Ww =.
_
important values of a/h is m = 0.5, which corresponds to the inflexion of
Sunde's curve, i.e., values most sensitive to h.
d) From the graph in a) read the probe spacing a corresponding to pa
= (pl * p2), i.e., the geometric mean of pl and p2.
e) Divide the probe spacing a by a/h found in c; this will be depth of
the upper layer h.
Using the soil data from soil type 1 in Table E.2 of Appendix E, a
plot of resistivity versus spacing can be drawn. See Figure 22 of the
Standard. Both p 1 and p2 can be determined by visual inspection. As-
suming pl = 1002.m and p2 = 300Q.m, the following example illus-
trates the modified Sunde's graphical method:
a) Plot Figure 22.
b) Choose pl = 100l.m and p2 = 300Q2.m.
c) p2/pl=300/100 = 3. Read in Table 1 the corresponding value for
m = 0.5, a/h = 2.25.
d) Read the probe spacing corresponding to (100 +*300) = 173
Q.m, h = 13.8 m.
e) The depth of upper layer is 13.8/2.25 = 6.13 m or 20.1 ft.
This compares favorably with the 6.1 m (20 ft.) using EPRI TR-100622
[B63].
Extended Calculation with Modified Sunde's Method: Instead
of using only m = 0.5 in Table 1, it is possible to use all values from 0.1
up to 0.9. The result will give a more thorough examination of the mea-
sured resistivity to locate possible irregularities. Table 2 exemplifies the
application of this method via spreadsheet, the graphic was replaced by
logarithmic interpolation, i.e., y = yl *(y2/yl)A(ln(x/xl)/ln(x2/xl)). The
soil 2 is shown as well.
Steepest Descent Method: This method is described by IEEE Stan-
dard 81-1983, Appendix B. All three parameters pl, p2, and h can be
calculated, starting with assumed initial values that can be obtained as
described above. Table 3 shows the results of this method for soils type
1 and 2.
The following comments apply:
Equations (1) and (2) should be used for only one average value of
apparent resistivity (N = 1). The equations imply harmonic mean of the
measured values. It is more common practice to use arithmetic or geo-
metric mean (harmonic mean is the smallest of all three). The decision
on what average to be used is left then to the engineer.
The convergence factors (t, y, and y ) should be more clearly de-
fined; presently they are implied to be 0.005/(68/6p).
We need to obtain the (6P/6p) value for the next iteration, based on
its value on the previous iteration. The expression for the derivatives
(Eq. B8) should be corrected as follows:
For 6p / 5p2 the term (1I-KA2) should read (1-K)A2.
For 5p / h the term in the summation (KAn) should read (nA2*KAn).
The signs of(t, r, and y) should be reversed sometimes to reach con-
vergence, minus to decrease the initial value and plus to increase it.
References:
[ 1 ] IEEE Guide for Safety in AC Substation Grounding, IEEE Stan-
dard 80-2000, 2000.
[2] IEEE Guide for Measuring Earth Resistivity, Ground Imped-
ance and Earth Surface Potentials of a Ground System, IEEE Standard
81-1983, 1983.
Copyright Statement: ISSN 0282-1724/02/$17.00 ( 2002 IEEE.
Manuscript received 12 August 2001. This paper is published herein in
its entirety.
PES Web Site
http.//www.ieee.org/power
The PES Web site (http://www.ieee.org/power) contains
current information on PES Meetings, Chapters, and Tech-
nical Activities. The home page contains links to the follow-
ing items to which we call your attention:
* 2002 PES Organization Manual & Committee Directory
* PES Author's Kit and Presentation Guidelines.
68 0272-17241021$17.00(02002 IEEE
A New Method for Determining Reference
Compensating Currents of Three-Phase
Shunt Active Power Filters
Gary W Chang
Author Affiliation: Department of Electrical Engineering, Na-
tional Chung Cheng University, Taiwan.
Abstract: Using a shunt active power filter (SAPF) has been proved
as an effective method to compensate reactive power and to mitigate
harmonic currents of nonlinear loads. When designing a SAPF, it is
crucial to generate reference currents for determining actual compen-
sating current injections to the point of common coupling. In contrast to
the conventional instantaneous reactive power theory, which needs co-
ordinate transformations, the new method proposed in this letter is to
determine reference compensating currents based on the balance of the
instantaneous reactive and active power generated in the SAPF. It is
shown that the proposed method is suitable for reactive and harmonic
power compensation by using a SAPF. In addition, to maintain the sinu-
soidal source currents this method also eliminates the need for install-
ing energy storage devices for reactive power compensation as well as
the dc source for the harmonic compensation in the active power filter.
Therefore, a simpler design of the SAPF with minimal line losses can
be expected.
Keywords: Active power filter, reference compensating current, in-
stantaneous reactive power theory, coordinate transformation, instanta-
neous power balance.
Introduction: The concept of using the SAPF for reactive and har-
monic power compensation was introduced more than two decades
ago. By measuring load currents and voltages, the SAPF can inject
compensating currents as well as absorb or generate reactive power at
the point of common coupling for controlling harmonics and compen-
sating reactive power of the connected load.
In 1983, Akagi et al. proposed an innovative approach based on in-
stantaneous reactive power theory (i.e., p - q theory) to compute SAPF
reference compensating currents. This approach inspired the develop-
ment of many other p - q theory-based methods for realizing the SAPF
[I],[2]. Willems indicated that the p - q theory is complete only in
three-phase systems without zero-sequence component, however [3].
Also, the instantaneous reactive power theory-based method requires
coordinate transformations between the a - b - c coordinates and the
p - q coordinates, which increases the complexity of designing the
SAPF controller. More recently, Peng et al. proposed a theory that gave
a generalized definition of the instantaneous reactive power in the
a - b - c coordinate [4]. Although Peng's approach does not need the
coordinate transformation, it requires an additional function for instan-
taneous reactive power vector calculation in the SAPF controller.
Based on the instantaneous reactive power space vector defined in [4]
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the three-phase SAPF compensation
IEEE Power Engineering Review, April 2002
and the concept of instantaneous power balance, this letter presents a After solving (7) and (8) simultaneously, the SAPF reference com-
direct method for determining the SAPF reference compensating cur- pensating currents become
rents. The proposed method is valid for both sinusoidal/nonsinusoidal
and balanced/unbalanced three-phase power systems.
Instantaneous Power Balance Method: Figure 1 shows a sche-
11k Ik v2
v2Va++ V V k a b,c.
(9)
matic diagram of a typical three-phase four-wire SAPF compensating
system. The three-phase instantaneous active power consumed by the The second term in (9) implies that the active power current component
load is is supplied by the source and the SAPF only compensates the reactive
power component of the load current.
P (t) V,( t)il ( t) + Vb ( t)ilb ( t) + V (t)ilc (t) (1)
The three-phase instantaneous reactive power vector, q,, defined in [4]
can be expressed as

