
produce
steeper
steeper P-V
P-V curves
curves

Clearance
Clearance == 11%
11% Clearance
Clearance == 22%
22%

16

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

The design cylinder clearance value for a compressor affects how steep the
expansion and compression curves will be on the P-V plot. Increasing the clearance
causes the curves to have a shallower slope, which reduces the loading of the
cylinder.

As we described in the Basic Construction module, clearance pockets are commonly


used to allow changing the compressor loading during operation. Some clearance
pockets can only be valved-in or isolated from the chamber completely. Other
clearance pockets can provide a volume that is adjustable based on the position of a
moveable plunger.

Design clearance values are selected based on the anticipated requirements of


cylinder loading and the ability to change loading during various phases of
compressor operation (such as during machine startup).

Rev 0. November, 2007 16


Cylinder Performance

Isentropic Exponent
Design Factors

NN == 1.400
1.400 NN == 1.800
1.800

Larger
Larger exponents
exponents
produce
produce steeper
steeper
P-V
P-V curves
curves

NN == 1.800
1.800 NN == 1.400
1.400

17

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

The design isentropic exponent is based on the anticipated properties of the process
gas to be compressed by the machine being designed. As shown in this example,
larger exponents produce P-V curves with steeper slopes which correspond to
more work being required for each stroke.

It is important to realize that even though a compressor may be intended for


processing a single type of gas, there may be operating modes where the
compressor temporarily compresses a gas with very different properties from the
normal process gas. EXAMPLE: Compressors are often purged of a flammable
process gas (such as hydrogen) by compressing an inert gas (such as nitrogen) during
the system shutdown process. The very different isentropic exponents of the two
gases may cause a significant difference in the work that is required to operate the
compressor during these off-normal conditions.

Another example occurs when the composition of natural gas that is being
compressed changes over time. This happens quite commonly as various upstream
sources from different wells or gas fields are valved-in or isolated from the suction of
a pipeline compressor.

Rev 0. November, 2007 17


Cylinder Performance

Intercooling
Design Factors

Power
Power saved
saved
by
by intercooling
intercooling

High
High Pressure
Pressure Stage
Stage
Pressure

Low
Low Pressure
Pressure Stage
Stage

Volume

18

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

Staging provides a mechanism for keeping gas discharge temperatures within the
limits of conventional materials. It also provides the opportunity to cool the process
gas partway through the overall compression cycle to improve compressor
efficiency. The shaded area in this P-V plot represents the work that is saved if
intercoolers are used to cool the gas between the discharge of the low pressure
stage and the suction of the high pressure stage.

As with everything in Engineering, adding intercoolers between compression stages


involves a series of design compromises. The intercooler introduces an unavoidable
pressure drop to the process gas, and it adds cost and complexity to the compressor
support systems. But depending on the cost of energy needed to drive the
compressor, it may be possible for intercoolers to pay for themselves several times
over during the life of the compressor.

Rev 0. November, 2007 18


Cylinder Performance

Plot Evaluation

Adiabatic
Adiabatic
Chamber Pressure

Measured
Measured

Displaced Volume

Example: Displaying a calculated overlay together


with measured values allows us to compare
theoretical and actual performance visually.
19

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

This P-V plot example shows how we can graphically compare the measured
performance of a compressor chamber with calculated theoretical performance. As
we described earlier, diagnostic software has created the overlay curve by combining
calculated expansion and compression curves and constant pressure suction and
discharge processes based on measured pressure at 0% and 100% displaced
volume.

Note: It is very important that the piston angle for any evaluated chamber has been
established correctly. If this timing is inaccurate, the shapes of the plotted curves will
be changed, and it may be difficult or impossible to diagnose any problems using the
plots.

Rev 0. November, 2007 19


Cylinder Performance

Ideal Process Plots Discharge Pressure


Plot Evaluation P-V
P-V plot
plot

Volume

Pressure
P-
P- plot
plot
Discharge Pressure

Suction Pressure
Pressure

Suction Pressure

Displaced Volume

P-V
P-V plot
plot Discharge Pressure
Crank Angle (log
(log units)
units)

Pressure (Log Units)


These three examples show
ideal plots for a cylinder in Suction Pressure

perfect condition.

