in humans, 20 alpha amino acids lower activation E Aerobic Respiration requires O2.

products
MCAT BIO: Print and Highlight in PDF amine attached to alpha carbonyl not consumed, altered positive cooperativity. low [substrate], small of glycolysis will move into mitochondrial
do not alter Keq increasees in [substrate] increase enzyme matrix. inner mitochondrial memberate less
most bio molecules: 10 are essential. lock-and-key theory / enzyme specificity. efficiency and rxn rate. positive are the first permeable. Once inside matrix, pyr converted
-lipids aas differ in their R group. specific shape. changes. its why there is an 02 dissociation to acetyl CoA producing NADH and CO2
-proteins digested proteins reach our cells as single aas curve with Hb. (sigmoidal shape). both
-carbohydrates second theory: induced fit. Shape of both positive and negative cooperativity. --
-nucleotide derivatives Nonpolar: enzyme and substrate altered during binding.
Gly, Ala, Val, Leu, Iso, Phe, Tryp, Met, Pro Krebs Cycle
70 to 80 % water is cell Polar enzymes saturation kinetics. Enzyme Classification: Acetyl CoA coenzyme which transfers 2
Ser, Thr, Cys, Tyr, Asp, Glu as [substrate] goes up, so does rxn rate, but memorize -ase sometimes complex carbons to the 4 carbon oxaloacetic acid to
water, small polar molecule, can H-bond Acidic curve slows as gets closer to Vmax. chemical has ase and you will know it is an begin krebs cycle (aka TCA). Each turn
allows it to maintain liquid at room Aspr Acid, Glu acid Km good indicator of affinity for its substrate enzyme, it contains nitrogen, and it is subject produces 1ATP, 3NADH, and 1 FADH2.
cohesive forces squeeze Basic: to denaturation. ATP production is substrate-level
hydrophobic away from H20 Lysine, Arginine, Hist temp and pH. phosphorylation. during cycle, 2 CO2 given
hydrophilic dissolve easily in human body, temp of 37C lyase catalyzes addition of one substrate to a off. oxaloacetic acid is reproduced, cycle
-negative charged ends (italics for mnemonic) pepsin in stomach likes ph< 2. Trypson, in double bond of a second substrate. again.
attract the posi Hs of small intestine likes ph between 6 and 7.
H20. Proline induces turns. ligase also governs an addition rxn, but
2 types of proteins globular and structural. most enzymes require non-protein component requires energy from ATP. Proteins aas Pyruvic Acid + NH3
Most macromolecules can be hydrolyzed, and glob: enzymes, hormones, memb pumps called cofactor. optimal activity. (waste) Acetyl CoA TCA/Krebs
formed via dehydration. struct: cell / matrix structure. collagen. Cofactors: kinase enzyme which phosphorylates
Minerals, something, phosphatase DEphosphorylates. Fatty acids + energy Acyl CoA + NAD+ +
lipid low sol in H20, high sol in nonpolar glycolproteins cell matrix Coenzymes (many are vits of their eg, hexokinase phosphorylates glucose as soon FAD Acetyl CoA enter TCA/Krebs
make good barriers cytochromes prothetic heme group. Hb derivatives) as it enters cell to prepare for glycolysis.
1) Fatty acids -cosubstrates Polysaccharides simple sugars PGAL
2) triaglycerols --- -prosthetic groups. Metabolism: all the cellular chemical rxns Pyr acid Acetyl CoA TCA/Krebs
3 phsopho lipids Carbohydrates bind to specific enzyme, txfer chemical 3 stages
4) glycolipids C and H20. C(H20). Glucose 6 Cs. all group to another substrate. cosubstrate then1) macromolecules broken down into
5)steroids sugars broken down to glucose. reverted back. constituent parts (little E released) aas are deaminated in the liver. chemically
6) terpenes -2 anomers, alpha (trans) and beta (cis) 2) constituent parts oxidized to acetyl CoA, converted to pyr acid or acetyl CoA.
Animals eat Alpha. Bacteria break Beta ATP is cosubstrate type of coenzyme pyruvate, or other metabolites forming ATP
Fatty acids are building blocks for most lipids and reduced coenzymes (NADH and FADH2) Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
absence of insulin, neural and hepatic cells use --- which does not directly utilize oxygen series of proteins, including cytochromes with
facilitated txport for glucose. Enzyme inhib: 3) if O2 is avail, metabolites go into TCA and heme, in the inner mitochondrial membrane.
Saturated FAs only single C-bonds -irreversible covalently bonded (penicillin) oxidative phosphorylation to form large electrons passed down series and accepted by
Unsaturated one or more double C-C bonds cellulose has beta linkages -competitive raise apparent Km but not amounts of energy (more NADH, FADH2, or oxygen to form water. protons are pumped
Vmax ATP); otherwise, coenzyme NAD+ and other into intermembrane space for each NADH.
most fats reach cell as FA, not triaglycerols if you see N on the mcat, think protein -noncompetitive some other spot, change byproducts either recycled or expelled as proton gradient proton motive force
conformation. lower Vmax waste. 2nd and 3rd stages, the energy acquiring propels protons through ATP synthase to make
trias are 3 carbon backbone stores energy ---- do not change Km stages, called respiration. aerobic and ATP. Oxidative phosphorylation. 2-3 atps
--also thermal insulation, etc. anaerobic versions. manufactured for each NADH. FADH2
Nucleotides: 3 components Regulation: similar fashion. only 2 ATPs, however.
glycolipids have 3-C backbone with sugar -5-C / pentose sugar anaerobic: 02 not required.
attached. membranes of myelenated cells in -Nitrogenous base -zymogen/proenzyme not yet activated. glycolysis first step. intermembrane pH lower than matrix.
nervous system -phosphate group need another enzyme or change of pH. eg, glucose pyruvate (3Cs). Glucose + 02 CO2 + H20 (combustion
pepsinogen. + 2ATP, PO3, H20, 2NADH rxn)
steroids 4 rings. include hormones, vit D, bases in nucleotides AGCT and U happens in cytosol (fluid portion) of cells final electron acceptor is 02, thats why its
and cholesterol (membrane) polymers: DNA, RNA, Nucl-acids -phosphorylation aerobic
joined by phosphodiester glucose facilitated diffusion into cell.
Eicosanoids local hormones bp, body T, nucleotides written 5 to 3 -control proteins, eg, G proteins Aerobic Respiration: 36 net ATP, including
smooth muscle. Aspirin commonly use DNA written so top strand is 53 resulting 3-C molecules each transfer one of glycolysis. 1 NADH brings 2-3 ATPs, and 1
inhibitor of prostaglandins. bottom is 35 -Allosteric interactions: negative or positive their PO3 groups to an ADP to form one ATP FADH2 brings about 2 ATPs. One glucose
RNA is 1-stranded. U replaces T. feedback mechanism. each in substrate level phosphorylation. produces 2 turns.
lipids insol, so transported in Hb via important nucleotide: ATP. energy. cyclic negative: product downstream comes back to
lipoproteins. classified by density, VLDL, amp inhibit Fermentation: anaerobic respiration.
LDL, HDL. (lipid::protein ratio). is a messenger. positive: product activates first enzyme. glycolysis reduction of pyr to ethanol or
occurs much less often. lactic acid. humans do the latter. no 02 avail
---- --- other proteins have these characteristics or unable to assimilate E from NADH.
fermentation recycles NADH back to NAD+
Proteins: chain of aas linked by peptide bonds Enzymes negative allosteric inhibitors do not resemble
aka polypeptides globular proteins substrates, they cause conformational change.
catalysts can alter Km without affecting Vmax.

Genes
gene series of n-tides. codes for single
polypeptide, or mRNA, rRNA, or tRNA.
Eukarys have more than 1 copy of some
genes. Prokarys only have 1 copy of each.
one gene; one polypeptide. exception: post
transcriptional processing RNA.
Genome: entire DNA sequence of organism.
only ~ 1% of genome codes for protein
human DNA differs only at about 0.08%.
Small variation big difference.
Central Dogma: DNA transcribed to RNA,
translated to aas for protein
DNA RNA Protein.
(same for all organisms)
4 bases of DNA:
-Adenine (purine) two ring
-Guanine (purine) two ring
-Cytosine (pyrimidine) one ring
-Thymine (pyrimidine) one ring
each n-tide bound to next by phosphodiester
bond b/w 3rd carbon of one deoxyribose and
the phosphate backbone of a single strand of
DNA with 5 3 directionality. -rRNA: combines w/ proteins to form
In DNA, two strands run antiparallel bound
together by H-bond. Double stranded. h-
bonding base pairing.
complementary strands double helix
each groove spirals once around double helix
for every 10 base pairs.
diameter of double helix is 2 nanometers
remember: Ntide made of pentose sugar, P03
group, nitrogenous base.
pairings: AT, GC
2 H bonds in A-T, 3H bonds in C-G
A2T, C3G
DNA replication: semi-conservative
new dbl strand created has one new one
old.
Replication proceeds in both direction from
origin each direction produces a leading and transcription decides this. most regulation of
lagging strand.
Prokaryotic replisome
DNA polymerase builds the new strand.
Requires RNA primer to get started.
reads parental in 35 direction
complementary strang 53
convention: DNA nucleotides 5to3 prokary: polycistronic
as well
53. 5 is upstream, 3 downstream. operator + promoter + genes = operon Genetic code: mRNA nucleotides.
reading DNA like paddling upstream code is degenerative. more than one set of 3 translocation segment of DNA from 1
eg, lac operon. codes for enzymes to allow E nucleotides can code for a single amino acid. chromo inserted into another
5 steps of replication: coli to import and metabolize lactose when but 1 and only 1 aa, so unambiguous. inversion orientation reversed
1) helicase unzips double helix low glucose. low glucose, high cAMP, start codon is AUG transposons can excise themselves and insert
2) RNA polymerase builds a primer activates CAP, activates promoter. operator stop codons UAA, UAG, and UGA. themselves elsewhere
3) DNA polymerase assembles leading and downstream, too. Allows for repression via 64 possible combinations of the bases
lagging strands binding to a protein, allolactose (inducer). forward mutation changing organism away
4) Primers are removed 20 possible amino acids. from original state
5) Okazaki fragments joined initial mRNA sequence called primary if protein contains 100 aas, then 20<100 backward back to original state
transcript. processed by addition of n-tides, possible sequences. original state called wild type
process of replication: semidiscontinuous deletion of n-tides, modification of n-bases. 5
end capped with GTP. 3 end poly A tail to RNA n-tides written 53 Cancer
telomeres: ends of eukaryotic chromosomal protect from exonucleases proto-oncogenes stimulate normal growth in
DNA. protect from chromosomal erosion Translation: mRNA directed protein synthesis. cells. can be converted to oncogenese genes
primary txscript cleaved into introns, exons mRNA the template. tRNA carries n-tides that cause cancer, by UV radiation, chemicals,
RNA snRNPs (snurps) recognize, form spliceosome, complementary for codon, called anticodon. or simple random mutations. Mutagens that
carbon 2 not deoxygenated cut off introns. only 30,000 genes, but rRNA with protein make up ribosome, which cause these called carcinogens
single stranded 120,000 proteins possible bc of splicing. is the site of translation.
uracil instead of thyamine introns::exons = 24::1
can move through the nuclear pores small subunit, large subunit. ribosomes DNA is 5 ft for each cell. wrapped tightly
denatured DNA heat separated strands. require nucleolus for their origin. around globular proteins, histones. 8 histones
3 types more C3G pairs, higher Tm tRNA posessing 5-CAU-3 anticodon wrapped in DNA nucleosome. wraps into
DNA-RNA hybridization sequesters methionin and enters at P site. coils, supercoils, entire complex called
-mRNA: delivers DNA code for aas to restriction enzymes cut DNA at certain Large subunit joins (initiation). next tRNA chromatin.
cytosol for protein manufacturing sequences, usually palindromic. leave DNA enters A site. translocation. tRNA shifts,
with sticky end so they can reconnect. moves to E site. somatic cell: 46 double stranded DNA
-tRNA: collects aas in cytosol, transfers to recombinant DNA. initiation, elongation, and termination. molecules. chromosome. 46 chromosomes
ribosomes before replication, 46 after replication.
DNA library use a vector in a bacterium, txlation begins on free floating ribosome. duplicates referred to as sister chromatids.
then reproduce bacterium. active gene, turn signal peptide can transport polypeptide to Diploid means cell as 23 homologous pairs.
ribosomes protein synthesis. blue with x-gal. some bacteria wont take up, lumen. SRP can carry entire ribosome towards sex cells haploid.
so introduce lac-z with your inserted vector. ER
DNA is produced by replication introduce X-gal and the right ones will turn stages of cells life
only in nuc and mito matrix blue Mutations 1) G1 first growth
RNA by transcription any alteration that is not recombination 2) S Synthesis
also in cytosol one way to find gene in library hybridization gene mutation sequence of n-tides in a single 3) G2 second growth phase
radioactive labeled comp sequence of desired gene 4) M mitosis / meiosis
transcription: starts w/ initiation. promoter. DNA fragment (probe). cDNA product chromosomal mutation structure is changed 5) C cytokinesis
RNA polymerase. promoter is upstream from mRNA produced by the DNA. lacks introns
gene. (good). somatic vs. germ cell mutations
latter more serious 1-3 called interphase.
replication: transcription bubble, elongation better cloning: polymerase chain rxn (PCR). in G1 regions of heterochromatin have been
mode. strand transcribed: template or fast way to clone dna. heating and annealing. point mutation single n-tide changed unwound into euchromatin, RNA synth and
antisense. other strand is coding. RNA poly, primers hybridize. polymerase replicates. base pair mutation AT to GC, vice versa protein synth very active. G1 checkpoint S
like DNA poly, reads in the 35 direction, missense bp mutation in aa sequence of stage, if ratio of cytoplasm to DNA is high
building new RNA to be made 53 southern blotting: ID target fragments of gene enough.
no proofreading mechanism. slower. rate of known DNA in large pop of DNA. DNA may or may not be serious Gzero is nongrowing state. neurons, liver
error is higher. not hereditary errors. end is cleaved into restriction fragments. separated eg, sickle cell anemia cells.
called termination. Coding strand resembles by size in gel elctrophoresis. large moves insertion or deletion frameshift mutation G2 checkpoint Mitosis promoting factor
RNA transcript. slower than small. gel denatures DNA multiples other than 3. (MPF)
fragments. probe hybridizes w/ and marks sometimes nonframeshift and still functional
replication doesnt distinguish genes. target fragment. usually frameshift is non-functional Mitosis, nuclear division w/o genetic change
nonsense stop codon created by mutation 4 stages remember PMAT: prophase
gene expression during transcription by Northern blot uses same techniques to ID (condensation of chromatin into chromosomes,
activators and repressors. bind to DNA specific sequences of RNA chromosomal mutations centrioles move to opposite sides of cell.
promoter, and either activate or repress RNA deletionsportion of chromosome breaks off spindle apparatus forms of aster, centromeres
poly. can be allos regulated by small Western blot: detects a protein with antibodies duplication breaks off and incorporates into at center. spindle micotubules connect two
molecules such as cAMP. respond to enviro hmologous chromosome centrioles.) metaphase (chromosomes align
changes. RFLP: IDs individuals instead of specific along equator), anaphase (sister chromatids
eukaryotes: one gene per transcript genes. we are polymorphic for our restriction Down syndrome result of aneuploidy where 3 split at attaching centromeres, move towards
sites. can only negate people, cannot identify copies of chromosome 21 opposite ends of cell. cytokenesis, separation
of cytoplasm due to microfilaments.), and lysogenic, longer word, longer cycle gradient. the two can be added to form an transformation, and transduction. also can do
telophase (nuclear membrane reforms electrochemical gradient. binary fission (split).
followed by reformation of nucleolus.
Chromosomes decondense and cannot be seen Microbiology membrane must be permeable to allow
under microscope. Continuued cytokinesis). Prokaryotes no memb bound nucleus. diffusion binary fission
Viruses, tiny infectious agents. consists of either bacteria or archea. arch more similar to usually semipermeable membrane. -circular dna replicated
Interphase is both before and after PMAT. protein coat (capsid), 1-400 genes (DNA or euks -2 dna polys begin at same point of circle
Interphase = normal cell, nothing happening. RNA) inside. mature virus outside host cell two things affect permeability size and (origin of replication)
viron. carbon source. all microorganisms tend to fix polarity. larger, less permeable -cell divides, leaving 1 chromosome in each
Meiosis double nuclear division which not living bc need host cell to txfer genetic CO2, reducing it and using it to create organic the greater the polarity of a mol, less daughter
produces four haploid gametes. aka germ material. Do not metabolize nutrients. use molecules via Calvin cycle permeable a membrane is. very large lipids -2 daughters are identical.
cells. only spermatogonium and oogonium hosts ATP. (nonpolar) can therefore move easily.
undergo it in humans. infection begins when virus absorbs chemical however this is energy expensive. Autotrophs conjugation
receptor of host, usually glycoprotein on can use Co2 as sole source of carbon. eg, water is larger than sodium, but water is requires one of the bact. have a plasmid w/
membrane. Heterotrophs use organic molecules. polar whereas sodium is a complete charge, so gene that codes for sex pilus. small circles of
after replication of S phase, cell is primary easier to pass through. most membranes DNA that exist and replicate independently of
germ cell. in females, replication takes place in bacteriophage, virus infects bacteria. nuc classification system of prokaryotes: highly permeable to water. bact. chromosomes. sex pilus phalic,
before birth. life cycle arrested at primary acid is injected through tail after it has made a 1) energy source photo if light, chemo if attaaches to the other bacterium. one strand is
oocyte stage until puberty. before ovulation, hole in wall with enzymes. virus engulfed by from chemicals water moving is considered passive diffusion. nicked. etc etc
primary oocyte undergoes meitotic division to endocytosis. 2) carbon source- auto (CO2) and hetero for larger, necessary compounds, proteins are
become secondary oocyte. 2ndary released (organic molecules) needed. transport or carrier proteins 2 important plasmids. F and R. F is called
upon ovulation, penetration of secondary by lytic or lysogenic infection. fertility factor. if it has F, called F+. if not, F-
sperm stimulates anaphase II of second lytic: virus takes over machinery and begins some bacteria can fix nitrogen. N2 converted facilitated occur down electrochemical .
meitotic division of oocyte. reproducing new viruses. cell lyses bc of the to ammonia. nitrification breaks down gradient of all species. all human cells do this
produced viruses. aka Virulent Virus. ammonia into nitrates, useful to plants. for glucose supply. selectively permeable, bc R plasmid denotes resistance to antibiotics.