ql V, Vb V,
ila 'lb 'I (2)

or

q= (vbiC vCilb ) a + (Vc'iC,a c, ) b + (Vai,lb -Vblla ) C (3)

where the magnitude of the three-phase instantaneous reactive power in
each phase becomes

Vb Vc Vc Va va Vb
qla .'iIC qlb .b ' qlc I
llb IC lla lla llb
(4)
In (4), the instantaneous reactive power at one phase represents the
power transferred between the other two phases without a contribution
to the active power delivered from the source to the load. As shown in
Figure 1, the instantaneous active and reactive powers delivered to a
nonlinear load must satisfy (5) and (6)

pP(t) = pj(t)+ pf(t) = p,(t)+ P11(t) (5)

qjk(t) qlk(t),k= a, b,c

=
(6)
Here p, and pf are instantaneous active power supplied by the source
and the SAPF, and where pl1 and pRi are instantaneous active funda-
mental and harmonic power of the load. qjkis the instantaneous reactive
power generated by the SAPF at phase k.
As shown in Figure 1, in order to ensure a fundamental active power
supplied to the load from the source, the instantaneous reactive power
and harmonic components of active power must be compensated by the
SAPF. Assume that the SAPF is lossless, the source side contains only
sinusoidal fundamental current with unity power factor when the bal-
ance of instantaneous power at the SAPF is maintained.
Reactive Power Compensation: According to (4) and (6), the in-
stantaneous reactive power to be compensated by the SAPF at each
phase can be expressed by

c Vb Zta] [lia]

qlb = vc v :::

qfic -Vb
(7)
It is noted that the rank of the coefficient matrix in (7) is two. There-
fore, the active power current injections required for instantaneous re-
active power compensation cannot be determined directly from (7).
Since the instantaneous active power required from the SAPF for reac-
tive power compensation is zero, the following relation holds:
Figure 2. Source voltage, source currents before and after compensation at
pf = Vfi, + Vbijb + Vfi 0 (8) each phase (vk , ilk,' i sk, k = a, b, c)