Displaced Volume (Log Units) 20

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

These examples show theoretical process curves in P- and P-V plot formats for a
crank-end chamber. The theoretical curves are calculated based on the adiabatic
assumption described earlier. Any deviation of the actual measured process curves
from these ideal shapes will become apparent, and will provide some insight into the
problems that the cylinder may be experiencing.

The P- and linear scale P-V plots are very familiar from previous topics in this course.
Here, we are introducing a P-V plot that uses logarithmic scales. With log scales, the
theoretical cycle curve is shaped like a perfect parallelogram. The simplicity of this
shape makes it an especially useful tool for diagnosing cylinder performance
problems. Small deviations of measured conditions from the ideal shape are easy to
detect visually.

Rev 0. November, 2007 20


Cylinder Performance

Suction Valve Leak


Plot Evaluation (P-
)

Discharge Pressure
Pressure

Suction Pressure

DASHED
DASHED curve
curve == theoretical
theoretical
SOLID
SOLID curve
curve == actual
actual

0 180 360
Crank Angle

21

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

In the P- plot shown here, there is a noticeable difference between the theoretical
calculated (dashed) curve and the actual measured (solid) curve. The compression
process takes longer than expected and expansion occurs more quickly than
expected. There must be some cause that is reducing pressure buildup during
compression and relieving pressure during expansion. A leaky suction valve would
cause exactly these observed effects. Also, since this is the crank end chamber, the
pressure packing could be leaking.

Failing Suction Valve Supporting Data


- Elevated valve temperature
- Increased valve cover vibration

Failing Packing Supporting Data


- Elevated packing case temperature
- Increased packing vent flow & temperature
- Increased distance piece vent flow & temperature

Rev 0. November, 2007 21


Cylinder Performance

Discharge Valve Leak


Plot Evaluation (P-
)

Discharge Pressure
Pressure

Suction Pressure

DASHED
DASHED curve
curve == theoretical
theoretical
SOLID
SOLID curve
curve == actual
actual

0 180 360
Crank Angle

22

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

This P- plot exhibits the opposite effect from the previous example. In this plot, the
compression process takes less time than expected and the expansion process takes
longer than expected. There must be some cause that is making pressure build up
faster than normal during compression, and preventing it from dropping at the
normal rate during expansion. A leaky discharge valve would cause exactly these
observed effects, as it would allow inward leakage of high pressure gas from the
discharge manifold.

Failing Discharge Valve - Supporting Data


- Elevated valve temperature
- Increased valve cover vibration

Discussion Question: What would we see if we had both a leaky suction valve and a
leaky discharge valve in the same chamber?

Rev 0. November, 2007 22


Cylinder Performance

Example 1
Plot Evaluation (P-
)
Measured
Measured curve
curve has
has
fluctuating
fluctuating discharge
discharge pressure
pressure

Theoretical
Theoretical curve
curve has
has
constant
constant discharge
discharge pressure
pressure

23

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

In this actual example, the difference between the measured curve and the
theoretical curve is not as pronounced as it was in the idealized illustrations on the
previous two pages.

Discussion Question: Does this look more like a leaky suction valve or a leaky
discharge valve? Explain your reasoning.

Rev 0. November, 2007 23


Cylinder Performance

Example 2
Plot Evaluation (P-
)
Measured
Measured
curve
curve

Theoretical
Theoretical
curve
curve

Crossover
Crossover point
point
indicates
indicates possible
possible
piston
piston ring
ring leak
leak

24

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

The overall shape of the curve is similar to the suction valve leak that was shown on
the previous page (did you figure it out correctly?). The main difference is that there is
a crossover point at about 60 degrees crank angle. Before this point, compression
happens a little bit faster than expected, and after this point, it occurs somewhat
more slowly than expected.

This is a classic example of a small piston ring leak. During the initial part of the
compression stroke, the pressure in the head end chamber is much higher than it is in
the crank end chamber, and the leakage flows into the crank end chamber. At the
crossover point, pressures in both ends of the cylinder are approximately equal and
there is no driving force to cause leakage past the leaking piston ring. Beyond the
crossover point, the pressure is higher in the crank end chamber, so the leakage flow
is actually going OUT of the chamber.