Two rounds of division for 4 daughters molecules of similar size and charge.
meiosis I and II In lysogenic infection, viral DNA incorporated prokarys dont have nucleus. euks do. Transformation bacteria may incorporate
similar to mitosis except: into the host genome. if RNA virus, has instead, proks have single ciruclar double if against e-chemical gradient, active transport. DNA from external environment into genome.
prophase I, homologous cr-somes align along enzyme reverse transcriptase, DNA made from stranded molecule of DNA. Under requires expenditure of energy. typical experiment: heat killed virulent
side, matching their genes exactly. May RNA and then incorporated into cell genome. microscope can be seen as a nucleoid. name bacteria mixed with harmless living. harmless
exchange exchange sequences of n-tides in Temperate virus. Cell may show no often reveals shape, e.g., spiroplasma, Bacterial Envelope. surrounds protoplast living receive those genes and become
crossing over. recombination happens here for symptoms. virus is dormant or latent. staphylococcous, or pneumococcous. (plasma membrane). basic function: to virulent.
euks. Side by side homologues exhibit a cocci round, and bacilli are rod shaped. prevent cell burst / lysis. most bacteria are
total of four chromatids. called tetrads. common cold unenveloped. plus strand helical called spirilla or spirochetes. hypertonic to enviroment (their soln has more sometimes, capsid of bacteriophage w/
chiasma, center of the x shape. RNA. plus = proteins can be directly solute when compared to outside). mistakenly encapsulate DNA fragment of host
translated from the RNA. enveloped version Bacteria have no complex membrane bound cell. when virons infect, they inject harmless
under microscope, metaphase in mitosis include retroviruses such as HIV. Retrovirus organelles. They have organelles, ribosomes, bc of concentration gradient, water would like bacterial DNA fragments. called transduction.
appears like metaphase II in meisosis, but not = reverse transcriptase = making DNA from nucleoid, mesosomes, but not complex ones. to move inside cell, but this would call cell virus that mediates this called vector. can be
number I. RNA. DNA incorporated into host cell. burst. done in a lab.
Phospholipid: phosphorylated alchohol head
mitosis = meiosis except minus strand rna include measles, rabies, and (phosphate), glycerol backbone + 2 fatty acid as water goes in, hydrostatic pressure builds. Endospores gram + bact. that can lie
-2 rounds flu. must be transcribed to plus version first. tails. eventually equals osmotic pressure and filling dormant for 100s of years. resistant to heat,
-daughters haploid -polar heads stops. uv, etc. can survive in boiling water.
-genetic recomb occurs -nonpolar tails
body defends against viruses w/ antibodies. aka amphipathic cell wall made of peptidoglycan. made of ---
Spermatogenesis antibodies bind to infected cell, and with disaccharide chains w/ aas Fungi. in divisions, not phyla. all are
spermatogonium primary spermatocyte cytotoxic T cells, kill the infected cell. embedded in plasma membrane are proteins. more elastic than cellulose, plant cell walls eukaryotic heterotrophs, obtain food by
secondary spermatocytes spermatids can act as transporters, receptors, attachment absorption. spend most of their time in the
spermatozoa vaccine either injection of antibodies or sites, and enzymes. amphipathic proteins that can ID bacteria by their cell wall. via gram haploid state. can reproduce both sexually and
injection of nonpathogenic virus w/ same transverse the entire membrane are called staining. if gram positive thick cell wall, asexually. most have cell walls called septa.
Oogenesis capsid or envelope. viruses may attack several integral or intrinsic. Peripheral or extrinsic are more peptidoglycan, shows up as purple. most are saprophytic (rotten, decayeed).
oogonium primary oocyte + first polar species at once. just on the surface. gram negative appears pink. outside these walls made of chitin. more resistant to
bodies second oocyte + 2nd polar bodies walls is a phospho bilayer, unlike gram neg. microbial attack.
zygote Virus structure: the membrane is fluid, parts can move laterally less peptidoglycan.
-capsid but not separate. fluid mosaic model. In growth state, fungi consist of tangled mass
nondisjunction centromere doesnt split -nucleic acid cholestorol moderates fluidity in eukaryotic Flagella. Long hollow rigid cylinders. do called mycelium, of branched structures,
during anaphase I or II. 1 cell has 2 extra -lipid-rich protein envelop for some membmrane. Prokary membrane only differs NOT equal euk flagella, which are made of hyphae.
chromatids. the other lacks a chromosome. slightly from euk membrane microtubules.
for most bacteriophages: haploid spores in hyphae give rise to new
----------------------------------------------------- -tail Diffusion. Moving down gradient if no Bacterial reproduction. they dont do mit or mycelia in asexual reproduction. yeasts,
-base plate electrical charge. chemical concentration mei. do not reproduce sexually. 3 alternative asexual occurs by budding / fission.
-tail fibers gradient. if electric charge, also electrical forms of genetic recombination: conjugation,
sexual repro occurs between hyphae from to SER lacks ribosomes. resembles tubes, not microfilaments smaller than microtubules. -simple: 1 layer, eg heart dendrites, nucleus, axon hillock,
mycelia of diff mating types + and flattened sacs like RER. actin is major component of microfilaments. -stratified: 2+ layers mitochondrion in soma. nodes of ranvier,
conjugation bridge. -contains G6P, which can hydrolyze to contractile force in muscle, also cytoplasmic 2) muscle myelin sheath, axon terminal.
glucose, glycolysis. streaming, etc. 3) connective: extensive matrix. eg, blood,
asexual repro: when conditions are good -triglycerides produced in SER and stored bone, lymph, cartilage, etc. Neurons do NOT depend on insulin to obtain
sexual: when its tough. parent less adaptable -adipocytes 4) nervous glucose. Get it right from the blood.
-cholestorol formation, conversion to steroids
the 4 types combined can form an organ, diff
Defining feature of eukarys nucleus. DNA phospholipids in cell memb formed from SER. Cellular junctions organs combine into a system.
cannot leave the nucleus, so transcription must oxidizes foreign substances, drugs, toxins, etc. key to MCAT Bio is knowing that body is
take place in nucleus. RNA leaves nucleus Key in liver. 3 types of junctions that connect animal cells entire organism with systems that work in Action Potential
thru nuclear pores. -tight water tight seal, blocks water, ions, conjunction w/ eachother
Peroxisomes vesicles in cytosol. grow by etc.bladder, intestines, kidney. also blocks AP is disturbance in e-field across membrane
nucleus wrapped in double phospholipid incorporating lipids. self replicate. apical and basolateral movement of proteins in Intercellular Communication resting potential established by an
bilayer nuclear envelope. large holes, pores. membrane. fluid barrier around cells equilibrium b/w passive diffusion across the
w/in nucleus is nucleolus where rRNA is overview: occurs via 3 types of mols membrane and Na+/K+ pump. it moves 2 +
transcribed and subunits are assembled. 1) 2 basic sides of cell cytosol and ER -desmosomes spot welds holding cells 1) neurotransmitters (nervous system) charged K+ ions into cell while 3+ Na+ ions
lumen. in order to get to cytosol, substance together. attach directly at cytoskeleton. found 2) local mediators (paracrine system) out of cell. force pushing Na back into clel
cells can acquire stuff via endocytosis. diff must cross membrane via passive or facilitated in places of stress: skin, intestinal epithelium. -released into interstitial fluid becomes greater. at equilibrium, inside memb
types diffusion, or active transport. can reach er -act on neighboring cells mm away has _ potential difference (voltage) compared
-phagocytosis: memb protrudes outward. lumen via endocytosis w/o ever transporting -gap tunnels b/w cells, allow exchange of -eg, prostaglandins, smooth to outside. called resting potential.
started by receptor binding. across a membrane. small molecules. important in cardiac muscle muscle contraction, inflammation
-pinocytosis - extracelular fluid engulfed. 2) RER has Ribosomes attached to cytotic to allow spread of APs from cell to cell. aspirin inhibits this. voltage gated sodium channels allow Na+ to
nonselective side. synthesizes virtually all proteins not used 3) hormones (endocrine system) flow thru membrane shortly. the membrane
-receptor mediated. uptake of hormones and in cytosol. proteins synth on RER pushed into Mitochondria reverses polarity. Depolarization. Neuronal
nutriants. ER lumen and sent to Golgi membrane also contains voltage gated
3) Golgi modifies and packages proteins for mitochondria powerhouses of euk cell. kreb they differ mainly by distance traveled. potassium channels. cause repolarization.
exocytosis is the reverse of endo. use in other parts of cell and outside cycle happens here. NTs travel over short intercellular gaps or hyperpolarization. passive diffusion returns
4) lysosomes come frome golgi, have endosymbiont theory: mito may have evolved synapses membrane to resting postential. throughout,
ER separates cytosol from ER lumen / hydrolytic enzymes to digest endocytosed from symbiotic relship b/w ancient proks and local mediators function in immediate area sodium-potassium pump keeps working.
cisternal space. ER can be contiguous w/ cell substances euks. mito like proks: have own DNA that around cell
membrane. 5) SER is site of lipid synthesis, eg steroids. replicates independently. Always inherited by hormones travel through the organism via the AP Overview
SER also detoxs, eg drugs. momma. bloodstream 1) Membrane at rest. Na/K channels closed
near nucleus, ERs cytosome side has a 2) Na channels open, cell depolarizes
granular appearance (ribosomes). aka, rough Cellular filaments: Sturcutre: NT tends to be rapid, direct, and specific 3) K channels open as Na channels begin to
ER. cytoskeleton determines skeleton and motility -outer membrane hormonal tends to be slower, spread close
of a cell inter membrane space throughout the body, and affect many cells and 4) Na channels closed. Open K channels
Translation on RER propels proteins into ER -inner membrane (holds ETC chain) tissues in many ways. repolarize membrane
lumen as they are created. They are tagged 2 major types of filaments: (2 phospholipid bilayers, the space in between) 5) K channels close and membrane
and sometimes glycosylated. Newly -cristae (invagination of inner membrane) Nervous system equilibrates to resting potential
synthesized proteins moved through lumen -microtubules: larger than filaments. involved -matrix
towards golgi. Golgi organizes and in flagella and cillia construction, and spindle rapid and direct communication b/w specific AP is all or nothing. Membrane completely
concentrates proteins as shuttled by transport apparatus. in humans, cilia only found in Extracellular Matrix parts of body deporalirzes or no AP is generated. must pass
vesicles. end product: vesicle full of proteins. fallopian tubes and resp tract. rigid hollow tissue group of cells of similar function muscular contractions or glandular a threshold stimulus. Once there is AP,
either can be expelled from the cell as tubes made of protein tubulin. spiral -some tissue have fibroblasts that secrete secretions absolute refractory period until another AP can
secretory vesicles, released from golgi to appearance from alpha and beta parts. mitotic fibrous proteins elastin and collagen includes: brain, spinal cord, nerves, neural happen.
mature into lysosomes, or transported to spindle is made of microtubules ---form molecular network that holds tissue in support cells, organs such as eye and ear.
oother parts of cell such as mitochond. place (extracellular matrix) main unit is neuron Aps, besides in neurons, also in skeletal and
-microfilaments: smaller. squeeze membrane can be liquid (blood) or solid -electrical signal from one cell via cardiac muscle.
Secretory vesicles: may contain enzymes, together in phagocytosis and cytokinesis. also (bone) electrochemical means. so specialized it
growth factors, or extracellular matrix force in the microvilli and muscle. cannot divide. depends entirely on glucose. Neural impulses transmitted intercellularly via
components. release contents thru exocytosis. basal lamina thin sheet of matrix material. depends on aerobic respiration: low stores of a synapse. Usually chemical, not electrical.
flagella and cilia specialized structures from separates epithelial from support tissue. also glycogen and oxygen, so relies heavily on aka motor end plate if neuron-muscle connex
Lysosomes contain acid hydrolases (function microtubules. axoneme contains nine pairs of found around nerves, muscle, and fat. acts as blood. usually soma (body) and 1 axon w/
best in acidic environs). capable of breaking tubules arrangment 9+2. cross bridges from semipermeable barrier. many branches, as well as many dendrites. unidirectional. small vesicles filled with NT
down any time of macromolecule w/in cell. protein called dynein. reside just inside presynaptic membrane.
interior pH of 5. fuse w/ endocytotic vesicles Organization dendrites receive signal to be transmitted membrane near end contains large number of
and digest contents. Problem: can release their Eukaryotic flagella made from 9+2 electrical stimulus goes to axon hillock, if Ca2+ voltage gated channels. When AP
contents into the own cell causing autolysis. microtubule configuration; prokaryotic is just cells of same tissue tend to have same great enough, hillock generates AP towards arrives, these are activated to allow calcium
happens during formation of tissue, however, thin strand of protein called flagellin. euk embryology. synapse, which passes signal to cell. flow into cell. causes NT vesicles to be
to form fingers, etc. flagella do whip-like action, whereas prok just 4 types of tissue in animals: released through exocytotic process into
rotate. 1) epithelial separates free body surfaces Basic anatomy of neuron: synaptic cleft. diffuses across cleft with
from surroundings. random or Brownian motion. Post synaptic
membrane contains NT receptor proteins. deactivates all of the above and activates pressure since oval window is smaller than ear
When attached, post syn membrane becomes only vertebrates have mylenated axons intestines and excretory system. lets follow path of light through eye. drum. (physics, mech advantage).
more permeable to ions. ions move through eg, slows heart rate, increases digestive and light reflects off object in external environ, 3) inner ear: wave moves thru cochlea to
now permeable proteins called ionophores, to naked eye: excretory activity. strikes first on cornea (nonvascular, made of center of spiral, spirals back out to round
completing transfer of neural impulse. White matter mylenated axons collagen). refractive index of abt 1.4, bending window. as wave moves thru cochlea, the
Grey matter neuronal cell bodies. receptors for epi and norepi called adrenergic of light occurs at interface of air and cornea, alternating increase/decrease of P moves
NT attaches to receptor only for milisecond. receptors for ACh called cholinergic not lens. vestibular membrane in and out. movement
then released back into syn cleft. if remains, nodes of ranvier tiny gaps b/w myelin, 2 types goes to anterior cavity/aq. humor. (leaks detected by hair cells of organ of corti,
can stimulate post syn memb over and over. to allows for saltatory conduction -nicotinic: generally found in postsyn cells of out to canal of Schlemm. if blocked, transduced into neural signals towards brain.
deal with this, cell can use enzyme to destroy Structure of Nervous System synapse between ANS pregang and post gang glaucomma, blindness.) also here are semicircular canals, responsible
NT. it can also be absorbed by cell Neurons are of 3 functions neurons, and on skeletal membranes at for balance (contain fluid and hair cells).
1) Sensory (afferent)- recv signals from neuromuscular junction. responds to gravity. senses motion.
Usually 1 NT per 1 synapse. Can either inhibit receptor cell from environment. txfers signal -muscarinic: found on effectors of PNS.
or excite. Some have diff effects depending to other neurons. 99% is discarded by brain. Nose and Mouth
on area; Located located dorsally (toward back) from Overview: ANS is involuntary. innervates from ant. cavity, light enters lens. ciliary
-Acetyl Choline (ACh) spinal cord. cardiac and smooth muscle, some glands. muscle attached to it. circles lens. when it senses called olfactory and gustatory.
on heart: inhibitory effect 2) Interneurons txfers signals from neuron somatic nervous system innervates skeletal contracts, opening of circle decreases, 4 tastes
on visceral smooth muscle (intestines): to neuron. 90% of neurons in body muscle. Autonomic pathways controlled by allowing lens to be more like sphere, bringing 1)bitter
excitatory 3) Motor (efferent) neurons carry signals to hypothalamus. focal point closer to lens. when relaxes, lens 2) sour
muscle or gland called effector. Located flattens, increasing focal distance. 3) salty
Receptors ventrally (toward front) from spinal cord Generally, when you hear 4) sweet
-ion channels themselves, or, acetylcholine somatic and parasympathetic eye acts as converging lens. object is outside all tastes are combos of the above.
-2nd messenger system Think of CNS as brain + spinal cord, PNS as nervous systems focal distance, image on retina is real and
everything else. (nor)epinephrine sympathetic nervous inverted
For prolonged change, eg, memory, 2nd system
messenger preferred. CNS integrates nervous signals b/w sensory Retina covers inside of back/distal part of eye
and motor neurons. connected to peripheral Central Nervous System contains rods and cones. tips of these contain
G proteins initiatie 2nd messenger systems parts of body via PNS. PNS handles sensory spinal cord, lowerbrain, all of higher brain pigments, chem change when e-trons struck by
-attached to receptor inside post syn memb. and motor functions of nervous system. acts mainly as conduit for nerves to reach photon.
-when receptor stimulated by NT, part of the G brain rods rhodopsin pigment. made from protein
protein called alpha subunit breaks free Simple reflex arc does limited integrating functions retinal. derived from vit A. photon isomerizes
Alpha subunit may receptordorsal root ganglionsensory -walking reflexes, leg stiffening, etc. retinal, causing membrane of cell to be less
1) activate separate specific ion channels neuron interneuronMotor neuron permeable to Na+, causes hyperpolarization.
2) activate a 2nd messenger, eg, cAMP or GMP effector lower brain: medulla (pons, mesencephalon), transduced into neural action potential, signal
3) activate intracellular enzymes hypothalamus, thalamus, cerebellum. sent to your noggin. sense wv 390nm to 700.