IEEE Power Engineering Review, April 2002 69

 20 method for calculating SAPF reference compensating currents. Figures
2-4 illustrate simulation results for the SAPF instantaneous reactive
10
and harmonic power compensation. Figure 2 shows the waveforms of
the source voltage, source currents before and after compensation at
each phase. Figure 3 reveals the waveform of the SAPF reference com-
10
l pensating current at phase a. Figure 4 gives the waveforms of the in-
stantaneous and average active power supplied by the SAPF during
5 compensation. The waveforms in Figure 4 indicate that the average ac-
tive power consumed by the load is completely supplied by the source,
o -l ~ ~t~ ---- X-~ l-t- 1-~-- ~~~ p t4 and the SAPF does not require the dc source to produce compensating
current. As illustrated in Figures 2-4, the SAPF is as expected to have a
sL C ll I I \/\J 11 1 1 1 11 1 W W ll I 1 good performance based on the proposed method for generating refer-
ence compensating currents.
l Conclusions: The method presented in this letter is useful for deter-
10 mining the three-phase SAPF reference compensating currents in the
10

l l
a-b-c coordinate for reactive and harmonic power compensation of the
-1V load. The SAPF compensation scheme based on the proposed method
is valid for both ideal and nonideal source voltages as well as load cur-
-2010 00.01 0002 .03 0 1 0 rents in the three-phase system, where the sinusoidal source currents
0.03 0.04 o.os 0.06
|are maintained. Unlike the p-q theory-based methods that involve more
Figure 3. SAPF reference compensating current at phase a (ifa) complex design in SAPF control circuit due to coordinate transforma-
tions, the proposed method provides a simpler way to implement the
SAPF controller. The new method is proved to be adequate for compen-
sation applications.
8000 References:
[1] H. Akagi, Y. Kanazawa, and A. Nabae, "Generalized theory of
6000 the instantaneous reactive power in three-phase circuits," in Proc. IEEJ
Int. Power Electronics Conf. (IPEC-Tokyo), Tokyo, Japan, 1983, pp.
4000 1375-1386.
[2] W.M. Grady, M.J. Samotyj, and A.H. Noyola, "Survey of active
2000 power line conditioning methodologies," IEEE Trans. Power Delivery,
vol. 5, pp. 1536-1542, July 1990.
.- .
0. . . . . ~~~~~~~~~~~~~[3]
J.L. Willems, "A new interpretation of the Akagi-Nabae power
l S l2 t1 l 1l ll l ll li \\ f f5 ll l l components for nonsinusoidal three-phase situations," IEEE Trans.
-2000 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Instrum.
Meas., vol. 41, pp. 523-5297, Aug. 1992.
[4] FVZ. Peng and J.S. Lai, "Generalized instantaneous reactive
power theory for three-phase power systems," IEEE Trans. Instrum.
4000 Meas., vol. 45, pp. 293-297, Feb. 1996.
Copyright Statement: ISSN 0282-1724/02/$17.00 2002 IEEE.
-6000 This paper is published herein in its entirety.
-800El 0
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06

Figure 4. Instantaneous and average active power supplied by the SAPF dur-
2002 International Conference
on Power System Protection
ing compensation
Harmonic and Reactive Power Compensation: When consider-
I ~~~~~Callfor PapersI
ing compensation of both of harmonic power and reactive power, (8) Deadline: 31 March 2002
becomesIl becomes
The thirteenth International Conference on Power Sys-
.V +VblJb
P1 -Vaifa +Vi ._10)
+Vi +Vclfc
i
- PlS (10)
tem Protection (PSP 2002) is organized by University of
Ljubljana and co-organized by the Slovenian IEEE section.
From (7) and (10), the SAPF compensating currents are determined to It will be held 25-27 September 2002 in Bled, Slovenia. The
be aim of the conference is to exchange new ideas and practi-
cal experience among power engineers and academia in
Pi 2 Plh the field of protective relaying and its integration into local
': = 'lk 2 2
_v
2 k 2 v2
va b+ cVa +b + V2c
Vk control and automation concepts. The emphasis is both on
the research results and practical applications.
= ilk - +v2 + v k = a, b, c. Important deadlines: submission of papers, 31 March
a b c (11) 2002; notification of paper acceptance, 31 May 2002. More
information is available on the Web, http://www.psp-con-
Similar to (9), the second term on the right of (1 1) can be interpreted ference.org/psp2002.html; or contact the PSP 2002 Sec-
as the fundamental active power component of the load current sup- retariat, Jurij Curk or Gregor Verbic, Faculty of Electrical
plied by the source. Therefore, the SAPF compensates both the reactive Engineering, Trzaska 25, SI-1000 Ljubljana, +386 1 5004
and harmonic power components of the load current while maintaining 300 (Curk), +386 1 4768 291 (Verbic), fax +386 1 4264
the sinusoidal currents and unity power factor at the source side.
Simulation Results: In the case study, a simulation example for the bUl, emaii conteren(?strelaTe.unl-IJ.sI.
three-phase four-wire SAPF connected to a nonlinear load supplied by
an unbalanced source is used to verify the usefulness of the proposed

70 IEEE Power Engineering Review, April 2002