Supporting data for a piston ring leak:


- Elevated cylinder discharge temperature
- Increased valve cover vibration
- Possible small impulse vibration event if ring shifts significantly at crossover

Rev 0. November, 2007 24


Cylinder Performance

Ideal P-V Plots


Plot Evaluation (P-V)

Discharge
Discharge

Compression

Log Pressure
Compression
Pressure

Expansion

Expansion Suction

Suction

Volume Log Volume

Suction and discharge processes Suction and discharge processes


are parallel lines. are parallel lines.
Compression and expansion Compression and expansion
processes are exponential curves. processes are parallel lines.
25

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

Even though P-V curves plot exactly the same pressure data that is shown on
Pressure-Crank Angle plots, they are often easier to interpret, and are preferred by
many diagnosticians for locating compressor problems.

On the standard (linear scale) P-V plot, the expansion and compression processes are
perfect exponential curves. On the log-log P-V plot, these same exponential curves
show up as straight lines, which are exactly parallel to each other. The simplicity of
the parallelogram shape of the ideal P-V curve in log-log display makes this an
especially useful tool for diagnosing small problems. It is fairly easy to detect
deviations from this shape

Historical Note: P-V plots have been used since the early days of reciprocating steam
locomotives. Early test instruments used ingenious mechanical methods to mark a
measured pressure curve with ink on a paper indicator card. Movement along the
volume axis was physically driven by the reciprocating piston rod, while movement
along the pressure axis was physically driven by a bellows or other type of pressure
sensor. Test instruments have since evolved from purely mechanical devices to
electronic digital devices, but the same P-V plot conventions are still used.

Rev 0. November, 2007 25


Cylinder Performance

Suction Valve Problems


Plot Evaluation (P-V)

SUCTION
VALVE
LEAKAGE

Measured
Measured curve
curve isis wider
wider at
at bottom
bottom than
than at
at the
the top.
top.

Measured
Measured suction
suction pressure
pressure undershoots
undershoots Measured
Measured suction
suction pressure
pressure oscillates
oscillates
26

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

Suction Valve Leakage Starting at TDC, the compression curve slowly falls below
the theoretical curve. This is because backflow through the closed suction valve
increases with differential pressure across the valve. The discharge process looks
normal except at the very end of the discharge stroke. As the piston slows, backflow
causes a small dip in discharge pressure. During the expansion stroke, pressure
drops more quickly than theoretical, as there is a smaller mass of gas to expand in
the cylinder, and backflow continues. As differential pressure decreases, the
backflow drops, causing a small curve to the left. The suction process appears
normal, except that it starts slightly earlier in the cycle than usual. The logarithmic
plot shows these same effects.

Suction Valve Springs Too Stiff Stiff springs prevent valve disc components from
opening as soon, or with as much lift, as normal springs allow. In this example, the
flow restriction is small, and the compression curve appears normal. There is a slight
dip below the suction pressure line when the valve opens.

Suction Valve Chatter (Flutter) Some pressure fluctuations during the suction
process are normal. However, chatter is an extreme case, where the disc
components repeatedly bounce back and forth between the guard and the seat.

Rev 0. November, 2007 26


Cylinder Performance

Discharge Valve Problems


Plot Evaluation (P-V)

DISCHARGE
VALVE
LEAKAGE

Measured
Measured curve
curve isis wider
wider at
at top
top than
than at
at the
the bottom.
bottom.

Measured
Measured discharge
discharge pressure
pressure overshoots.
overshoots. Measured
Measured discharge
discharge pressure
pressure oscillates.
oscillates.
27

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

Discharge Valve Leakage The expansion process appears normal, except that
pressure does not decrease as rapidly as anticipated due to backleakage through the
discharge valve. The suction process appears normal except for starting later than
normal in the cycle. Just before the piston reaches TDC, the pressure begins to rise
due to backleakage through the discharge valve. Actual pressure remains above
theoretical during the compression process due to the increased mass of gas in the
chamber at the start of the compression stroke. The discharge process appears
normal, except that it starts sooner in the cycle than usual. The logarithmic plot
shows these same effects.