4) activate gene transcription. PNS divides to Integrates subconcious activities such as resp cannot distinguish colors.
system, arterial pressure, salivation, emotions, cones distinguish 3 types of colors.
overall: chemical synapse most important. -Somatic nervous system to respond to ext. and rxn to pain, pleasure.
slowest step in txfer of nervous signal, can environement. motor neurons only innervate fovea- small point on retina containing most
only occur in 1 direction. 2nd messenger also skeletal muscle. cell bodies of these in ventral higher (cortical) brain: incapable to function cones. vwhere vision is most acute.
important to recognize. horns of spinal cord. use ACh for NT. w/o lower brain. acts to store memories,
considered voluntary. sensory bodies process thoughts. consists of cerebrum/cortex. iris: colored portion of eye, creates opening
Support Cells located in dorsal root. called pupil. made of circular+radial muscles
-Autonomic nervous system (ANS) sensory Sensory Receptors
nervous tissue contains glia cells/neuroglia. receives singals from viscera, organs inside in dark, symp ns contracts, dillating, allow
usually ratio of 10::1 glia to neurons ventral body cavity. function is involuntary. overall: sensory receptors transduce physical more light in.
neuroglia, unlike neurons, CAN divide, and NT used by all preganglionic neurons and by stimulus to neural signals in light, parasymp contracts muscles,
usually do during traumatic brain injury to fill the post ones in the parasympathic is ACh. constricting pupil, ,screening out light.
any space created in CNS. The post ganglionic in the symp system use 5 types of sensory receptors
either epinephrine (adrenaline) or -mechanoreceptors (touch) The Ear
6 types of glia norepinephrine (noradrenaline). -thermoreceptors (change in T)
-microglia phagocytize microbes and debris divides into 2 antagonistic systems: -nocireceptors (pain) can show up on physics passage, concerning
in CNS -sympathetic (fight or flight): -e-magnetic (light) waves or mechanics. Know cochlea detects
-ependymal epithelial that line the cerebral activates heart, major skeletal muscles, dilates -chemoreceptors (taste, smell) sound, while semicircular canals detect
fluid containing parts of CNS pupils for night hunting, redirects blood, etc. orientation/movement of head.
-satellite- support ganglia in PNS eg, heart, it increases beat rate, stroke volume, on MCAT, prob just deal with eye and ear.
-astrocytes star shaped neuroglia in CNS, constricts vessels around digestive and 3 basic parts
give physical support to neurons, help excretory systems to increase flow around Eye 1) outer ear: cartilage, helps direct sound into
maintain mileu skeletal muscle. might show up as physics passage. understand external canal. carries wave to tympanic
-oligodendrocytes wrap around axons in signals originate in spinal cord. if in CNS, lens of eye is converging, flatting the eye by membrane / ear drum / begin of middle ear
CNS, creating electrical insulation. called nucleus, if outside CNS, called ganglion relaxing ciliary muscles makes the lens less 2) middle ear: malleus, incus, and stapes
-neurolemmocytes or Schwann. in PNS, -parasympathetic (rest and digest) powerful, thus moving focal point away from (bones). act as lever system, translate wave to
increases rate at which axon can txmit signals lens. oval window. increase in force. increase in
 2) steroid come from adrenal cortex,
gonads, and placenta. lipids, can diffuse thru
memb and act in nucleus. dont mix with
Endocrine System blood, so need transport molecule. acts at the
txscription level. increasing membrane or
Hormone Chemistry cellular proteins
vs. NTs, which are local hormones. stimulateds adrenal cortex to release
General hormones are released by endocrine steroid must knows:
system, released into body fluids, blood, etc. a) glucocorticoids and mineral corticoids of
affect many cell types in tissue, many types of adrenal cortex: cotisol and aldosterone
tissues. b) gonadal: estrogen, progesterone,
testosterone.
Exocrine release enzymes to external enviro
thru ducts. include sweat, oil, mucous, and 3) tyrosine derivatives thyroid hormones
digestive and catecholamines. Some can diffuse, some
Endocrine release hormones directly into cant. thyroids diffuse, but catecholamines
blood fluids. cant, so they use 2nd msnger.
Pancreas does both: releases digestive tyrosine must knows:
enzymes thru panc duct (exo), and releases thyroid hormones T3 and T4 (insoluble)
insulin/glucagon directly into blood (endo) catecholamines formed in adrenal medulla
epinephrine and norepinephrine. (water
endocrine tends to be slower, less direct, and soluble)
longer lasting than nervous system. may take
seconds to days to have an effect. Hormones Negative Feedback
need a receptor, either on membrane or inside glands tend to over-secrete, usually aspect of
cell. effector will inhibit this. (negative feedback).
each receptor specific to its hormone. one gland lags behind effector: high insulin does
method of hormone regulation: reduction or not create low blood glucose. high insulin
increase of receptors, or modulating hormone responds to high blood glucose, and low blood
concentration. glucose causes high glucagon to respond. so if
patient has high levels of blood glucose, you
Endocrine system alters metabolic activities, would expect the hormone to be most present
regulates growth and development, guides the one that is responding to the condition, not
reproduction. works in conjunction w/ creating it. so: insulin.
nervous system. Many endocrine glands
stimulated by neurons to secrete hormones eg, ADH holds water in body, decreasing urine
output. increases blood pressure. so person w/
3 basic types of hormones high blood Hg has low ADH.
1) peptide all made in RER, cleaved in ER
lume, transported to golgi, packaged by golgi, eg2, aldosterone increases blood Hg. if low
exocytosed whenever the cell is stimulated by blood Hg in pt, high aldosterone.
another hormone or nervous signal. Water
soluble, move freely thru blood. But have Specific Hormones and their Functions
trouble diffusing thru membrane of effector must know major hormones and glands and
(aka target cell). Instead, must attach to target tissues. group them together in the
receptor. gland that secretes them.
peptide must knows: Anterior Pituitary
a)anterior pituitary: FSH, LH, ACTH, hGH, aka adenohypophysis. located in brain
TSH, Prolactin beneath hypothalamus controls release of
b) posterior pituitary: ADH, oxytocin ant. pituitory hormones with releasing and
c) parathyroid: PTH inhibitory hormones of its own. nervous
d) pancreatic: glucagon, insulin signals control release of these.
Receptor may act as ion channel, may 6 major ant pit hormones (all peptide)
(de)activate other intrinsic proteins. May
activate intracellular 2nd messenger such as 1) Human growth Hormone (hGH)
cAMP, cGMP, or calmodulin. Creates stimulates growth in nearly all cells. increases
cascade of of rxns that amplify hormone. episodes of mitosis, cell size, rate of protein
synthesis, mobilizing fat stores. increases aa
txport across cell membrane increases
translation, transcription, decreasing Cortisol: steroid, glucocorticoid. blood PO3 uptake by gut, renal production of
breakdown of proteins and aas. glucose by stimulating gluconeogenesis in DOHCC (vit D derivative). regulated by
liver. degrades adipose to fatty acids for plasma ion conc, and glands grow & shrink
energy. a stress hormone. diminishes accordingly.
2) Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) immune response.
glucocorticoids via 2nd msnger using cAMP.
stimulated by stress. glucos are stress Catecholamines: Reproductive hormones FSH, LH, HCG, and
hormones. tyr derivatives synth in adrenal medulla; epi inhibin are peptides. All others are steroids.
and norepi (aka adrenaline and noradrenaline).
3) Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) Similar to sympathetic nervous response, but Male Reproductive System
longer. both are vasoconstrictors of most male gonads = testes. production of sperm in
aka thyrotropin. stimulates thyroid to release tissues but they are vasodilators of skeletal seminiferous tubules. Spermatogonia located
T3 and T4 via 2nd messenger cAMP. increases muscle. consistent with fight or flight in tubules arise from epithelial to become
thyroid cell size, number, and rate of secretion response (give the most blood to the parts of spermatocytes spermatids spermatozoa.
of T3&4. their concentrations have neg body that will carry you away). stress
feedback effect on TSH release, both at ant. hormones FSH causes sertoli cells to surround, nurture
pituitary and hypothalamus. pre-sperm. lydig cells release testosterone
Thyroid Hormones when stimulated by LH. Test is the primary
4) FSH and 5) LH Triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) and androgen (male sex hormone), stimulates germ
calcitonin. cells sperm. also resp for 2ndary sex
6) Prolactin T3 and T4: very similar in effect. secretion characteristics, pubic hair, enlargement of
promotes lacation. inhibited by progesterone regulated by TSH. both lipid soluble tyr larynx, growth of penis and vesicles.
and estrogen if baby not yet born. derivitives, diffusable,a ct in nucleus of cell of
hypothalamus, oddly, inhibits release of their effector. basal (resting) metabolic rate. when spermatid becomes spermatozoon, forms
prolactin. suckling stimulates hypo to head, midpiece, and tail. head composed of
stimulate ant. pituitary to release, inhibits Calcitonin large peptide. blood Ca2+ via nuclear material and acrosome for penetrating
menstrual cycle. also: prolactin produces osteoclast activity & number. egg. carried to epididymus to mature.
milk; oxytocin ejects milk. propelled thru vas deferens during ejaculation
Pancreas (Islets of Langerhans) into urethra and out of penis. Semen is
Posterior Pituitary acts as both endo and exocrine gland. 2 mixture of spermatozoa and fluid that leaves
important endocrine are insulin and glucagon. penis.
aka neurohypophysis. hromones oxytocin and also releases somatostatin, which inhibits both
ADH synthesized in hyopthalamus, but ins and gluc. Female Reproductive System
txported down axons to posterior pituitary Insulin: peptide, released by B-cells of panc. oogenesis-begins in ovaries. all eggs are
where released into blood. (small peptides). with energy abundance / high [nutrients] in arrested as primary oocytes at birth. at
blood. released when blood levels of carbs or puberty, FSH stimulates growth. form zona
Oxytocin: small peptide that increases uterine proteins high. affects carb, fat, and protein pellucida around egg. primary follicle. theca
contractions during birth; causes milk ejection metab. insulin carbs uptaken as glycogen in cells differentiate and form secondary follicle.
liver and muscles, fat as adipose, aas in cells LH stimulates androgen secretion, conversion
Antidiuretic Hormone / Vasopressin and made into proteins. lowers blood to estradiol (type of estrogen). FSH stimulates
(ADH): glucose. it uses a 2nd messenger, so it binds to its release into blood. estradiol is steroid
small peptide, causes collecting ducts of receptor. does not affect neurons in brain. all hormone preparing uterine wall for pregnancy.
kidney to become permeable to water, H20 others become highly permeable to glucose inhibits LH secretion by ant pituitary. just
reputake, blood Hg. coffee and beer block upon insulin binding. also,k intracellular before ovulation (bursting of folicle), estradiol
ADH. metab enzymes activated, and even translation, levels rise rapidly, LH secretion. (luteal
transcription rates affected. surge). positive feedback loop. egg swept into
Adrenal Cortex fallopian (uterine) tupe or oviduct. remaining
adrenal glandson top of the kidneys. Glucagon: peptide hormone, released by - portion left behind to become corpus luteum.
contain: cells of panc. nearly opposite to insulin. secretes estradiol and progesterone thruout
adrenal medulle and adrenal cotex: outside stimulates glycogenolysis (glyc breakdown). pregnancy, or if no pregnancy, for about 2
portion. secretes only steroid hormones. Acts via 2nd messenger cAMP. in higher []s, weeks until corpus luteum degrades into
secretes 2 types of steroids, mineral breaks down adipose, increasing fa level in corpus albicans.
corticoids (affect electrolyte balance in blood) Hb. blood glucose levels.
and glucocorticoids ( [blood glucose], fat, Menstrual cycle repeats itself every 28 days
protein metab). major one is cortisol. Parathyroid after puberty until pregnancy. with each cycle,
4 small parathyroid glands attached to back of 3 phases
Aldosterone, steroid, mineral corticoid. acts thyroid. they release: 1) follicular development of foillicle, ends at
in distal conv. tubule and coll. duct to Na+ parathyroid hromone (PTH) peptide, ovulation
and Cl- reabsorption, K+,H+ secretion. Ca2+ in blood. osteocyte absorption of Ca 2) luteal- begins w/ ovulation, ends w/
bloodHg. and PO3- from bone and osteoclasts. renal degeneration of corpus luteum into corpus
Ca reabsorption, renal PO3 excretion. Ca and albicans
3) flow shedding of uterine lining for ~
5days
in menstrual cycle, all of FSH, LH, and
Estrogen peak right before ovulation.
Estrogen and progesterone have peaks during
secretory phase.
Fertilization and Embryology
once in fallopian, egg swept towards uterus by Part of normal cell development is apoptosis,
cilia. fertilization normally takes place in
fallopian tube.
sperm entry into egg causes cortical reaction, of tissue b/w fingers and toes to create normal
preventing other sperms from fertilizing.
NOW oocyte goes thru second meitotic
division to become ovum, releases 2nd polar
body. fertilization occurs when nuclei of
ovum and sperm fuse to form zygote.
cleavage beings while zygote still in fallopian
many cycles of mitosis. when 8 or more
cells, called morula. cells here are totipotent,
or can express any gene.
Form hollow ball called blastocyst. lodges in
uterus in process called implantation about 7
days after ovulation. egg begins secreting
peptide hormone human chorionic
gonadotropin (HCG). prevents degeneration
of corpus luteum, maintains its secretion of
estrogen and progesterone. HCG in blood and
urine of mother a sign of pregnancy.
placenta is formed from tissue of egg and
mother, takes over job of hormone secretion.
starts secreting its own estro and progest.
After 8 cells, embryo starts to differentiate.
committed developmental path
determination.
gastrulation forms gastrula in 2nd week.
primitive streak formed in mammals,
analagous to blastopore in aquatic vertebrates.
cells destined to become mesoderm migrate to
primitive streak. 3 germ layers formed:
1) ectoderm outer coverings, skin, nails,
tooth enamel, cells of nervous system and
sense organs.
2) mesoderm the stuff that lies between
inner and outer coverings of body: muscle,
bone, all the rest.
3) endoderm lining of digestive tract, most
of the liver and pancreas.
in 3rd week, gastrula neurula (neurulation).
notochord induces overlying ectoderm to
thicken and form into nerual plate. Eventually
degenerates, while a neural tube forms from
neural plate to become spinal cord, brain, and
most of nervous system. (Induction is when
one cell type affects direction of differentiation
of another cell type).
programmed cell death.
essential for development of nervous system,
operation of immune system, and destruction
hands and feet. failure to do this cancer
This is regulated by protein activity instead of
transcription/translation level. Mitochondria
plays important role. Proteins for apop are
present but inactive in healthy cell.
Progesterone to a lesser extent lower pH of stomach and raised pH of blood.
also secrete intrinsic factor, helps ileum absorb
B12.
4) G cells - secrete gastrin to interstitium.
large peptide hormone, absorbed into blood
and stimulates parietal cells to secrete HCl.
major hormones that affect secretion of
Overview of Hormones Digestive and Excretory Systems stomach juices:
-acetylcholine: all types of secretion
Anterior Pituitary Digestion: breakdown of ingested foods bfore -gastrin: HCl mostly
hGH Growth of nearly all cells absorbed into body. major rxn for -histamine: HCl mostly
ACTH stimulates adr. cortex macromolecules is hyrdrolysis.
FSH grwoth of follicles (F); sperm prod (M) Small Intestine
LH causes ovulation; stims estro, testost anatomy of digestive tract:
secretion mouth esophogous stomach small 90% of digestion and absorption. 3 parts
TSH stims release of T3 and T4 in thyroid intenstine (duodenum, ileum, jejunum) largest to smallest: duodenum, jejunum,
Prolactin promotes milk production large intestine (ascending colon, transverse ileum. Most digestion in duodenum, most
colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon) absorption in the other two. small intestine
Posterior Pituitary rectum anus. wall contains villi finger like projections. on
Oxytocin milk ejection, uterine contraction apical surface of the cells of each villus cell
ADH water absorption by kidney; Hb Hg Digestion begins in mouth w/ -amylase. (enterocytes) are much smaller finger length
Starch is major carb in human diet. breaks projections, microvilli. fuzzy covering, aka
Adrenal Cortex down long straight cahins into brush border. Contains membrane bound
Aldosterone- Na excretion; K excretion; polysaccharides. Chewing increases surface digestive enzymes for carbs, as well as
Blood Hg. area of food, enables more enzymes to act on it dextrinase maltase sucrase and lactase;
Cortisol - blood levels of carbs, proteins, at once. Form a bolus of food. Pushed into peptidates for proteins, nucleosidases for n-
fats esophogous by swallowing and then down tides. Some epithelial are goblet cells, secrete
esophogous via peristalsis. performed by mucus to lubricate intestine. Lots of cell death
Adrenal Medulla smooth muscle. no digestion in esophagus. and growth here.
Epinephrine stimulates sympathetic actions
Norepinephrine- stimulates sympathetic Stomach villus: capillary network and lymph vessel
actions All digestion, no absorption. called lacteal. Nutrients absorbed pass thru
bolus enters stomach at cardiac sphincter. cappilary and then lacteal.
Thyroid stomach: flexible pouch that stores and mixes
T3, T4 - basal metabolic rate food, reducing it to semifluid mass called intestinal exocrine glands deep in villi. secrete
Calcitonin - blood calcium chyme. Has exocrine glands with gastric pits. pH 7.6 juice and lysozyme (regulates bacteria).
another function of stomach: begin protein
Parathyroid digestion with pepsin. low pH assists process Pancreas
PH blood calcium by denaturation. full stomach has pH of 2. chyme squeezed out of stomach thru pyloric
Helps kill ingested bacteria. 4 types of cells: sphincter into duodenum.
Pancreas pancreas has sent bicarbonate, so pH is ~6.
Insulin Promotes entry of glucose into cells, 1) mucous cells secrete mucous to line Panc also acts as exocrine gland, releasing
glucose blood level stomach wall and necks of exocrine glands. enzymes from acinar cells thru panc. duct into
Glucagon Increases gluconeogenesis, food can slide along wall without damage, duodenum.
blood glucose levels protects epithelial lining from acidic
environment. also secrete a little pepsinogen. Major panc. enzymes:
Ovaries
Estrogens growth of F sex organs, LH surge 2) chief (peptic) cells found deep in -trypsin: proteins small polypeptides
Progesterone prepares, maintains uterus for exocrine glands. secrete pepsinogen, the -chymotrypsin:
pregnancy zymogen precursor to pepsin. activated to -pancreatic amylase: hyrdolyzes polysacchs
pepsin by low pH. Once activated, begins to disacchs and tris. much more powerful
Testes protein digestion. than salivary.