Discharge Valve Springs Too Stiff Stiff springs prevent valve disc components from
opening as soon, or with as much lift, as normal springs allow. In this example, the
flow restriction is small, and only the discharge process shows any abnormalities.

Discharge Valve Chatter (Flutter) As with suction valves, some pressure


fluctuations during the discharge process is actually normal. When valves chatter, it
can indicate that the springs are too stiff, or that the lift is set too high.

Rev 0. November, 2007 27


Cylinder Performance

Piston Ring Leak


Plot Evaluation (P-V)

PISTON RING
Crossover
Crossover LEAKING

Crossover
Crossover

Measured
Measured curve
curve isis wider
wider at
at bottom
bottom than
than at
at the
the top.
top.

Overall shape similar to leaky suction valve.


Measured pressure crosses over theoretical overlay curve
during the compression process.
28

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

In this example, the suction process appears normal, except as the piston nears the
end of its stroke at TDC. As the piston slows, pressure in the crank end chamber
begins to rise due to leakage past the piston ring. Since the head end chamber is
now at its maximum pressure, the differential pressure across the ring is at a
maximum. Pressure remains above the theoretical curve for part of the compression
stroke, then crosses over as the differential pressure across the piston passes
through zero.

As the differential pressure reverses direction, leakage from the crank end chamber
to the head end chamber causes the pressure to fall below the theoretical curve. This
causes the discharge process to start later than expected in the cycle. As the piston
nears the end of its stroke, pressure again drops below theoretical due to leakage
from the crank end chamber to the head end chamber. During the expansion stroke,
pressure falls below theoretical due to leakage across the piston ring.

Discussion Question: Why doesnt the measured pressure cross over the theoretical
curve during the expansion stroke. Hint: what is the relationship pressure in the
crank-end and head-end chambers during this process?

Rev 0. November, 2007 28


Cylinder Performance

Other Problems
Plot Evaluation (P-V)

Flow
Flow restriction
restriction causes
causes pressure
pressure Flow
Flow restriction
restriction causes
causes pressure
pressure
drop
drop during
during suction
suction process.
process. rise
rise during
during discharge
discharge process.
process.

Discussion: Could changing operating conditions cause these


symptoms? How?

29

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

Suction Passage Too Small The discharge and expansion processes occur
normally. However, when the suction valve opens, the flow restriction in the suction
passage causes actual pressure to decrease abnormally. Because of the restriction,
the cylinder fills with a smaller mass of gas than normal. This smaller mass of gas
becomes apparent during the compression process, as the actual pressure drops
below the theoretical curve.

Discharge Passage Too Small The suction and compression processes occur
normally. However, when the discharge valve opens, the flow restriction in the
discharge passage causes pressure to increase abnormally. The cylinder wastes
energy compressing the gas to a higher pressure than would be required if the
passage allowed adequate flow. As a result, a smaller mass of gas is discharged
from the cylinder. Sometimes, this problem may even cause a slower pressure drop
than usual during the expansion process.

Discussion Question: Presumably, the compressor size should have been adequately
specified initially. Assuming the compressor did not exhibit these symptoms
immediately after it was installed, what do you suppose might cause such a problem
to develop over time?

Rev 0. November, 2007 29


Cylinder Performance

Performance Indicators

Volumetric Efficiency
fraction of stroke used by suction or discharge process
Capacity
amount of gas processed per specified unit of time
Flow Balance
ratio of suction capacity to discharge capacity
Indicated Horsepower
power required for the cycle (area inside P-V curve)
Power Losses
power lost to flow restrictions in suction & discharge path

30

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

With todays monitoring capabilities and computer availability, compressor


performance indicators are normally calculated by analytical software. The software
calculates a variety of cylinder performance variables, using measured data and
defined properties for the fluid being compressed. These calculated performance
variables give us a way to measure the performance of individual chambers and
cylinders by numerical means, rather than just qualitatively.

To perform these performance calculations, the software uses equations of state to


calculate how parameters of the process gas (pressure, temperature, and volume)
depend on each other. Diagnostic software typically allows the selection of an EOS
model that is widely accepted and known to be appropriate for the particular process
application.

Note: The selection and use of advanced EOS models for specific applications is
beyond the scope of this course.

Rev 0. November, 2007 30


Cylinder Performance

Volumetric Efficiency Defined


Performance Indicators

Discharge Volumetric Efficiency Suction Volumetric Efficiency

VD V2 V3 VS V1 V4
EVD = = EVS = =
VPD VPD VPD VPD
Clearance
Clearance Volume,
Volume, VVCL
CL

Piston
Piston Displacement,
Displacement, VVPD
PD
Cylinder Pressure

Discharge
Discharge Volume,
Volume, VVDD

33 22

44 11

Suction
Suction Volume,
Volume, VVSS

0% Displaced Volume (%) 100%


31

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

In general terms, Volumetric Efficiency (VE) describes how effectively the volume of a
compressor cylinder can be used to move a specific gas while raising its pressure for
the compression process being supported. It is simply the ratio of swept volume that
is included in either the suction or discharge process compared to the entire 100%
volume that is displaced by the piston over a full stroke. Factors that affect
volumetric efficiency include the following:

- Increasing the Pressure Ratio reduces the volumetric efficiency.

- Increasing the Clearance Volume reduces the volumetric efficiency. This


characteristic is used to good advantage in compressor unloading schemes.

- Changing the gas composition can either increase or decrease the volumetric
efficiency (by changing the slopes of the compression and expansion curves).

Rev 0. November, 2007 31


Cylinder Performance

Volumetric Efficiency Measured


Performance Indicators

We
We will
will use
use these
these
Discharge
Discharge VEVE == 48%
48% measurements
measurements in in the
the
(48%
(48% -- 0%)
0%) following
following pages
pages to
to
calculate
calculate capacity
capacity and
and
flow
flow balance
balance values.
values.

Suction
Suction VE
VE == 86%
86%
(100%
(100% -- 14%)
14%)

32

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

This example shows measured P-V conditions for a monitored chamber. The
discharge process occurs over 48% of the total displaced volume, and the suction
process occurs over 86% of the total displaced volume.

In the following pages, we will calculate values for suction and discharge capacity
and flow balance for this actual cylinder, given that the full displaced volume of the
cylinder is 100 cubic feet. To perform these calculations, we will need to use the
values for volumetric efficiency, and the absolute values of discharge and suction
pressure from this P-V plot.

Discharge Process: VE = 48% and pressure is 700 psig (714.7 psia, assuming
standard atmospheric pressure).

Suction Process: VE = 86% and pressure is 310 psig (324.7 psia, assuming standard
atmospheric pressure).

Rev 0. November, 2007 32


Cylinder Performance

Capacity
Performance Indicators

Capacity is the amount of gas (mass or volume) that is


processed by a compressor per specified unit of time.

Mass Units (kg/hr, lbmol/stroke, etc.)


Volume Units (mmscfd, CFM, etc.)

Capacity can be measured by flow instruments or calculated


from measured values of volumetric efficiency, pressure,
cylinder volume, and compressor speed.

33

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

Compressor capacity may be described for any individual stage or cylinder or for the
overall compressor for a given set of specified conditions. Capacity may be
measured by flow elements in the process gas lines or calculated from values of
volumetric efficiency.

-When specified in the more theoretical units of mass (or moles) per stroke, the
capacity parameter is most commonly being used by people evaluating the
thermodynamic performance of an individual cylinder.

-When specified in the more practical units of mass or volume per hour or per day,
the capacity parameter is most commonly being used by people evaluating the
production capabilities of the compressor to meet its business needs.