Testosterone- 2ndary sex characteristics, -lipase- degrades fat, spef. triglycerides. fat is
closing of epiphyseal plates 3) parietal (oxyntic) cells secrete insoluble in aq. soln. reduced surface area
hydrochloric acid (HCl) which diffuses to unless bile breaks it up. bile produced in liver,
Placenta lumen. needs lots of energy to do this. CO2 stored in gall bladder. released thru cystic
HCG stimulates corpus luteum to grow, involved, making carbonic acid inside cell. duct, empties into common bile duct shared w/
release estro and progest H+ ion expelled to lumen, while bicarbonate liver. pancreatic duct duodenum. Bile
Estrogens to a lesser extent ion expelled to interstitial fluid side. net result emulsifies fat, contains bilirubin, changing it
physically but not chemically. increases when glycogen stores are full, glucose is Erythrocyte destruction: Kupfer cells also loop, passively at first, then actively. systemic circulation 1st half.
surface area, allowing lipase to break down converted to fat for long-term storage. For big destroy irregular erythrocytes. Mostly done by ascending loop is nearly impermeable to
into fatty acids and monoglycerides. picture, think about glycolysis and krebs spleen. water. 2nd capillary bed called vasa recta from right atrium, blood squeezed into right
-ribonuclease - cycle. Vitamin storage: liver stores vitamins A, D, surround loop and helps to maintain [ ] in ventricle, r ventr pumps blood through
-deoxyribonuclease and B12. also stores iron combining with medulla. pulmonary arteries to arterioles to capillaries
Proteins virtually all dietary protein is protein apoferritin to form ferritin. of lungs. from lung capillaries, blood collects
chyme is moved thru intestines by peristalsis. broken down completely into aas before being Distal tubule: reabsorbs Na+ and Ca2+ while in venules, then veins, finally in pulmonary
segmentation is mixing of chyme w/ digestive absorbed into blood. When you hear proteins, when liver metabolizes fat for E, produces secreting K+, H+, and HCO3-. Aldosterone veins leading to heart. pulmonary veins empty
juices. think nitrogen. Uses cotransport ketone bodies. ketosis / acidosis. acts on distal to increase sodium and into left atrium, which fills left ventricle. 2nd
mechanism. when liver metabolizes fat or potassium memb transport proteins. Net half of circulation is called pulmonary
The Large Intestine ammonia is by-product of gluconeogenesis protein for energy, bloody acidity effect: lower filtrate osmolarity. collecting circulation. Closed circulatory system for
If get a large intest question, think water from proteins. nearly all NH3 converted to increases pH. tubule: at end of the distal, ADH acts on it to humans.
reabsorption. profuse water loss in diarrhea urea by liver and then excreted in urine by increase permeability to H20. more
results from problem in the LI. know kidney. concentrated filtrate. empties into collecting
mutualistic symbiosis b/w humans and The Kidney duct. cd carries filtrate into highly osmotic concentrate on function: left v contracts w/ the
bacteria there. bacteria get leftovers, we get Fats: fat is insoluble in water, so needs carrier, 3 functions: medulla. impermeable to water, but sensitive most force to propel the blood through
vitamins such as albumin (a lipoprotein). hear fat 1) excrete waste: urea, uric acid, NH3, PO3. to ADH. if ADH, permeable to water, urine is systemic circulation
4 parts: think long-term energy storage, lots of 2) maintain homeostasis of body fluid V, more concentrated. renal calyx renal
1) ascending colon calories (energy) with little weight. solute composition. pelvis. Heart is large muscle. Not attached to bone.
2) transverse colon most dietary fat consists of triglycerides. 3) control plasma pH. Systole occurs during contraction; diastole
3) descending colon shuttled via bile micles to brush border of sm. Juxtaglomerular Apparatus during relaxation of entire heart, and then
4) sigmoid colon intestine. 2 kidneys. each is made up of outer cortex -monitors filtrate pressure in distal tubule. contraction of atria.
energy rate (cal per gram) and inner medulla. Urine created by kidney -granular cells secrete renin.
major functions: water abs and electrolyte abs Fat > carbs > protein and emptied into the renal pelvis. emptied by initiates regulatory cascade of angiotensins Blood is propelled by hydrostatic pressure
if this fails diarrhea. LI also has E.Coli. but takes diff amnt of energy to break down ureter, which caries urine to bladder, drained I, II, and III. adr. cortex secretes created by contraction of heart. Rate of
they produce vitamins K, B12, thiamin, globules called chylomicrons move into by urethra. aldosterone. distal tubule forms proteins to contractions controlled by ANS. Not initiated
riboflavin. healthy feces has 75% water. rest lacteals of the lymph. emptied into large veins absorb sodium and secrete potassium. by ANS, though. Contracts automatically by
is dead bacteria, fat, inorganic matter, etc. at throactic duct. from adipose, most fas nephron: functional unit of kidney. blood specialized cells called sinoatrial node (SA
transported as free fa, which combines flows first into capillary bed of nephron called ADH = Always Digging Holes in the node) located in R atrium. spreads
Gastrointestinal Hormones immediately in blood w/ albumin. glomerulus. Bowmans capsule and collecting duct. contractions to surrounding muscles via
dont need to know them but may appear. just glomerulus make up the renal corpuscle. electrical syapses via gap junctions. SA pace
understand idea of digestion. body eats to gain The Liver Hydrostatic pressure forces some plasma Overview: know function of each section of is faster than normal heartbeats but parasymp
energy in form of food. digestive system positioned to receive blood from capillary beds through fenestrations of golmerular the nephron: filtration occurs in renal vagus innervates SA node, slowing
breaks down food so it can be absorbed into of intestines, stomach, spleen, and pancreas endothelium and into Bowmans capsule. corpuscle; reabsorption and secretion mostly contractions. AP generated by SA nodes
body. one prob is that food may move to fast via hepatic portal vein. leads eventually to fenestrations screen out blood cells and large in proximal tubule; loop of Henle concentrates spreads around both atria causing them to
and come out undigested. stomach stores vena cava. proteins from entering the capsule. fluid solute in medulla, distal tubule empties into contract and spread to AV note. AV is slower
food, releases small amnt at time to be entering is called filtrate. moves to proximal the collecting duct; collecting duct to contract. from AV node, moves to bundle
digested / absorbed by intestine. that way Functions: tubule. where reabsorption takes place. concentrates urine. Amnt of filtrate is related of His (on wall separating ventricles). spread
body can take in large amnt at a single time 2ndary active transport proteins on apical to hydrostatic pressure of glomerulus. to Purkinje fibers. AP is spread through
and take a long time to digest. GI hormones Blood storage: liver can expand to act as Hb membranes of prox tubule cells, reabsorb Descending loop of henle is permeable to muscle.
just help to regulate this process. reservoir for body nearly all glucose, most proteins, and other water, and ascending loop is impermeable to
Blood filtration: kupfer cells phagocytize solutes. transport proteins become saturated water and actively transports sodium into must know the vagus nerve. parasympathetic,
secretin responds to HCl in duodenum. bacteria picked up from intestines until reach transport maxiumum. any more Kidney. innverates heart and digestive system. slows
cholecystokinin responds to food in Carbohydrate metabolism: liver maintains solute washed into urine. some solutes rate of heart contractions and increaes
duodenum normal blood glucose levels thru reabsorbed by passive or facilitated diffusion. big picture: function of kidney is homeostasis. digestive activity of enzymes. Know role and
gastric inhibitory peptide responds to fat / gluconeogenesis, glycogenesis, and storage of Water is rabsorbed into renal interstitium of location of purkinje fibers.
protein in duodenum. glycogen. prox tubules across relatively permeable tight --------------------------------------------------------
Fat metabolism: liver synthesizes bile from junctions down the osmotic gradient. Arteries: elastic. stretch as fill w/ blood.
Absorption and Storage overview cholesterol and converts carbs, proteins into Cardiovascular Anatomy when ventricles fully contract, stretched
convert ingested food into basic nutrients that fat. oxidizes fas for E, forms most drugs, bile, uric acid, antibiotic, toxins, other consists of heart, blood, and blood vessels. arteries recoil. smooth muscle; innervated by
small intestine is able to absorb. once lipoproteins. solutes secreted into filtrate by proximal for MCAT, must be able to trace sympathetic nervous system.
absorbed into enterocytes, nutrients processed Protein metabolism: liver deaminates aas, tubule. H ions secreted thru antiport system
and carried to indiv. cells for use. Quick and forms urea from NH3 in the Hb, synthesizes w/ Na. net result: reduce amnt of filtrate in circulatory path of blood: Epinephrine: powerful vasoconstrictor
dirty overview of the 3 main nutrients, carbs, plasma proteins such as fibrinogen, nephron w/o changing osmolarity. causing narrowing of arteries.
proteins, fats prothrombin (important clotting factors) left ventricle, pumped through aorta. from Medium-sized arteries constrict under
albumin (major osmoregulatory protein in Hb), from prox tubule, filtrate flows into loop of aorta, branch with many smaller arteries, sympathetic stimulation; large ones less
Carbohydrates 80% glucose. absorbed via and most globulins (group of proteins and Henle. loop dips into medulla. function is to which branch into still smaller arterioles, affected.
2ndary actie transport down conc. gradient of antibodies), and synthesizes nonessential aas. increase solute concentration and thus osmotic which branch into still smaller capillaries.
sodium. all absorbed into bloodtream and Detoxification: detoxified chemicals excreted pressure of medulla. water passively diffuses collected into venules, which themselves Arterioles: very small. Wrapped by smooth
carried by portal vein to liver. livers job is to by liver as part of bile or polarized so may be out of loop of Henle and into medulla. collect into larger veins, which collect again muscle. constrict/dilate to regulate blood
maintain constant blood glucose level. liver excreted by kidney. descending loop has low permeability to salt, into superior and inferior vena cava. the vena pressure, also rerouting.
converts the carbs to glucose and then so filtrate osmolarity goes up. as filtrate rises cava empty into the right atrium of the heart.
glycogen, breaks down when needed. out of medulla, salt diffuses out of ascending
Arteries blood away from heart. Not always larynx (voice box) behind epiglottis which -bicarbonate ion 80% of the time (txports fatty acids, steroids), promoted by B lymphocytes. differentiate,
oxygenated. Pulmonary arteries contain the prevents food from entering trachea during -carbamino cpds immunoglobulins (antibodies), and clotting mature in bone marrow, liver. capable of
most deoxygenated blood in the body. swallowing. contains vocal chords. factors (eg, fibrinogen). making single antibody, displays it on
Veins blood to heart. bicarb ion formation governed by carbonic -------- membrane. will recognize antigen.
trachea (windpipe)- lies in front of anhydrase in reversible rxn: Buffy Coat (white blood cells). Aka macrophages present antigenic determinants of
Capillaries microscopic blood vessels. esophogous. composed of ringed cartilage. CO2 + H20 HCO3- + H+ Leukocytes. no Hb. protection from engulfed microbes on their surfaces. if B
only 1 cell thick. this is where nutrient and contains mucous and cilia, usher dust towards invaders. neutrophils, eosinophils, and lymph recognizes, then helper T cell,
gas exchange happens. 4 methods of crossing: pharynx. trachea splits into L and R bronchi. When CO2 absorbed into lungs, bicarb basophils are granular leukocytes. live differentiates into plasma cells and memory B
1) Pinocytosis each bronchi branches into tiny bronchioles, diffuses into cell. To balance, chlorine is shorter bc are nonspecific infection fighters. cells. synthesize free antibodies, releasing
2) diffusion or transport through cap membs terminating into grape-like clusters alveoli. expelled. Agranular include mono, lympho, and into blood. antibody attached to mast cell,
3) movement thru cell fenestrations There, O2 diffuses into capillary where picked megakaryocytes. Live longer bc respond releasing histamine, etc. cause antigenic
4) movement thru space b/w cells up by red Hb cells. they release CO2, which CO2 pressure Hb content of CO2. specifically to infectious agents. need to hang perforation. antibodies may cause antigenic
diffuses into alveolus and expelled upon when Hb saturated with O2 CO2 affinity around for when they return. monocytes substance to agglutinate. may mark for
found close to all cells of body. exhallation. become macrophages. destruction by macrophages or natural killer
as blood flows: Rate of breathing affected by central -------- cells. primary response. Memory b cells
-hydrostatic P > osmotic P at artery end Since microtubules found in cilia, and ciliated chemoreceptors in medulla. also peripheral Red blood cells (35-50%). Aka proliferate and remain in body. 2ndary
net fluid out of capillary, into interstitium cells in respiratory tract (and fallopian tubes ones in cartoid arteries and aorta. Increase Erythrocytes. bags of hemoglobin. No response. much shorter.
-osmotic P > hydrostatic P towards venule end and ependymal cells of spinal cord), a problem breathing when CO2 concentration gets too organelles, no nucleus. no mitosis or meiosis.
in microtubule production might result in high. disk shaped. main fx to deliver O2 and effective response against bacteria fungi,
breathing problems (or fertility or circulation remove CO2. parasites, viruses, blood toxins.
of cerebrospinal fluid).
Venules and veins similar in structure to All blood cells differentiated from stem cells,
arterioles and veins. Chemistry of Gas Exchange in bone marrow.
air inhaled: 79% N2, 21% O2. Nitrogens effect on body: extremely stable
larger lumen than arteries, containing far air exhaled: 79% N2, 16%O2, 5% CO2. bc of triple bond. diffuses into blood, but
greater V of blood. inside lungs, partial pressure of O2: doesnt interact. Divers: more pressure, more Platelets: small portions of memb-bound
110mmHg. N2 diffused. bubbles the bends cytoplasm. agranular. adheres to, activates
blood velocity 1/cross-sectional area CO2: 40 mmHg other platelites when encounters injured -cell-mediated/T-cell immunity
O2 moves into capilaries, CO2 leaves to Lymphatic System endothelium.
blood moves slowest through capillaries alveoli. coagulation. 3 steps Cell-mediated immunity involves T-
Bernoulis equation states that -collects excess interstitial fluid, returns it to 1) a dozen factors form coagulation complex lymphocytes. effective against infected cells.
Pressure 1/cross-sectional area 98% of O2 in blood binds rapidly and blood called protrombin activator mature in thymus. antibody like protein at
this is not the case for blood, because not an reversibly with protein hemoglobin inside the -takes up proteins and large particles that 2) protrombin activator catabolizes surface. unlike B cells, never make free
ideal flow. erythrocytes forming oxyhemoglobin. capillaries cannot take up conversion of prothrombin into thrombin antibodies. tested against self-antigens. if
Composed of 4 polypeptide subunits, each -monitors for infection. 3) thrombin: enzyme that governs responds to self-antigen, it is destroyed. if
Pressure: Hb Hg near the heart and at with single heme cofactor. (has iron atom -reroutes low soluble fat digestates around polymerization of protein fibrinogen to fibrin passes test, allowed to circulate in blood &
capillaries. center). Each of 4 Fe atoms can bind with one small capillaries of intestine into large veins of threads that attach to platelits. Bloot clot lymph. Differentiate into:
O2 molecule. Binding / Unbinding accelerates neck. formation (coagulation) appears in seconds in
Velocity: single artery bigger than capillary, the same thing for nearby ones. -Drains almost all tissues except CNS. small injuries. -helper T cells: assist in activating B
but far more capillaries than arteries. Blood cooperativity -open system lymphocytes. the ones attacked by HIV
follows continuity equation Q = Av, so Immune System -memory T cells: similar to memory B cells.
velocity is greatest in arteries cross sectional As O2 pressure , Fluid is propelled in 2 ways innate immunity generalized protection -supressor T cells: negative feedback.
area is smallest. O2 saturation of Hb sigmoidally 1) smooth muscle contracts when stretched against most intruding organisms, toxins. -killer / cytotoxic T cells: bind to antigen-
Oxyhemoglobin (HbO2) dissociation curve: 2) may be squeezed by adjacent skeletal Includes skin barrier, stomach acid, carrying cell; release perforin, punctures and
Respiratory System -shows % Hb bound to O2 at varies pps of muscles phagocytotic cells, and chemicals in blood. kills antigen-carying cell. can kill many cells.
provides path for gas e/x b/w external enviro O2. arteries of normal person breathing air, implicated in cancer fighting and transplanted
and blood. Air enters through nose, moves O2 saturation is 97%. straight portion show empties into large veins @ thoracic duct and R acquired immunity- attacking specific tissue.
through pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, small fluctuations have little effect. lymphatic duct. All throughout, many lymph organisms or toxins after recognition.
bronchioles, and into alveoli where O2 is e/x nodes containing large quantities of Overview of Infection
for CO2 w/ the Hb. P(Co2) [H+] Temp lymphocytes. Inflammation: caused by histamine, first: Inflammation. macrophages, neutrophils
prostaglandins, lymphokines. dilation of engulf bacteria. Interstitial fluid flushed to
Inspiration occurs when medulla oblongata O2 saturation of Hb also dependent on CO2 Blood blood vessels, capillaries, tissue swelling, lymphatic system where lymphocytes wait in
sends singal to diaphragm to contract. pressure, pH, and T. O2 dissociation curve migration of granulocytes, macrophages to their nodes. Macros process and present
-diaphragm is skeletal muscle and innervated shifted to right by increase in CO2 pressure, Blood is connectivie tissue: contains cells + inflamed area. antigens to B lymphocytes. W/ Helper T cells,
by phrenic nerve. if relaxed, dome-shaped. hydrogen ion concentration, or matrix. regulates extracellular movement of B lymphocytes differentiate into memory and
flattens upon contraction. chest expands. temperature. body by transporting nutrients, waste products, when neutrophils and macrophages engulf plasma cells. Prepare for future attack.
lowering of Hbs affinity to O2. If CO hormones, even heat. also involved in dead tissue/bacteria, they die and become pus. plasma cells produce antibodies.
nasal cavity: space inside nose. poisoning, pure O2 can be administered to immune Eosinophils mostly against parasitic infections
filters, moistens, and warms incoming air. replace. Basophils release chemicals for inflamm rxn Know a single antibody is specific for a single
coarse hair, mucus secreted by goblet cells. blood in centrifuge separates into 3 parts: antigen, and a single B lymphocyte produces
Cilia move mucus and dust. O2 P usually 40mmHg in body tissues 2 types of acquired immunity: only 1 antibody type.