Rev 0. November, 2007 33


Cylinder Performance

Suction Capacity Calculation


Performance Indicators

Information for cylinder on Calculation


page 32:
PV = ZnRT
Ps = 310 psig + 14.7 = 324.7 psia PV
ns =
Vs = (86%)(100 ft3) = 86 ft3 ZRT
324.7 lbf 144 in
2
Z = 1.0136 (dimensionless) 2
2
( )
86 ft 3
in ft
R = 1545.33 ft-lbf/lbmol-R ns =
Ts = 84.7 F + 460 = 544.7 R (1.0136) 1545.33 fto lbf 544.7 o R
( )
lbmol R

ns = 4.71 lbmol ( per stroke)

34

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

In this example, we use the compressibility-corrected ideal gas equation to calculate


the moles of gas that are brought into the cylinder during one stroke of the piston. W
know the values of P, V, Z, R, and T, so we can calculate the moles of process gas, n,
that are brought into the cylinder during the suction process.

P = Absolute Pressure (lbf/in2)


V = Volume (ft3)
Z = Compressibility Factor (dimensionless we provided a representative value for
existing conditions from a lookup table)
R = Gas Constant (1545.33 ft-lbf/lbmole-deg.R)
T = Absolute Temperature (deg.R)
n = moles of gas (lbmol)

Note: GEs System 1 software can use either manually-entered or calculated values
of Z and k (the specific heat ratio), for given conditions of temperature, pressure, and
gas composition.

Rev 0. November, 2007 34


Cylinder Performance

Discharge Capacity Calculation


Performance Indicators

Information for cylinder on Calculation


page 32:
PV = ZnRT
Pd = 700 psig + 14.7 = 714.7 psia PV
nd =
ZRT
Vd = (48%)(100 ft3) = 48 ft3
714.7 lbf 144 in
2
Z = 1.0262 (dimensionless) 2
2
( )
48 ft 3
in ft
R = 1545.33 ft-lbf/lbmol-R nd =
Td = 239.7 F + 460 = 699.7 R (1.0262) 1545.33 fto lbf 699.7o R
( )
lbmol R

nd = 4.45 lbmol ( per stroke)

35

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

In this example, we are using the same equation as on the previous page, except with
the parameter values for discharge conditions. Observe that P, V, Z and T values are
different from those for suction conditions, but the universal gas constant, R, remains
the same. The result of this calculation is the number of moles of process gas, n, that
are pushed out of the cylinder during the discharge process.

Rev 0. November, 2007 35


Cylinder Performance

Flow Balance
Performance Indicators

Flow Balance is defined as Suction Capacity divided by


Discharge Capacity.

nS
Flow Balance =
nD

If the cylinder is in perfect condition, with no leakage past the


valves, packing or rings, Flow Balance is exactly 1.

36

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

Flow Balance is the ratio of the mass of gas that is discharged from a chamber to the
mass of gas that is brought into the chamber during one stroke of the throw. If the
cylinder were perfect, all of the process gas that was brought into the chamber
during the suction process would be discharged. The ratio when these two masses
are equal would be exactly 1.

In reality, there is always some leakage past valves, pressure packing and piston
rings, so this number is almost never exactly 1.0. The further the flow balance
deviates from 1.0, the larger is the leakage problem with the cylinder. In the absence
of other symptoms, a flow balance value between about 0.96 and 1.04 usually
indicates that a cylinder is in reasonably good condition.

Rev 0. November, 2007 36


Cylinder Performance

Suction Valve Leak Example


Performance Indicators

Some of the gas leaks out of the 1.0 mole


chamber through the suction valve
during the compression process.

Suction Capacity = 1.0 mole


Fewer moles of gas are discharged
than are brought in during the
suction process. 0.1 mole (leak)

0.9 mole

nS > nD, so Flow Balance > 1.


Discharge Capacity = 0.9 mole

Flow Balance = 1.0 / 0.9 = 1.1


37

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

This hypothetical (but not unrealistic) example shows very simply how it is possible for
a chamber to have different values of suction capacity and discharge capacity. In
this head-end chamber example, the discharge valve is working perfectly, but the
suction valve is leaking.

Note: Pressure packing leakage can cause an identical increase in Flow Balance for
the crank-end chamber, even when the suction and discharge valves are operating
perfectly.

Rev 0. November, 2007 37


Cylinder Performance

Discharge Valve Leak Example


Performance Indicators

Additional gas leaks into the 1.0 mole


chamber through the discharge
valve during the suction process. 0.1 mole (leak)

Suction Capacity = 1.0 mole


This extra gas is discharged along
with the gas that was admitted
through the suction valve.
1.1 mole

nS < nD, so Flow Balance < 1.