CO2 carries by blood in 3 forms Plasma (matrix: water, ions, urea, ammonia, -humoral/B-cell immunity
pharynx (throat)- passageway for food + air -physical soln proteins, etc.). Contains proteins albumin Blood Types

defined by the A and B surface antigens. if
type A, then you dont make A antibodies, of
course. Type O has neither A nor B antigens,
but makes both A and B antibodies. Blood
donor may only donate to an individual that
does not make antibodies to donors blood. O
may donate to anyone; individual with AB
may receive from anyone.
Genes that produce A and B antigens are
codominant. Type O is 2 recessive alleles. A skeletal muscle is multinucleate. sarcolemma
or B may be hetero or homozygous.
Rh factors: surface proteins on red blood
cells. Rh-negative or Rh positive. usually
mild w/ transfusions. Important during
pregnancy of an Rh-negative mother with Rh- Know that during contraction, H zone and I
positive fetus. 1st pregnancy, mother not
exposed to fetal blood until birth. but by 2nd change size.
birth, has developed imune response. Can
attack baby if not caught early.
Muscle, Bone, and Skin
Muscle
3 types of muscle tissue:
1) skeletal
2) cardiac
3) smooth
muscle contraction has 4 possible functions:
1) body movement
2) stabilization of body position
3) movement of substances thru body
4) generating heat for homeostatis
Skeletal Muscle
voluntary muscle tissue; can be consciously
controlled. connects one bone to another.
attaches to the tendon attached to the bone.
usually stretches across a joint.
Muscles work in groups,
antagonistic:
- the agonist contracts
- the antagonist stretches
example: upper arm muscle biceps and
triceps.
OR
synergistic:
-movement / posture.
ligaments connect bone to bone.
fibers thruout muscle innervated by single 1) single-unit: visceral. most common smooth Most calcium stored in bone matrix
shivering - involuntary skeletal movement neuron. muscle. connected by gap junctions, spreading ashydroxyapatite.
controlled by hypothalamus to generate heat. neuron + fibers = motor unit of AP. cells can contract as single unit. found
smaller mus react quicker than large ones. in small arteries and veins, stomach, intestines, Bone Types and Structure
Physiology of Skeletal Muscle Contraction smooth motion works via this process. uterus, urinary bladder. many cells innervated 4 types: long (finger, arm), short (ankle or
sarcomere: smallest functional unit. fingers: small mus, intricate movement by 1 neuron. wrist), flat (skull, ribs, made of spongy bone),
composed of many strands of 2-protein back: large mu, large force 2) multi-unit: each multiunit muscle fiber or irregular.
filaments, thick and thin. surrounded by attached directly to a neuron. 1 cell, 1 neuron.
endoplasmic reticulum of muscle cell called Skeletal Muscle Type group of fibers can contract independently. Bone is not just for support, protection, and
sarcoplasmic reticulum. its lumen is filled 3 types: large arteries, bronchioles, iris, etc. movement. Also stores calcium and
with Ca2+ ions. lots of mitochondria, nuclei. 1) slow oxidative (type I) fibers. slow phosphate, maintains their concentrations in
twitch. Red. large amounts of myoglobin, Also contract/relax in presence of hormones, blood. Stores energy in adipose. Also, site of
wraps several myofibrils together to form a (O2 storing protein similar to Hb, but can only changes in in pH, O2, CO2 levels, T, ion blood cell formation.
muscle cell or muscle fiber. many fibers store one molecule of O2.) lots of concs.
bound into fasiculus, fasiculae into single mitochondria. slow at splitting ATP. slow to Cartilage
muscle. fatigue, but slow to contract. Bone flexible, resilient, connective tissue. mostly
2) fast oxidative (type IIA) fibers. fast living tissue collagen. great tensile strength. no blood
twitch. also red. split ATP at high rate. supports soft tissue, proects internal organs vessels or nerves except in outside membrane
band get smaller, while A band does not contract rapidly, not as resistant to fatigue as assists in movement of body, minteral storage, called perichondrium.
slow. blood cell production. energy storage, too: 3 types: 1) hyaline 2) fibrocartilage 3) elastic
3) fast glycolytic (type IIB) fibers. fast adipose in bone marrow. hylaine most common. reduces friction and
thick filament of sarcomere made up of twitch B. low myoglobin. appear white. absorbs shock in joints.
myosin. globular heads protrude along both contract rapidly, lots of glycogen. 4 types of cells surrounded by matrix:
ends of thick filament. thin filament is mostly 1) Osteogenic/Osteoprogenitor cells: Joints
globular protein actin. attached are troponin Most muscles in body mixture of these 3. differentiate to osteoblasts 3 types
and tropomyosin. Depends where Posture muscles mostly type 2) Osteoblasts: secrete bone-forming 1) Fibrous b/w 2 bones closely/tightly
Myosin and actin work together sliding I. type IIA in legs. type IIB in upper arms. collagen. incapable of mitosis. differentiate together. little or no movement. eg skull
alongside to make contractile force of muscle. into osteocytes as they release matrix around bones or teeth w/ mandible
themselves. 2) Cartilaginous: - also restricted movement.
Each myosin head crawls in 5 stage cycle. Adult human skeletal muscle: so specialized 3) Osteocytes: also incapable of mitosis. E/x b/w 2 bones connected by cartilage,
1) tropomyosin covers active site on actin; they dont do mitosis. Instead, they change nutrients and waste w/ blood ribs/sternum, eg.
prevents myosin head from binding. myosin due to force. including: diameter of muscle 4) Osteoclasts: reabsorb bone matrix, 3) Synovial: not bound directly by innervating
head remains cocked in high-energy position fiber , number of sarcomeres and mitochond releasing cartilage. separated by capsule filled w/
with phosphate and ADP attached. , sarcormeres length . Changes referred to minterals back to blood. Develop from WBC synovial fluid. allows lubrication and
2) Presence of Ca2+ ions: troponin pulls as hypertrophy. called monocytes. nutrients to cartilage. also has phagocytic cells
tropomyosin back, exposing active site, allows that remove microbes from wear/tear. allow
myosin head to bind to actin. Cardiac Muscle Spongy bone contains red bone marrow, site for lots of movement.
3) Myosin head expels phosphate and ADP heart: mostly cardiac muscle. striated, of RBC development (homopoiesis).
and bends into low-E position, dragging actin composed of sarcomeres. Each cell only 1 Skin
with it. called power stroke bc of shortening nucleus. separated from others by intercalated Compact bone surrounds medullary cavity, considered organ. group of tissues working
of sarcomere and muscle contraction. disc (contain gap junctions, allowing AP to holds yellow bone marrow. contains adipose. together.
4) ATP attaches to myosin head, releasing it spread via synapse). mitochondria of cardiac highly organized. FUNCTIONS:
from active site, which is covered immediately cell much larger and more numerous than 1) Thermoregulation: blood conducts heat to
by tropomyosin. skeletal. also, not connected to bone. forms a Compact bone remodeling process: skin. hairs excreted and can trap heat. skin
5) ATP PO3 + ADP causes myosin head net, contracts upon itself like squeezing fist. osteoclasts burrow tunnels, called Haversian has warmth and cold receptors.
to cock into high-E position. -involuntary canals. Osteoblasts then lay down new matrix 2) Protection: physical barrier against
-grows via hypertrophy fofrming concentric rings, lamellae. bacteria, dehydration chemicals, UV rays
Cycle repeats many times to form a -AP has plateau after depolarization Osteocytes exchange nutrients via canaliculi. 3) Environmental Sensory Input: skin
contraction. Ca2+ is important. caused by Ca2+ entry from voltage gated H canals contain blood and lymph vessels, gathers info from environment. sense T, P,
channels. connected by crossings called Volkmanns pain and touch.
muscle contraction begins with AP. neuron canals. Entire system of lamellae and H canal 4) Excretion: water and salts excreted.
attaches to muscle cell: neuromuscular Smooth Muscle called osteon. 5) Immunity: specialized cells of epidermis
synapse. AP of neuron releases ACh into mostly involuntary. innervated by ANS. like are components of immune system. besides
cleft. activates ion channeles in sarcolemma cardiac, only 1 nucleus. thick and thin Bone Function in Mineral Homeostasis being a barrier.
of muscle cell creating AP. AP moves deep filaments, but not organized into sarcomeres. Ca salts mostly insoluble. usually bound to 6) Blood reservoir: vessels in dermis hold
into muscle cell via small tunnels in membrane contain intermediate filaments, connected to proteins in blood. Free Ca2+ in blood is 10% of our blood.
called T-tubules. allows for uniform dense bodies. when contract, cause important concentration. 7) Vitamin D synthesis: UV rays activate
contraction by allowing to AP to spread more intermediate filaments to pull dense bodies molecule in skin that is precursor to vit D.
rapidly. AP spreads to sarc retic, allows in together. smooth muscle cell shrinks length- too much: membranes hypo-excitable modified by enzymes in liver and kidneys to
Ca2+ ions. begin 5 stage cycle. at the end of wise. lethargy, fatigue, memory loss become the vitamin.
the cycle, Ca2+ is reuptaken by sarc retic. too little: cramps and convulsions.
2 types of smooth muscle: 2 PARTS
A Motor Unit
1) epidermis: avascular epithelial. made up of 1 dominant + 1 recessive = heterozygous = 5) no selection for fittest organism. (body cavity w/in mesoderm). Posess
keratinocytes for waterproofing. melanocytes hybrid Species usually all organisms that can notochord during development (embryonic
for melanin (pigment). Langerhans for produce fertile offspring with each other. No population has all 5 characteristics. Small axial support), pharyngeal slits, dorsal, hollow
interaction with helper T cells of immune (1st) Law of Segregation alleles segregate populations subject to genetic drift one nerve cord, and tail.
system. Merkel cells attach to sensory neurons independently when forming gametes. 50% speciation geographic isolation, habitat allele permanently lost due to death of all the
for sensation of touch. chance of possess any allele. isolation, seasonal isolation, mechanical carriers. Vertebrata subphylum. have notochord
5 strata isolation, gametic isolation, developmental replaced by segmented cartilage or bone
deepest layer is Merkel cells and stem cells. Inbreeding: what mendel did. does not isolation, hybrid sterility, selective hybrid Binomial theorem: structure. brain enclosed in skull. Mammals
continually divide to produce keratinocytes change %s of alleles but causes homozygotes elimination, and behavioral isolation. arose from reptiles about 220 million years

and others. Keratinocytes rise to the top layer. p + 2pq + q ago.
as they rise, accumulate keratin and die, losing niche way species exploits their environment
cytoplasm and nucleus, etc. at top layer, Outbreeding is mating of nonrelatives predicts genotypic frequency w/ only 2 alleles
slough off and die. 2-4 week process. heterozygotes survival of the fittest one species will in population
pressure or friction stimulates thickening exploit environs more efficiently leading to
called callus. Punnett square predicts genotypic ratios. extinction of other with same niche. so if A is dominant and a is recessive, and they
dihybrid cross are only alleles for specific gene.
2) dermis: Ww+Gg x Ww+Gg 9 y, r 2 operating reproductive strategies
fat beneath skin important insulator for body. 3 y, w r-selection: large numbers of offspring with if 80% of genes are A, 20% a.
connective tissue from mesoderm. embedded dihybrid cross 3 g, r no parental care Same percentages for gametes.
by Hb vessels, nerves, glands, hair folicles. 1 g, w K-selection: slow maturing offspring, strong Probability that two As come together is
collagen and elastic fibers strength. parental care sigmoidal growth curve 0.8 squared = 0.64 64%
9:3:3:1 = phenotypic ratio of dihybrid cross leveling off at carrying capacity. Two ss come together
Meissners corpuscle touch 0.2 squared = 0.04 = 4%
sebaceous gland oil (2nd) Law of Independent Assortment Adaptive radiation several species arise All remaining = heterozygotes
Pacinian corbuscle vibration genes on diff chromosomes assort from single ancestral species. 32%
independently. closer genes are on a
chromosome, more likely they will stay evolutionary bottleneck: shift in allelic only 2 alleles, so p + q =1.
together. frequencies of survivors of a crisis.

male vs. female chromosomes Divergent evolution 2 or more species

23rd pair establishes sex of individual. evolving from same group from common
aka sex chromosome ancestor.

Populations The pair of sex chromosomes appear as an X Convergent evolution 2 species

and a Y. If found on either, gene considered independently evolving similar structures Origin of Life
Mendelian Concepts sex-linked. woman is carrier if she has one homoplastic structures. eg, wings of bats and
Mendel, monk, crossed purple flowered plants recessive sex-linked gene. birds. no common ancestor, but common universe is 12-15 B yrs old
w/ white flowered. first filial, F1, produced structure. early earth probably had atmosphere mainly
purple flowers. purple dominant, white Barr body condensed X chromosome in from N2 and H2 gas, very little O2.
recessive. 2nd generation had mendelian ratio somatic cells. Some phenotypes vary gradually w/in species,
of 3:1 dominant to recessive. such as height. Those that are distinct (yellow Urey-Miller experiments of early earth:
Hemophilia sex-linked disease. sex-linked or white petals) is called polymorphism. autosynthesis of molecules such as urea,
test cross Mendel crossed unknown purple = X-linked = males have 1 in 2 chance of amino acids, and adenine from just H2S, NH3,
F1 w/ homozygous recessive (white) parent. disease. Symbiosis relship b/w two species. if and CH4 methane.
White offspring of this proved F1 was beneficial for both mutualism.
heterozygous Evolution first cells thought to have been coacervates, or
beneficial for only one but neutral for other lipid protein layer bubbles. spontaneously
phenotype expression of trait gene pool total of all alleles in population commensalism. form from fat.
genotype genetic makeup Evolution change in gene pool (not just
phenotype) Benneficial for one, detrimental for other earliest organisms 3.6 Billion years old.
complete dominance: two homologous parasitism.
chromosomes. corresponding genes @ same Ordering system for organisms: 2.3 B yrs ago cyanobacteria. first able to
locus on respective chromosomes. Kingdom > Phylum > Class > Order > Family Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium use sunlight and water to reduce CO2 (fixate
(homozygous dominant) When there is no > Genus > Species it). First photosynthetic bacteria.
blending of dominant and recessive. There should be no change in gene pool of atmosphere fills with O2. Eukaryotes come in
Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny = course sexually reproducing population posessing 5 at about 1.5 B yrs ago. millions of yrs later
partial / incomplete dominance blend of of development from embryo to organism following conditions: multicellular organisms.
dominant and recessive. reflects humans evolutionary history. e.g.,
human fetus has pharyngeal pouches gilled 1) large population Chordata: phylum that contains humans.
codominant both traits exhibited. ancestor. 2) mutational equilibrium means bilateral symetry Deuterosomes
3) immigration or emigration does not change anus develops from or near blastopore. vs.
Each gene contributes to an allele to genotype. 3 new superkingdoms called domains gene pool proteosomes, where mouth develops from or
1) Bacteria 2) Archaea 3) Eukarya 4) random mating near the blasteopore. Chordates have coelom

MCAT Chemistry
Atoms, Molecules, and Quantum Mechanics
atom: nucleus surrounded by e-trons
radius of ~ 10(-4) A. Protons and neutrons.
Neutrons = Protons = ~1 amu each
th
mass of e-tron about 1/1800 of
neutron/proton
e-tron and protons equal magnitude, opposite 4A can form covalent bonds w/ nonmetals.
charges
1e = 1.6x10e-19 coulombs of charge.
atoms are electrically neutral (vs. ions).
most of the atom is empty space b/w nuc and e can form five bonds by using d orbitals.
Element over 100. cannot be decomposed
into simpler substances via chemical means.
A where A is mass number
Z X where Z is atomic number
element always has the same atomic number. oxidation state of -1. others can make more
protons = constant. isotopes neutrons vary than one bond, sometimes up to 7.
isotope 2 or more of same element w/
different numbers of neutrons. aka nuclide.
amu = dalton = 1 proton = 1 neutron
mass number, Z, is not exact. amu weight is a
weighted average of its isotopes.
mole number of elemental atoms in A grams
of element X. Avogadros number = 6.02e23
moles = grams / molecular weight
Periodic Table
lists elements in order of atomic number
periods = rows
groups = columns
nonmetals on right, metals on left, metalloids
diagonal from IIIA to Rn. AT.
Metals large atoms. Tend to lose es to form
+ions or form + oxidation states (eg, in cpd).
fluid nature of valence es. They are lustrous,
ductile, malleable, thermally and electrically
conductive.
-They easily form ionic oxides such as BaO
Nonmetals lower Tm than metals. Form
negative ions. Molecular (organic) substances
usually made only from nonmetals. Form
covalent oxides such as SiO2 or CO2
Know: alkali metals (IA), alkaline earth metals
(IIA), halogens (VIIA), and noble gases
(VIIIA).
Elements in same column similar
properties. eg, # of bonds formed, similar
charges.
Characteristics w/in Groups
Hydrogen stands out from its family.
1A alkali metals low densities and Tms.
usually form 1+ cations. highly reactive w/
nonmetals to form ionic cpds. also react with
Hydrogen to form hydrides.
2A alkaline earth metals harder, denser,
higher Tms. form 2+ cations. less reactive
than alkali metals.
All but carbon can form 2 additional bonds w/
lewis bases. only C can form strong dbl /
triple
bonds
5A can form 3 covalent bonds all except N
6th covalent if with Lewis base. N can make
strong double and triple bonds.
6A O2 is 2nd most e-negative element.
usually exists as O2 and O3. reacts w/ metals
to form oxides. Na2S is very commonly found
in nature. can form up to 6 bonds.
7A halogens. stable. highly reactive. Like
to gain electrons. Flourine always has
8A noble gases. unreactive. inert.
top-right trend E of ionization, e-affinity,
electronegativity.
bottom-left trend Atomic radius, metallic molecular cpds w/ only 2 elements: name
Assume HONClBrF is diatomic, especially if character. begins w/ element towards bottom left.
MCAT mentions nonreactive.