Discharge Capacity = 1.1 mole

Flow Balance = 1.0 / 1.1 = 0.9


38

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

This head-end chamber example is similar to the one on the previous page, only this
time the suction valve is working perfectly, and it is the discharge valve that is
leaking. Flow balance is one of the most useful performance indicating parameters,
as we will discover in the Case History workshops.

For additional illustration, we will perform a manual calculation of Flow Balance for
an actual compressor, using the capacity values that we calculated on pages 34 and
35 (see calculation on next page).

Rev 0. November, 2007 38


Cylinder Performance

Flow Balance Calculation


Performance Indicators

For this example, we are using the capacity values that were
calculated on page 34 and 35:

nS 4.71 lbmol
Flow Balance = = = 1.06
nD 4.45 lbmol

Note: Flow Balance is a dimensionless parameter. As long as


we use the same units for both suction and discharge capacity,
the units cancel.

39

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

In this example, the flow balance is somewhat greater than 1.

Discussion Question: In the absence of other symptoms, does this value of flow
balance more likely represent back-leakage through suction valves or through
discharge valves?

Rev 0. November, 2007 39


Cylinder Performance

Indicated Horsepower
Performance Indicators

The WORK done


The WORK done onon the
the gas
gas for
for
one
one complete
complete cycle
cycle is
is shown
shown
by
by the
the cross-sectional
cross-sectional areaarea
inside
inside the
the measured
measured cycle
cycle
curve
curve on
on aa P-V
P-V plot.
plot.

Power is WORK per unit


TIME, so it takes machine
speed into consideration.

40

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

For any closed cycle where measured pressure is plotted against volume, the work
required for one complete cycle can determined by calculating the total area
enclosed by the process on the P-V plot (shaded area in this example).

This area represents the work that is done on the process gas in a single stroke. To
find the power, we simply multiply by the rate at which the strokes are repeated
(compressor RPM), since power is defined as the amount of work done per unit of
time.

By using suitable conversion factors, this value can be displayed as horsepower,


kilowatts, or other selected units. This parameter is often called either indicated
horsepower or total absorbed power.

Rev 0. November, 2007 40


Cylinder Performance

Power Losses
Performance Indicators

The
The work
work that
that is
is done
done toto overcome
overcome
flow
flow restrictions
restrictions inin the
the suction
suction and
and
Discharge
Discharge Work
Work Loss
Loss discharge
discharge paths
paths isis lost
lost to
to the
the
compression
compression process.
process.

Power is WORK per unit


TIME, so it takes machine
speed into consideration.

Suction
Suction Work
Work Loss
Loss

41

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

The area of the P-V curve that is above the discharge pressure line represents the
work (or power) that is required to overcome the spring pressure in the valves and the
head loss in the piping, bottles, orifice plates, etc. This additional work is considered
to be lost since it does not actually go into increasing the energy of the gas.
Similarly, the total area below the suction pressure line represents the work (or
power) that is lost in the suction piping, gas passages and valves.

Rev 0. November, 2007 41


Cylinder Performance

Diagnostic Software Calculations


Performance Indicators

42

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

We have already discussed most of the performance indicator parameters on this list.
A few of the others that we have not yet discussed include the following:

Adiabatic Discharge Temperature Theoretical temperature of the process gas at


discharge pressure based on the isentropic exponent at suction conditions (ks) for the
gas mixture.

Median Capacity Midpoint between calculated values of the suction capacity and
discharge capacity. Median Capacity = (Qs + Qd)/2.

Power to Median Capacity Ratio Ratio of indicated horsepower to median


capacity. This parameter normalizes the amount of power required to process a
given amount of gas.

Rev 0. November, 2007 42


Cylinder Performance

Practice Exercises
Cylinder Performance

Thermodynamics
Compressor Processes
Design Factors
Plot Evaluation
Performance Indicators

43

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

Practice exercises for each module may be used for self-study or for instructor-led
group review sessions.

Rev 0. November, 2007 43

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