SI Units, Prefixes Important for all MCAT Chemical Rxns, Eqns
small atoms good p orb overlap strong pi Sections physical rxns are melting, evaporation,
bonds possible 7 base units in SI system: dissolution, rotation of light. molecular
large atoms weak p orb overlap unable to Mass kg structure maintained.
form strong pi bonds. Have d orbitals allowing Length m
chemical rxn molecular structure changed.
for more than 4 bonds. Time s
eg, combustion, redox. common combustion:
E current- A (ampere)
CH4 +2O2 CO2 + 2H20
Ions Temp K
fewer or greater electrons than protons. Luminocity cd (candela) *MCAT will give balanced eqn unless
metals cations; nonmetals anions. Amnt of substance mol otherwise stated
Force 1 newton: 1N = 1kg m / s2
runs to completion runs to right until supply
Common transition metal ions: Cr3+ Mn 2+ Fe
2/3+ of at least 1 of reactants is depleted. rxns often
Co2+ Ni 2+ Cu1/2+ Zn2+ Ag+ Cd2+ Sn2+ Hg(2)2+ common prefixes:
dont get here bc get to equilibrium first.
Hg Au1,3+ Pt2+ Pb2+ Bi3+
2+
Mega (M) 106
Kilo (k) 103 limiting reagent that which would be
cations are smaller than anions bc of radius. Deci 10-1 completely used up if rxn were run to
Centi- 10-2 completion
Coulombs law: F=kq1q2/r2 Milli (m)- 10-3
Chemical Yield = Actual / Theoretical
describes electrostatic forces holding e to Micro (u) - 10-6
x100 Percent Yield.
nucleus. Nano (n) - 10-9
Pico (p) - 10-12
Fundamental Rxn Types
in atoms with more than 1 e-tron, there is e-
Combination: A + B C
shielding. 2nd e-tron doesnt feel entire charge. Bonds
Decomposition: C A + B
2nd etrons feel of charge called covalent (shared electrons)
Single Displacement/Replacement:
effective nuclear charge (Zeff) - negative es pulled toward both positvely
A +BC B +AC
Zeff = Z minus avg # etrons b/w nucleus and charge nuclei by electrostatic forces. tug of
Double Dis/Replacement / Metathesis:
etron in question. war repulsive and attractive forces balance
AB + CD AD + CB
out until bond length is met (equilibrium,
Periodic Trends lowest energy). Rxn Symbols
Zeff increases left to right. each electron is means change in. or heat is added if above a
pulled in more strongly toward nucleus E required to break bonds, no energy is rxn arrow.
smaller atomic radius. released. compound is 2 or more elements. double arrow means equilibrium can be
Atomic radius increases from top to bottom. ratio is empirical formula. reached
ionization energy E required to remove means there are resonance structures.
electron. increases from left to right, and from bond energy E required to break bond. [ ] indicates concentration
bottom to top. explained by Zeff. indicates standard state conditions
Electronegativity tendency of atom to % mass of element in molecule = weight of
Bonding in Solids
attract electron in bond that it shares w/ element / weight of molecule
solids can be crystalline or amorphous.
another atom. Pauling scale goes from 0.79 at
ionic crystals oppositely charged ions held
bottom-left of chart to top-right, Florine. empirical formula from % mass = take 100g
together by electrostatic forces.
undefined for noble gases. sample. put weight of element over its molar
Molecular crystals composed of individual
Electron affinity willingness of atom to mass # of moles. do the same for the other
molecules held together by intermolecular
accept additional electrons. increasees left to element. Compare their relative ratios
bonds. eg, ice.
right and bottom to top. most exothermic top empirical formula.
right. Quantum Mechanics
metallic character increases from right to left, Nomenclature elementary particles can only gain or lose
top to bottom. energy in discrete units. eg, walking up stairs.
Ionic cpds named after cation and anion. -Quantum numbers
easy way to remember 5 periodic trends: roman numeral I or II refers to +1 or +2. a set of 4 numbers as ID for an e- in given
if begins with an E, then it increases going to also, cupric = higher charge, cuprous = lower atom. no 2 es have same 4.
the right and up. If it doesnt begin with E, charge. cation name in front of anion name. 1st is principal quantum number: n.
then it increases oppositely so. ionization designates shell level. the larger, the greater
energy is known as energy of ionization. Zeff Monatomic/simple anions = ide
is not considered for this mnemonic. Also, polyatomic anions w/ multiple oxygens: ite
size / E of orbital. outermost shell designated
by rows.
these are just trends, and are violated (fewer) or ate (more), depending on # of Valence es contribute most to elements
frequently. Try to group Hydrogen as above oxygens. hypo and per are least and most chemical properties. located in outermost
Carbon. oxygens, respectively. shell. typically only s and p shells.
2nd is azimuthal quantum number: l.
Acids: named by their anions. designates subshell. these are orbital shapes: s
(l =0), p (l=1), d (l=2), and f (l=3).
l = n-1 explains Hunds rule: es will not fill any
s subshells look like sphers orbital in same subshell until all orbitals in
p subshells look like peanuts subshell contain @ least 1 electron. unpaired
3rd: magnetic quantum number: ml- electrons will have parallel spins. (bus to
designates precise orbital of subshell. each camden)
subshell has possible ml values from l to + l. This is moderated by having to climb an extra
so for first shell n=1, l =0, only possible ml is energy step.
0. 2p___
For n = 3, 5 possible orbitals with ml equaling 2s____
-2, -1, 0, +1, +2. 1s__
4th number is e- spin number: ms. can be
+ Before 2p will start filling, 1s and 2s must be
or + . Pauli exclusion principle no 2 es paired.
can have same 4 coordinates.
Plancks quantum theory: electromagnetic E
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle is quantized in discrete units.
dual nature of matter wave and particle E = hf
inherent uncertainty in product of a particles (where h =Plancks constant = 6.6e-34 J-s).
position and its momentum. on the order of
Plancks constant (6.63e-34 J-s). Einstein: if we think of light as particle (ie,
photons), we can use same equation.
Energy Level of Electrons
Aufbau principle each new proton added deBroglie: wave nature of electrons follow
for new element, new e-tron added, as well. equation
Nature prefers lower E state. more stability. = h / mv
electrons thus look for orbital with lowest e
state whenever they add to atom. lowest when electron falls from higher E rung to
subshell. lower E rung, energy given off in form of
photon.
photon must have frequency which
corresponds to energy change E = hf
The reverse is true: photon collides w/
electron, it can only bump electron to another
rung.
photoelectric effect- one-to-one photon to
electron collision. proved light is made of
particles (einstein). KE ectrons increases only
Electron configuration lowest to highest when intensity is increased by frequency of
energy subshells photons. minimum E required to eject an
electron called work function, , of metal.
1s KE of ejected electron given by E of photon
2s2p minus work function
KE = hf -
3s3p3d
4s4p4d4f -------------------------------------------------------- P real < P ideal
5s5p5d5f Gases Kinetics and Chemical Equilibrium
if we follow arrows, they show us order of gas loose collection of weakly attracted
increasing energy for subshells. not atoms moving randomly.
necessarily in numerical order: eg, 4s subshell STP - 0C and 1atm
lower energy level than 3d. speed 481 m/s at STP
1s2s, 2p 3s, 3p 4s 3d 4p mean free path distance traveled by gas
5s between collisions ~ 1600Angstroms
Think of d as dilatory in the order.
unlike liquids, all gases are miscible w/ each
*total number of es in your configuration other, regardless of polarity. with time and
should equal that for atom / ion. low temp, heavier gases settle below lighter
ones
Like charges repel. if placed close to each Ideal gas obeys ideal gas law:
other, PE. explains why only 2 electrons can PV = nRT
fit into one orbital.
where P is in atm, V in litres, T in Kelvin, and aA + bB cC + dD consider AB
R is universal gas constant (0.082 L-atm / forward rate law is rate = kf[A]
mol K) rate = -1 [A] = -1 [B] = 1 [C] = 1 [D] reverse is rate =kr[B].
ideal gas: a t b c d they are directly proportional to each other.
1) zero volume; 2) no forces other than @ equilibrium [B] > [A], kf > kr
repellant 3) completely elastic 4) avg KE T Intermediates products of one step,
reactants in another. Often at very low rate definition
@ STP 1 mole of any gas occupies 22.4 L concentration. rate = -1 [A]
a t
partial pressure = total pressure of mixture rate law for fwd rxn rate at equilibrium is zero. does not mean rxn
times mole fraction of gas rateforward = kf[A][B] rate is zero.
Pa = XaPtotal where alpha and beta are the order of each
where Xa = moles a / total moles of gas respective reactant, the sum of them are the K = [C]c[D]d = Productscoefficients
overall order. [A]a[B]b = Reactantscoefficients
Daltons Law total gas pressure is sum of
partial pressures of each gas. Determining the Rate Law by Experiment equilibrium constant depends only on T
Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3. relatively simple. dont confuse with equilibrium itself.
KEavg = 3/2 RT consider K has no units. proportion activity.
valid for both gases and liquids 2A + B + C 2D good for all equations, including non-
compare a pair of trials at a time elementary
in sample of gas, KE of molecules will vary if concentration doubles and rate doubles, then
from molecule to molecule, but there will be superscript is 1. if rate quadruples with *Do not include solids or pure liquids (eg
average of the KE of the molecules that is doubled concentration, exponent of 2. if rate water)
proportional to the T and independent of the does not change with doubling of a
type of gas. concentration, that exponent is zero. Partial Pressure Equilibrium Constant
Grahams law; v1/v2 = m2 / m1 add the exponents eg, third order. rxns for more than 1 pathway. any 2 or more
single rxns or series resulting in same products
Effusion: spreading of gas from high P to low Reversible Rxns from same reactants must have same Keq.
P through a pinhole.
effusion rate1 / effusion rate2 = m2 / m1 slow step = rate determining step. steps prior Kp is partial pressure Keq, n sum of
Diffusion spreading of one gas into another to it can still contribute to rate law. coefficients of products minus sum of coeff of
gas or into empty space. approximated by use equilibrium concentration of any reactants.
Grahams law. intermediates.
Reaction Quotient
Real Gases Catalysis
deviate from ideal behavior when molecules catalyst substance that increases rate of rxn For reactions not at equilibrium
are close together. volume of molecules w/o being consumed or permanently altered Q = Productscoefficients
become significant compared to volume lower the Ea. creates new rxn pathway which Reactantscoefficients
around molecules. High pressure / tiny includes an intermediate
container, low temp. -heterogeneous in diff phase than reactants use to predict direction of rxn.
Basically, real gases take into account their and products we always move toward equilibrium. QK
own volume, so -homogeneous same phase if Q = K equilibrium; if Q>K,
Vreal > Videal. products>reactants than when at equilibrium;
2nd, real gases exhibit forces on each other. so first order uncatalyzed rxn example: rxn rate reverse > fwd left shift
rate = k0[A]
if Q < K products < reactants than when at
new one would be (if cat by acid): equilibrium . rxn rate fwd > reverse. right
rate = k0[A] + KH+[H+][A] shift.
Chemical Kinetics
study of rxn mechanisms, rates. Le Chateliers Principle
typically deals w/ reaction as it moves towards catalyst changes Ea, but not delta G. when a system at equilibrium is stressed,
equilibrium (eg, how fast its achieved). system will shift to reduce stress.
Effects of Solvent on Rate 3 stressors
collision model reactants must collide. liquids have 100x more collisions than gas. 1) addition or removal of pdt or rct
activation E threshold most with solvent no rxn. 2) changing P of system
Arrhenius eqn: k = zpe-Ea/RT solvation affects k. they can electrically 3) heating or cooling system
where z = collision frequency. insulate reactants, reducing forces b/w them.
consider the following:
rate of rxn increases with T. Equilibrium N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g) + Heat
chemical equilibrium = fwd rxn rate equals
Equations for Rxn Rates reverse. no change in [pdts] or [rcts]
rates given in molarity per second (mol/L-s)
if we add N2 gas to rigid container, rxn moves E of system and surroundings always indicates standard state conditions. consider heat of soln given by
right. H2 partial pressure also reduced bc its conserved. water: Solutions Hsol =H1 + H2 + H3
forward rxn. NH3 and heat created. E = q + w first 2 steps endothermic, last is exothermic
(where work on system considered positive) H2(g) + fiO2(g) H20(l) solution: homogenous mixture of 2+ cpds in
if we raise T, rxn pushed to left. NH3 Hf = -285.8kj/mol single phase, eg, solid, liquid, gas. breaking a bond always requires energy
decreased. Heat Engines solvent: compound which there is more of. input. solution with H will give off heat
gas pushes against piston, now held by outside For rxns involving no change in P, Hf = q solute: cpd of which there is less. when it forms. Solution that gives off heat
if size of container reduced in constant temp, force we can control. heat gas, it expands when forming creates stronger bonds w/in
or when solution is concentrated/diluted, rxn while at constant T. Total E of gas does not Hesss Law: When you add rxns, you add Colloids solution.
moves to side of least gas moles. change as it expands. energy of heat weve their enthalpies. like soln, but only solute particles are larger.
added changes completely into PV work done eg, hemoglobin. usually cant pass positive heat of solution weaker
Does not always predict correct shift. by force against piston. heat of liquid gets Hf reaction = Hf products - Hf rcts semipermeable membrane. intermolecular bonds than before
exceptions include salts, solvation rxns, and disipated into a cold reservoir nearby.
nonreactive gas. Helium does not affect compressed to original state, back to where we endothermic = positive enthalpy More Solutions forming of solutions entropy
equilibrium at all. started. exothermic = negative enthalpy dissolved when solute is mixed w/ solvent (solutions usually more disordered than its
like dissolves like nonpolar solvents separated pure substances)
Thermodynamics 2nd law of Thermodynamics Heat cannot be top of the hill in a rxn graph = transition state dissolve nonpolar solutes, etc.
changed completely into work in a cyclical London dispersion forces hold together Vapor Pressure
study of energy and macroscopic properties. process. catalyst lowers Ea of fwd and rev. rxns nonpolar molecules. weak interactions. Equilibrium b/w liquid and gas phases of cpd
divide universe into system and surroundings. affects the rate, NOT the equilibrium, and Ionic cpds dissolved by polar solvents. when it moves quickly VP necessary to
reverse of heat engine = refridgerator. NOT the enthalpy. break into cations and anions surrounded by bring liquid and gas phases to equilibrium is
System E? M? respectively charged ends of polar solvent. vapor pressure of the cpd.
Open Yes Yes Thermodynamic State Functions: Internal Entropy called solvation. Water does this really well. Clausius-Clapeyron as it relates to VP:
Closed Yes No Energy (U); Temperature (T); Pressure (P); natures tendency towards disorder (S) H+ sides of H20 would surround Cl- ion, ln(Pv) = -Hvap (1) + C
Isolated No No Volume (V); Enthalpy (H); Entropy (S); Gibbs more likely more entropy whereas O- side would surround Na+ ion. R (T)
Energy (G). water-solvated = hydration. said to be in vaporization is ENDOthermic
State functions- physical condition of system. 2nd law of thermodynamics entropy of an aqueous phase. so VP T
pathway independent. Internal Energy isolated system never decreases. water is poor conductor of electricity unless it
extensive- change w/ amount in system. eg, molecular energy such as vibrational, contains electrolytes, cpds that form ions in aq when VP = local atmosph pressure boil
volume, number of moles. rotational, translational, etc. S(sys) + S (surr) = S (univ) > 0 soln.
intensive- independent of systems size. U = q + w melting is T at which vpliquid = vpsolid
Pressure and temperature, eg. fwd entropy = (-) reverse entropy Be aware of some common ions:
Temperature nitrite NO2-, Nitrate NO3-, sulfite SO32-, nonvolatile solute solute w/ no vapor
Heat how fast molecules are moving / vibrating. reversible = Ea lower than fwd Ea. sulfate SO42-, hypochlorite ClO-, cholrate pressure.
aka, q. movement of E via Always from hot hot T bc of more molecular movement. irreversible = Opposite ClO3-, perchlorate ClO4-, carbonate CO32-,
to cold (down the gradient). Described by zeroth law. bicarbonate HCO3-, phsphate PO43- Raoults Law (nonvolatile) if 97% of the
Entropy, not energy, dictates direction of rxn. soln is solvent, then the vapor pressure will be
1) conduction - mollecular collisions. requires avg KE of single molecule in a fluid: it increases Units of Concentration 97% of the vapor pressure of the pure solvent.
physical contact. substances conduct at KEavg = 3/2 kT Molarity (M) = moles solute / volume
different conductivity, k. Kelvin = Celsius + 273 3rd Law of Thermodynamics zero entropy solution Pv = XaPa
virtually all phys properties change w/ T for any pure substance @ absolute zero and in Molality (m) = moles solute / kg solvent
2) convection heat txfer via fluid internal equilibrium. Mole fraction (X) = mols solute / all mols Raoults Law (volatile) if 97% of soln is
movements, such as air currents. mass % = mass solute / total mass soln x 100 solven, vapor pressure will be 97% of the
entropy units are J/K. ppm = mass solute / total mass soln x 106 vapor pressure of the pure solven PLUS 3% of
3) radiation. via e-magnetic waves. all Pressure parts per million the vp of the pure solute.
objects at T > 0K radiate some heat, some e- P of ideal gas is random translational KE per Gibbs Free Energy Pv = XaPa + XbPb
magnetic waves. only type that txfers through volume. Soln concentrations always given in terms of Negative heats of soln form stronger bonds
vacuum. PV = nRT equilibrium achieved by maximizing entropy the form of the solute before dissolution and lower vp; Positive heats of soln form
of universe. eg, 1 mol NaCL + 1 L H20 = approximately 1 weaker bonds and raise vp.
Work Enthalpy molar solution NOT 2 molar, even though
any energy transfer that isnt heat. extra capacity to do PV work. cannot be G = H TS NaCl goes to 2 ions. Solubility
PV work a system at rest with no intuited, just memorize equation: solutes tendency to dissolve in solvent.
gravitational PE or KE, but pressure and a negative G usually implies spontanaeity Normality measures number of protons per on MCAT: usually salt in water.
volume change create work. H = U + PV it is a state function. non-PV work. eg, acid. H2SO4 would be 2 normal, whereas HCl reverse rxn: precipitation.
w = PV (constant pressure) contracting muscles, transmitting nerves, would be 1 normal. when rate of dissolution = precipitation
Standard State (not same as STP). = batteries. saturated.
0th Law temperature exists reference form for a substance at any chosen deals with change of enthalpy / entropy of a Solution Formation
temperature T and P of 750 torr. system. Physical rxn: Equilibrium of solvation rxn:
3rd law perfect crystal at 0 K is assigned 3 steps: 1) breaking of solute molecules, 2) own eq constant, solubility product Ksp.
entropy value of zero. all other substances and Standard Enthalpy of Formation Hf in If + enthalpy, -entropy nonspontaneous breaking of solvent molecules, 3) forming set equal to products over reactants raised to
all Ts have positive entropy value. E enthalpy for rxn that creates 1 mole of cpd If enthalpy, +entropy spontaneous intermolecular bonds b/w solvent and solute. their coefficients in balanced equation. leave
from raw elements. the naught symbol out pure solids, liquids.
First Law of Thermodynamics higher T favors direction favored by entropy E required to break bond.
eg, Ba(OH)2(s) Ba2+(aq) +2OH-(aq)
Ksp = [Ba2+][OH-]2
solubility product changes only with tempereature
constant found in a book.
Solubility is the max number of moles of
solute that can dissolve in soln.
depends on T and ions
spectator ion ion w/ no effect on eq
common ion if added to a saturated soln,
will shift Keq increasing precipitate.
unsaturated not in equilibrium
Solubility Guidelines
cpds with H20 solubilities of less than .01
mol/L insoluble
Solubility Factors
solubility affected by P and T.
P on gas solubility
Vpa Xa
Henrys law demonstrates that solubility of
gas is proportional to VP. think of opening a
can of soda gas is released bc of solubility
pressure ( Temp) Colligative Properties
T Salt solubility
Heat Capacity, Phase Change, and Colligative point, osmotic pressure.
Properties
homogeneous system constant properties
various phases aqueous, pure liquid, vapor, i = vant Hoff factor, # of particles a single
crystalline solid, amorphous solid.
Heat Capacity
measure of E change needed to alter T of
substance.
defined as: C = q given in cal /g - C
T H20 = 1cal/g-C
q = mcT
either at constant V or P
Calorimeter
coffee cup calorimeter constant P.
measures E change at atmospheric P. can
measure heat of rxn
bomb calorimeter - measures E change at
constant volume. measure heat of water.
Phase Changes
graph with various slopes
plateaus for heat of fusion, and later, heat of
vaporization.
the slopes - mcT
phase changes: melting/freezing;
vaporization/condensation;
sublimation/deposition.
each phase of water has its own specific heat
(different slopes of the lines)
Evaporation partial p above liquid < vp
liquid. atmospheric P > vp.
Entropy positive for melting and
vaporizing, positive for freezing and
condensing.
Phase Change Diagram
indicates phases of substance at different P and pair of electrons (acid), anything that donates a
T. Temp on x axis, Pressure (atm) on y axis. pair of electrons (base).
graph forms a Y shape with
left: solid; top/middle: liquid; right: gas
1atm line runs just above the triple point
changing from H20 to CO2, we see the \ in the acidic soln: greater [H+] than [OH-]
letter Y move towards middle; 1atm line is
now intersecting solid and gas, only.
line separating solid and liquid has negative
slope in H20, but positive slope in CO2. Most
phase diagrams resemble CO2 in this respect.
negative slope in water explains why ice
floats; water is denser than ice. why? its
crystal structure takes up more volume
because of the lattices.
acid
properties that depend on how many and not
what type. the stronger the acid, the weaker the conj. base eg, 0.01 M HCl will have 0.01 mol/L of H ions
vapor pressure, boiling point, freezing
boiling point elevation eqn:
T = constant x m x i
m = molality
solut will dissociate into.
on MCAT, use the expected value of vant
hoff unless they tell you an observed one
that is less bc of ion pairing
addition of nonvolatile solute bp elevation
addition of nonvolatile solute mp
depression
same equation, different constant
osmotic pressure tendency of a solvent to
move into a solution. relative term when
comparing solutions
divid pure liquid by membrane that is
permeable to liquid but not solute.
= iMRT
where M is molarity if the soln
osmotic potential partial measure of systems
free energy.
think of osmotic pressure as pressure pulling
into a solution and hydrostatic pressure as
pusshing out of a solution
(b) = pgh(b) pgh(a) physics
Acids and Bases
3 definitions you must know:
Arrhenius anything that produces H+ ions
(acid) or OH- ions (base) in solution.
Bronsted-Lowry anything that donates a
proton (acid), anything that accepts a proton
(base).
Lewis most general. anything that accepts a
Any aqueous soln contains both H+, OH-
think of acid as H+, base as OH-.
basic soln: the reverse
neutral soln: equal concentrations
pH = -log[H+]
log(AxB) = log(A) + log (B)
each one unit of pH represents a 10-fold
difference in H+ concentration
HA + H2O A- + H3 0 +
base conj. base conj. acid
the stronger the base, the weaker the conj. acid 0.01 = 10-2; -log ans = 2. pH =2
Kw = KaKb
Many rxns in living cells involve proton
transfer. the rate of such rxns depend on the base, pH always >7.
pH.
amphoteric substances act as either base or given 0.01 M HCN
acid, depending on environment. eg, water.
can act as base (accepting proton), or acid
(donating proton).
Strong Acids: HI, HBr, HCl, HNO3, HClO4, mol of H plus x mol of CN. plug it into your
HClO3, H2SO4
Strong Bases: NaOH, KOH, NH2-, H-,
Ca(OH)2, Na2O, CaO.
polyprotics on the MCAT pay attention to
first one, unless Ka values differ by less than
3
10
strong acid or strong base = completely
dissociates in water.
3 factors contributing to acid strength
1) strength of H- bond. 2) polarity of bond.
3) stability of conj base.
oxyacids: more oxygens acid strength
Hydrides cpd with 2 elements, one of which
is hydrogen. basic ones are group 5, acids are Titrations
group 6.
autoionization of water:
H2O + H2O H3O+ + OH-
Kw = [H+][OH-]
(h30+ is equivalent to saying h plus)
Kw = 10-14
so if solution is pH 2, ion concentrations will
be [H+] = 10-2 mol/L ; [OH-] = 10-12 mol/L
larger the Ka and the smaller the pKa, the
stronger the acid. eg, Ka > 1; pKa < 0.
same is true for Kb and pKb of a base
acid dissociation constant Ka:
Ka = [H+][A-]
[HA]
equilibrium constant for that acids conj.
base w/ water:
Kb = [OH-][HA]
[A-]
(if you multiply Ka x Kb equations, youll
come out with Kw).
pKa + pKb = 14
Finding pH with strong acid:
Finding pH of strong base:
0.01 M NaOH soln. 0.01 mol/L of OH- ions
pOH will equal 2, so pH equals 12.
double check that your pH makes sense. if
Finding pH with weak acids:
1) set up Ka equation:
Ka = [H+][CN] = 6.2x10-10
[HCN]
2) assume x mol of HCN has dissociated. so x
equation above:
Ka = [x][x] = 6.2x10-10
[0.01]
3) solve for x. double check your pH is
reasonable.
4) for a base, the process is the same, except
what pops out is pOH. make sure you subtract redox rxn: es txferred from one atom to
from 14 to get pH.
Salts
ionic cpds that dissociate in water.
Na+ and Cl- are conjugates of NaOH and HCl when O is reduced, oxi state reduced from 0 to
so it produces a neutral solution.
Remember that all cations, except metals (such oxidation state: possible charge value for an
as Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+), act as weak lewis acids atom w/in a molecule. sum of each atoms oxi
in aq solns.
drop-by-drop mixing of an acid and base.
performed to find the concentration of some
unknown by comparing it with known
concentration of titrant.
titration curve of strong acid titrated with
strong base (base added to acid) is sigmoidal,
with mid point usually equaling pH of 7. but
not with diprotic acids
if starting with base in a titration, sigmoid
starts at a high y intercept
if starting with acid in titration, sigmoid starts
at low y intercept.
Titration of weak acid w/ strong base
y intercept is slightly higher than rock bottom
there are 2 plateaus, not 1
half equivalence point: where pH = pKa; at
middle of 1st plateua, equivalence point is on
the second slope in the middle.
end point range is a little bit above and below
equivalence point.
buffer zone: the plateau where the
equivalence point lies. you can add the largest
amount of base or acid with the least amount
of pH change.
Henderson-Hasselbach equation:
pH = pKa + log [A-]
[HA]
basically says, @ half equiv point, pH = pKa
of the acid.
half equivalence = where [acid] = [base]
on MCAT realize that adding small amount of
water to ideally dilute, buffered solution will
have no effect on the pH.
To Find equiv point, we use an indicator.
usually weak acid whose conj. base is a diff
color. endpoint where indicator changes
color, i.e., changes into conj base.
Polyprotic Titrations
assume 1st proton completely dissocaiates.
two equiv points, two equiv points. pKa1
and pKa2
Electrochemistry
another. OIL RIG.
eg, 2H2 + O2 2H2O
when H+ is oxidized, oxi state has increased
from 0 to +1.
-2.
states must add up to net charge on molecule.
Oxi States worth Memorizing
Elements:
elemental atoms 0 bc electrons are negatively charged, like repels force (a vector) Center of Mass single point at which all
Flourine -1 like. any vector can be broken up into component mass is concentrated. any force here in any Circular Motion / Centripetal Force
Hydrogen +1 cell potential for galvanic cell always + vectors, whose sum is the original. direction, same magnitude of acceleration ac=v2/r v
bonded to metal -1 lengths of components through pythagorean sometimes CoM is not in the object (a ring) Fc=mv2
Oxygen -2 Free Energy and Chemical Energy and center of gravity single point where force of r Fc
G = -nFEmax O=Hsin gravity can be applied to entire mass.
Compounds: determines a spontaneous rxn A=Hcos
Group 1 elements +1 F is faradays constant (~100,000 C / mol) these values w/ be provided For MCAT assume CoM = CoG r
Group 2 +2 w=qV common MCAT triangles: 3/4/5; and 5/12/13
Group 5 -3 speed = distance/t ; velocity = displacement/t forces on MCAT:
Group 6 -2 G = -RTln(Keq) 1) gravitational force (mg); Friction
Group 7 -1 where K equals eq constant a = v / t 2) electromagnetic force (charged object or 1) Normal force always perpendicular to
Q is where rxn does not yet equal equilibrium magnet) contact surface
(first table has priority over 2nd) velocity and accel not always in same 3) contact force perpendicular to surface 2) Fr always parallel to contact surface
if K = 1 then G = 0 direction (aka normal force) and/or parallel to surface
reducing agent / reductant: cpd whose if K > 1 then G < 0 (friction) mgcos static friction force oppositng motion when
element gives e-trons to atom if K < 1 then G > 0 Uniformly Accelerated Motion F(T) contiguous surfaces are not moving rel. to each
constant a. other.
oxidizing agent / oxidant: compound that is to say, if rxn has Keq thats greater than Kinetic friction force resisting motion once
containing the atom that is being reduced. 1, it will be spontaneous at STP. x= x0 + v0t +1/2 at2 fk the two surfaces start sliding.
v = vo + at mgsin
Potentials Nernst equation: v2 = vo2 + 2ax for any two surfaces, there are 2 coefficients of
electric potential E associated w/ any rxn. E = E - 0.06 log (Q) vavg= (v + vo) mgcos friction: us and uk.
when you reverse the rxn, its Es sign n 2 mg
switches fs usFn
st
Concentration Cell Displacement versus Time Graph Newtons 1 Law: law of inertia. fk = ukFn
positive E voltage spontaneous rxn a cell that is taking place in two jars. never at displacement versus time. Newtons 2nd Law: F = ma
negative E voltage endergonic standard conditions. upward slope: + velocity Newtons 3rd Law: every force has opposite with tension problems, a box being held by a
never @ standard conditions, so use nernst. downward: - velocity force string, if no movement, F(T) = mg
Nickel, Iron, Zinc, and water do not plateau: 0 accel
spontaneously oxidize, or give up their galvanic cells have + cell potential curve: +/- accel Newtons Law of Universal Gravitation: Hookes Law
electrons. electrolytic cells have (-) cell potential slope = velocity F=Gm1m2 force due to stretched or compressed object
r2 F = -kx
half reaction potential is NOT multiplied when Red Cat, An Ox Velocity versus Time Graph G = 6.67 e-11 m3/kg-s
rxn is multiplied, but half reactions are slope = acceleration Equilibrium, Torque, and Energy
ADDITIVE. F of A on B equals F of B on A
Projectile Motion why earth doesnt move when we jump on it? equilibrium: no translational / angular
Galvanic/Voltaic Cell separate the projectile path into perpendicular too massive acceleration
turns chemical energy into electrical energy. components. F = tiny a static equilib: all velocities = 0
salt bridge electrolyte conduction solution peak height of projectile given by: huuuuuuuge mass dynamic equilib: nonzero but constant v
TEIET Terminals, electrodes, ionic vosin = (2gh) when v. is zero.
conductor, electrodes, terminal. emf is the acceleration on the ball is constant (-9.8m/s) Fupward = Fdownward
voltage b/w T and T. in the absence of air resistance, mass does not inclined plane Frightward = Fleftward
affect projectile motion. without friction, only forces are Fn and gravity
Only system not in equilib MCAT tests is one
that experiences translational acceleration.
electrodes Air resisance to solve these probs:
anode negative sign. oxidation happens here. Physics surface area air resistance 1) write equations as though it were in
cathode positive sign. reduction happens irregular, rough objects mgsin equlibrium
here. Key to solving probs: well drawn diagram. higher velocity 2) before solving, add ma to side w/ less
RED CAT mneumonic write a know/want table. Mass 1/air resistance, bc less affected by it. force
(think of an anvil versus hollow rubber
both usually a strip of metal in solution. vectors and scalars ball) Shortcut to inclined planes: F = ma
one side may be called a half cell. vector has magnitude and direction Normal force = mgcos
scalar has magnitude only Force one portion counters some gravity
cell potential E / electromotive force (emf): the rest is accel.
potential difference between terminals when to add vectors, place head of first vector to tail inertia tendency to remain in present state gravitational = mgsin
not connected. connection reduces voltage of second vector, draw arrow from tail of first Mass- quantitative measure of inertia (kg) Torque
due to internal resistance in the cell. to head of second. Weight gravitational force on an earth (N) twisting force. clockwise or counter
on earth this is mg clockwise.
electrons flow alphabetically multiplying product of Force and position vector r
from anode to cathode. vectors can be multiplied/divided by scalars = F x l (assuming perpendicular force)
eg, mass (scalar) times accel (vector)
 r = point of rotation. Power ramp: inclined plane. pushing an object up P = gy + Patmosphere P = QR
rate of energy transfer. unit is watt (W). ramp, you are pushing mgsin.
Solving torque probs: equivalent to J/s. dont confuse with W work. W = mgh Patmosphere = 101kPa Surface Tension
Fupward = Fdownward W=Fd although denser than H20, a needle can float
Frightward = Fleftward P = E work is held constant, so gauge pressure measure of pressure on water. due to intensity of intermolecular
clockwise = counterclockwise t F 1/d compared to local atmospheric P forces per unit length.
if you know force and time: absolute P = pgauge + patm
T P=W lever based on torque. like ramp, allows us capillary action fluid may be pulled up a
t to increase the distance over which force acts. hydraulic lift works via Pascals principle. thin tube. intermolecular/cohesive forces and
P = Fvcos F1d1 = F2d2 or F1A1 = F2A2 adhesive forces (sticking to each other and
pulleys are actually modified levers. multiple sticking to the tube.
mg1 mg2 Momentum, Machines, Radioactive Decay tension strings add up to counter act mg. Fbuoyant = mgwater = fluidVg
Solids
Momentum: Radioactive Decay fraction submerged = floating object Stress = F/A in units N/m2
In this example, mg1 and mg2 are clockwise p = mv fluid Strain = dimension / original dimension
and equal in sum to force of tension T. given in kg-m / s Particle Symbol strain responds to stress.
Forces upwards = Forces downwards alpha 42 an object floating displaces its weight in fluid,
-
also, the torques are equal momentum is always conserved. beta or 0-1e a submerged object displaces its volume in Modulus of elasticity = stress/strain
+
so Tx = mgd + mgL momentum is a vector. positron or 0+1e fluid.
gamma 3 moduli to know for MCAT:
Energy Collisions Fb doesnt change w/ depth. 1) Youngs modulus (E) [tensile]
units of joule (J). for macroscopic systems Elastic mechanical E conserved. no E Half-Life Problems 2) shear modulus (G) [shear]
units of electron-volt (eV) for microscopic. dissipated to heat, sound, etc. eg, atomic 4 variables: initial amnt of substance, final V = Ah 3) bulk modulus (B)
one joule = 1 kg-m2/s2 collisions. amount of substance, number of half lives, and Fb = pg Ah [compression/expansion]
the half life. MCAT will give you 3 of these. Fb = pgh
KE = mv2 Ui + Ki = Uf + Kf A E = (F/A)/(/ho)
electron capture : P = pgh G = (F/A)/(/xo)
Potential Energy (U) Inelastic colliding objects lose some mech E 201/80Hg + 0-1e --> 201/79 Au B = P/(V/Vo)
Ug = mgh to internal energy. random translational motion contributes to
Completely inelastic when colliding objects Mass Defect fluid P at rest Waves
Elastic Potential Energy stick together upon collision. E = mc2 uniform translational motion shared wave txfer of momentum and E from one
2 8
Ue= k x can use conserv. of momentum for inelastic: where c = 3x10 m/s equally by all the molecules at a location of point to another. for MCAT, assume ideal.
pi = p f fluid.
Systems Fission and Fusion wavelength measured crest-to-crest
Law of Conservation of energy: constant E can be further broken down into Fusion combining of 2 nuclei to form Ideal fluid 1) no viscosity; 2) frequency (f) number of wavelengths / time
Ebefore = Eafter p(x)i = p(x)f heavier nucleus. incompressible; 3) steady/laminar flow; 4) not units of herts (Hz) or cycles/s
p(y)i = p(y)f Fission- splitting of single nucleus to 2 lighter. rotating. aka s-1
Work most likely to show up on MCAT v = f
Work transfer of energy via force, measured might have to use cos/sin to break into vectors Fluids
in Joules. fluid liquid or gas. conforms to shape of assume non-changing volume period (T) - reciprocal of frequency;
momentum is conserved before and after container. battleship floats bc ocean conforms water through a pipe has volume = r2xd T = 1/f
W = Fdcos for all forces except friction collision to surface so that always normal force. amplitude (A) maximum displacement from
density heaviness of fluid units kg/m3 continuity equation: zero.
W = K + U Reverse Collisions = m/V Q = Av
opposite of completely elastic: one object compression of a gas makes it more dense. where Q = flow rate velocity is dictated by the waves medium.
assuming no dissipation in form of heat spontaneously combusts into 2. assume not possible for solids, liquids. elasticity; inertia.
I = pQ = pAv for a gas, velocity increases with temperature.
Conservative / Nonconservative Forces --- Specific Gravity- where I equals mass flow rate. sound waves move more quickly thru hot gas...
Law of Cons. of Mechanical E SG = substance / water
|K| = |U| Impulse (J) is equal to change in momentum flow rates are constant in an ideal fluid. intensity (I) = pw2A2v
know H20 density on MCAT:
Nonconservative forces those that change J = p water = 1000 kg/m3 = 1g/cm3 Bernoulis Equation (memorize): I= P
mechanical E when they do work. KE J = Favgt P + pgh + 1/2 pv2 = K 4r2
frictional force and the pushing and pulling of mv = Favgt fluid pressure result of molecular collisions. where K is fluid-specific constant.
animals. P = F/A in units Pascal (Pa) where h is distance above some arbitrary point Intensity levels and dB. if intensity by a
for this: W = K + U sum of the three terms is constant throughout factor of 10, the decibels increase by the
sucking water out a straw, hows it work? atm the fluid. addition of 10 decibels.
pressure above water in straw lower than atm v = (2gh) eg, from 30 W/m2 to 3000 W/m2 = adding 20
Work and Friction Machines pressure above water in cup. velocity of fluid as it leaves a spicket. decibels.
K + U = fdcos if you see on MCAT, ideal machines reduce Fluids at rest only perpendicular forces on it. Non-Ideal Fluid- drag and viscocity act to = 10log (I / Io)
if internal energy change is avail use formula force but dont change work. P = gy impede flow. the narrower the pipe, the where Io is threshold intensity (lowest we can
W = K + U + Ei greater the drag. (greater velocity, too). hear)
if an open container exposed to air: slower than ideal fluid, but similar principles.
I B a(t) = -w2x(t) resistance x current voltage:
x10 +10 Charge (q) given in units coulombs (C) V=iR (Ohms law) Power
x100 +20 acceleration -displacement f power interchangable with mechanical
x1,000 +30 Universal Law of Conservation of Charge- Kirchoffs first rule: amount of current power
x10,000 +40 Hookes law: F = -mw2x universe has no net charge. flowing in = amount of current flowing out.
elastic potential energy: PE = kx2 node any intersection of wires.
F= -kx charg eis quantized. smallest unit is one P = iV = i2R = V2/R
wave phase horizontal shift of wave on a electron unit (e = 1.6x10-19C). photon or Kirchoffs second rule: voltage around any
graph. out of phase vs in phase. periodic motion for mass on a spring electron. path in a circuit must sum to zero.
T = 2(m/k)
Two or more waves can occupy same space. opposite charges attract, like charges repel. battery adds energy to circuit increases
superposition interference pendulum exchanges energy b/w PE and voltage from one point to another. rated with 2 6V
KE. Coulombs law: electromotive force (EMF), aka voltage.
Constructive sum of displacements = larger T = 2(L/g) F= kq1q2 assume no internal resistance on MCAT. 2V
displacement r2
Destructive sum of displacements = smaller on MCAT may come in the form of: where k is coulomb constant of 9x109 capacitor temporarily stores energy in a 2V 2V
displacement orbit of planet as viewed from side, tetherball and r is distance b/w centers of charge. circuit. parallel plate capacitor separated 6V 2
around pole, electrons oscillating back and by small distance. creates E field that is 2
Beats case of superpositioning waves. forth in AC current. mass/gravity very similar to charge constant everywhere b/w the plates. E field 0V
fbeat = |f1-f2| given by 2
field can be represented by lines of force E= 1 Q
piano tuner. he listens until beat frequency is Hookes law acceleration of any system in points in direction of the field. (positive to K A0 0V
zero. SHM displacement f negative for e-fields). positive test charge. Q = charge on either plate: Eo is constant.
beat frequency = alternating increase and
decrease in noise intensity. hearing the pitch. if hanging on a string and swinging: Electric field electrostatic force / unit charge capacitance ability to store charge per unit
frequency creating this is the average of the FT= mgcos + m(v2/r) E. vector pointing in direction of field. units voltage.
frequencies from piano and tuning fork. N/C or V/m. AC Current
wackem wiggle E= kq1 C=Q direct current (DC) net movement of etrons
high pitch high frequency high note w= (k/m) w = (g/L) r2 V in one direction around circuit.
box on a pendulum in units N/C the farther apart the plates, the greater the alternating current (AC) oscillating e-trons
when wavelength crosses to a different string F=Eq voltage, the lower the capacitance. back and forth in SHM. in home outlets in
medium, wavelength changes, frequency W=U=qEd CA/d US. described as sine wave.
remains the same. so we see that period of a swinging string is V=Ed volts in units J/C
independent of the mass on the end of it. Q = CV Vmax = 2Vrms
standing wave string is still at the nodes voltage due to point charge U = QV = CV2 = Q2 / C imax = 2irms
while waves move up and down at antinodes. Doppler Effect V = (kq)/r
waves are unaffected by speed of their source. dielectric constant, K substance between rms = square root of the average of the squares
harmonic series list of all wavelengths from if source moves relative to receiver, each wae Movement of Charge plates of capacitor. must be insulator, to allow
longest to shortest. w/ travel diff distance, so frequency of conductors metals, allow es to flow freely buildup of charge. rms voltage in US is usually 120 Volts, 170
longest = first harmonic (1) or fundamental receiver/observer will seem different. resistors bad conductors, hold es tightly in max.
wavelength. fewest number of nodes (2). place. eg, diamond, glass. capacitor sign both plates same size
second harmonic (2) requires extra node. f = v and = v battery sign diff sizes Magnetism
fs c s c can charge a conductor by induction. measured in tesla, T. north and south poles.
harmonic series totally closed or open: Reff = R1 + R2 + . (resistors in series)
L = n n (n=1,2,3) c is not necessarily speed of light, can be speed current moving charge. in units amps (A) a changing electric field creates a magnetic
2 of sound, radio, etc. or C/s 1 = 1 + 1 + (resistors field. a stationary charge does not create a
where L = distance b/w 2 ends of string moves in the direction of (+) charge Reff R1 R2 in parallel) magnetic field.
and n = number of the harmonic. understand this qualitatively. when relative
velocity brings the observer and source closer, think of electrical movement like fluid. 1 = 1 + 1 + (capacitors B = uo iLsin
when one end is tied down harmonic series is: observed frequency and observed Ceff C1 C2 in series) 4r2
L = n n (n=1,3,5) Circuits
4 higher frequency higher pitch circuit cyclical pathway for current Ceff = C1 + C2 (Capacitors in for a long wire:
all substances resist flow of charge parallel)
standing waves cause string to resonate @ blue shift = wavelength appears shorter measured quantitatively with resistivity () B = uoi
natural, resonant frequency. (source and obs closer than b4) mneumonic: C, its inverted in the series 2r
red shift oppositte measure of this is called Resistance (R) in
v=f ohms () right hand rule. thumb in direction of current
when objects are moving in same velocity, (i) and grab wire, direction in which our
frequency change is zero. R = (L) / A fingers wrap is the direction of magnetic field
Electricity and Magnetism if a wire is doubled in length or its cross (B).
Simple Harmonic Motion perfect sin wave. sectional area is halved, R by factor of 2.
sinusoidal function in time. because of history of science, current runs in (analogous to fluids) F = qvBsin
opposite direction of the electrons.
force is directed perpendicularly to both indeces on MCAT: from point of intersection. if sheet were there, Notes from 6.24.08
velocity and magnetic field. water- 1.3 image would appear on it. hardest part is determining
glass- 1.5 when value is + or - all nitrates & sodium salts are water soluble
2nd right hand rule: point thumb in direction of
moving positive charge (v), point fingers in plane-polarized light filtered light w/ all E Mirrors and Lenses single bond length > double > triple
direction of magnetic field (B) palm will point fields oriented in same direction. mirrors convex and concave
diagonally in direction of F. lenses - converging, diverging. given: Pb(OH)2 Pb2+ and 2OH-
lights dual nature propegates like a wave, if pH raised, rxn would shift left
qvB = (mv2) / r but has E transformative properties like a concave looks like a cave, reverting back to
particle. cavement would be a divergement. P = IV
F = ilBsin
angle of incidence measured from an always assume light originates from object. proton = H+ = ion
imaginary perpendicular line to the surface.
A changing magnetic field electric field. of incedence is between line normal and ray of thicker center converges Photon E ejected electron E
light. reflection is between normal line and ionization energy reached. all extra energy is
changing magnetic flux emf E deflected light. refracted is the ray of light assume spherical mirrors for MCAT. for the electron to have after ejection.
in new medium. eg, if 12 eV required to eject, and photon is
E = - 15eV, e- has 3eV of KE.
t light from horizontal rays reflected by concave
Faradays Law mirrors to focus on a single point, focal point. KE electron Voltage
angle of reflection (same medium):
Overall picture: incidence = reflection focal point radius of curvature. Xray emmission Intensity
1) magnetic field is generated by moving fmirror = r
charge and; angle of refraction (new medium): W = Fd
2) moving charge experiences force when n1sin1 = n2sin2
moving through electric field. focal point is also affected by refractive KE evaporation
Ephoton = hf indices of lens and medium of lens. also
F = qvB affected of radii of curvature of both sides. d = at2
higher frequencies, such as violet and blue
light, have more E than lower fs. power of a lens. in units of diopters (m-1): Translational equilibrium = all Fs cancel =
Plens = 1/f acceleration is zero
when light moves to higher n, can be so
Light and optics great as to cause total internal reflection. Ray diagrams are not useful for MCAT. particle decay = Helium ejection
all photons reflected @ angle of reflection, no
electromagnetic wave traveling oscillation refraction. critical angle. overview of ray diagrams: dobject = hobject
of electric and magnetic fields. transverse In any double system, use first image as the dimage himage
wave. Diffraction another type of wave-bending convex mirror (object same side): image object of the 2nd.
phenomenon. light thru small slit. size of behind, upright, smaller, not real. Cu(s) + H2SO4 SO2 + Cu+
sppeed (c) at which wave propagates thru free opening ~ wavelength or smaller. constructive concave mirror: object same side, image for a convex mirror or diverging lens, f is sulfurs oxi state went from +6 +4
space is constant, equal to ratio of magnitudes vs destructive interference. smaller the behind is upright, larger, not real. always negative.
of electric field and magnetic field: opening larger the opening greater bending Power = work / time
of wave Diverging lens: object far side, image farside for a concave mirror and converging lens, f is
Light tiny sliver of em spectrum. visible is upright, smaller, and virtual.. always positive. Short period short wavelength
light in wavelengths 390 to 700 nm Images
1nm = 1x10-9 m mirrors reflect light; lenses refract light. Converging lens: object far side, image P= 1 = 1 + 1 Harmonic: 1st 2nd 3rd
farside, larger, upright, and virtual. f d i do 1 < 2 < 3
shorter wavelength violet light UV our mind doesnt account for light bending P1 < P2 < P3
longer wavelength red light infrared in other mediums: lateral magnification m ratio of size of image f1 > f2 > f3
to size of object. h1 vs. h0 M = -di = hi guitar harmonics always sound high
each wavelength has corresponding frequency Person do ho high pitch high frequency
water m = -di = hi
speed of light in vacuum is constant. d o ho fmirrors = r P wavelength harmonic number 1/f
real fish brains fish
from c = f angular magnification: harmonic multiple of the original frequency.
c = f Two lens systems 4th harmonic is 16x natural frequency
n
light slower when propagating thru medium. An image may or may not exist: m = i obj. to eye, front of lens on MCAT would be microscope or teloscope: as determined by 2
index of refraction.. virtual image does not exist outside of mind np obj. to eye, at near point
of observer; no light rays emanate from virtual M = m1m2 f = v = 3x108m/s = speed of light
n=c/v image. no image would appear on paper. our for any mirror or lens, distance of imge related
when light crosses into new medium, f remains reflection in a mirror. brains fish above. to focal length and distance of object: Peff = P1 + P2 voltage sources in parallel produce same
same, but changes. output voltage as single source; but if in series,
real image exists separately from obs. rays 1 = 1 + 1 their voltages would be additive.
of light actually intersect and then emanate f do di

freezing pt depression is colligative:
totally dependent on # of solute particles in
water
molarity of solute Tm
equiv point (first flat part) [Acid] and
[Conj. base] are equal.
reducing agent causes reduction. eg, Fe. Hb Hg
----------------------------------------------------
BS
all somatic cells in body have same DNA /
Chromosomes regardless of stage of life
cholesterol precursor to steroid horomones
estrogen
vasoconstriction of intestinal villi lacteals
fat absorption
crossing Tt x Tt
one would expect Mendelian ratio of 3::1 of
tall to short plants
metabolism of aas from proteins see
Nitrogen urine concentration starvation
starvation: carbs, lipids used up, start breaking (Br2 + CCl4) turns colorless if dbl bond
down body proteins
C=O bond makes molecule more polar
polarity BP
chips, air bubbles break surface tension of
liquid, preventing superheating during a
vacuum filtration
Heat distillation flask @ slower rate better
fractionation
Stereogenic carbon = chirality center
diff makeup diff enantiomers
chiral if 4 diff constituents
dbl bonded carbons are not able
to be chiral.
Boiling point: when vapor pressure of liquid =
surface pressure
BP surface of liquid skip VR nat sciences and double check them,
methyl ketone formation (+) iodoform test enzymes.
acetone on the NMR 6Hs the same
singlet.
If rare gene, assume only 1 parent has it, and van der walls, aka London dispersion nor/epinephrine fight or flight / sympa
that its recessive. polarizability response dilated pupils
if P phosphorylates R then boiling point
P splits /uses ATP ADP, and R becomes number of electrons Blood pressure:
phosphorylated: R-(p) IR peak around 1700 C=O double-bond. depends on 2 things:
now activated. 32g O2 = 1 mol O2 1) Cardiac output = stroke volume x heart rate
to de-phosphorylate is to quickly deactivate fungal spores metabolically inactive, haploid. 2) resistance to blood flow
Doppler effect. As signal approaches,
distal tubule reabsorbs glucose. frequency gets higher. aldosterone Na+ reabsorption H20
reabsorption anti-inflammatory drugs on a pt w/ septic
GFR rate reabsorption shock:
f = -v impurities in any substance melting (aka risk decrease of endogenous antibacterial
albumin hypertonic Hb f c freezing) point depression decreased defense
flow of H20 from tissue to bloodstream intermolecular interactions. why? interrupts
where c is speed of the medium intermolecular attraction. ------------------------------------------------------
Protein such as pepsin operates well at pH of 2 Csound < Cradio
or 1.5, but if as low as pH 1, will be denatured intermolecular strength boiling point
and no longer operate. apparent loss of mass = mass of fluid eg, why when you add salt to a pot of water it
displaced boils at a hotter temperature. because salt is
PTH Ca2+ attracted to water.
Calciton(in) brings Ca2+ in-to bone common ion effect saturated soln, eg NaCl amines soluble in dilute acid (eg, dilute HCl).
Parathy(rid) Ca2+ gotten rid from bone. if you add any other soln that has carboxylic acids soluble in dilute base.
Na+ or Cl-, youre gonna get ester hydrolysis ROH + ROOH
edema caused by albumin, body tissue precipitate
swelling. DNA replicates in S phase.
Resonant wavelength of pipe or tube
open pipe has resonant wavelength = 2xl saponification: ester + (NaOH) Salt +
Kappacofigus (acid) ROOH
KPCOFiGuS mechanical waves such as water/sound
------------- relatedness only Energy is propegated molecular weight of cpds of varying structures
electrons have dual energy/matter should give a hint about the identity.
phenomenon
formed. dehydration lung inflation possible because of negative
pressure by suction.
AB w/ fixed potential difference (voltage) between
removing pdt A as it is formed will cause a cathode and anode, electric field 1/L antibiotic resistance can be innate bc of chance
leftward shift mutations, eg, E Coli not killed with a first
E = (V IR) / L round of antibiotics for infection.
Imprinting perception of object enhanced
during critical development period. electron @ cathode has V = to voltage in eV E Coli live in colon, move b/w colon and
appendix freely. outside of them are
Cyclohexane has lowest heat of combustion incedent photons only affect # of electrons abdominal cavity.
among cyclo-anes bc highly stable chair emitted, not their energies.
configuration. Bacterial conjugation = recombination.
electron accelerates from anode to cathode. ffjf
Steric hindrance bad nucleophile
P = I2 R Interneuron synapses pain, efferent neurons
(amps)x(ohms) Watts to brain. Here are ealso the dorsal root
Practice test notes ganglion attached to sensory neuron, feeds
electron ejections current flow (I) interneuron, interneuron tells the motor neuron
and effector to pull finger away from stove.
review circuits, plain mirrors, soln chemistry, photon frequency speed of ejected e-
e structure, sound, atomic, nuclear structure, Bacteria versus viruses: bacteria can reproduce
radiation emitted when es orbital via fission.
immune / circulatory systems, digestive
currents in parallel resistors 1/indiv resistors recessive people in populaetion = # of
recessive genes in all. the remainder are the #
tend to have 10 min at end of each section. BS of dominant genes in all. Hardy-weinberg
mark liberally. a-choline / morphine /heroin constricts says # of heterozygotes is equal to
PS pupils. pinpoint pupils diagnostic of opiate 2 x (% of dominant genes alleles)
of tilt most important in incline probs intoxification. x (% of recessive alleles)
aka 2pq.