Science

Science (Latin scientia, meaning "knowledge) is a

systematic enterprise that builds and
organizes knowledge in the form of
testable explanations and predictions about
the universe.
 Art
Art is the product or process of deliberately
arranging items (often with symbolic
significance) in a way that influences and
affects one or more of the senses, emotions,
and intellect.
It encompasses a diverse range of human
activities, creations, and modes of
expressions,including music, literature, film,
photography, sculpture, and paintings.
 Engineering

Engineering is the discipline, art, skill and

profession of acquiring and
applying scientific, mathematical, economic, social,
and practical knowledge, in order to design and build
structures, machines, devices, systems, materials
and processes.
Mechanical Engineering
It is the branch of engineering that involves the
production and usage of heat and mechanical
power for the design, production, and
operation of machines and tools.
It uses the principles of physics and materials
science for analysis, design, manufacturing,
and maintenance of mechanical systems.
 Workshop Technology
Workshop technology deals with different
processes by which component of a machine or
equipments are made.
 Workshop
A workshop may be a room or building which provides
both the area and tools (or machinery) that may be
required for the manufacture or repair
of manufactured goods. Apart from the larger factories,
workshops were the only places of production in the
days before industrialization.
 Contents
Sl.No Unit Contents
Unit 1: Engineering Materials, its classification ,their Properties &
1.
Heat Treatment.
Unit 2 Hot and Cold working:
2
Forging Shop
Unit 3 Foundry Shop Pattern making, mould making, Furnaces,
3
Ladles & Special Castings
Unit 4 Welding Shop Fusion welding, pressure welding, Energy
4
beam welding & Solid state welding, Equipments and tools.
Unit 5 Fitting Shop Tools , Measuring Instruments, Drills, Threads,
5
Bolts, screws nuts, Rivets
Unit 6 Sheet metal Shop Tools, equipments, Forming processes,
6
Pattern developments.
Unit 7 Carpentry Shop Wood & their defects, seasoning, joints,
7 Plywood,
Tools and Machines used.
Unit 8 Machine shop- Lathe machine components, accessories,
8
Turning operations, taper turning.
 Unit 1
Engineering Materials
 MATERIALS

WITHOUT MATERIAL, THERE IS NO

ENGINEERING.
MATERIALS
MATERIAL CLASSIFICATION

Material

Metal Ceramics Polymers

Ferous Non Ferous

Steel Cast Iron

Plain
Carbon Alloy Sttel Grey White Ductile Malleable
Steel

Low Medium High

Stainless
Carbon Carbon Carbon
Steel
Sttel Steel Steel
 Types of Materials
Ferrous Metals: iron and steel.
Nonferrous Metals and Alloys: aluminum, magnesium,
copper, nickel, titanium, super alloys, beryllium, zirconium,
low-melting alloys, precious metals.
Plastics: thermoplastics, thermo sets, elastomers.
Ceramics: Glass, Clay (Ceramic
materials are inorganic, non-metallic materials made from
compounds of a metal and a non metal. Ceramic materials may
be crystalline or partly crystalline. They are formed by the
action of heat and subsequent cooling) .
Composite materials: reinforced plastics, metal-matrix
and ceramic-matrix composites, honeycomb structures.
 Ferrous Metals
Steel has less than 1.8 percent carbon
Mild steel has 0.05 -0.3 percent carbon
Medium carbon steel has 0.3-0.7 percent
carbon
High Carbon Steel has 0.7 - 1.4%
1020 - 1 is Carbon Steel, 0 is percent alloy,
20 is % of carbon (.2).
 Types of cast ioran
Carbon (C) and silicon (Si) are the main alloying elements,
with the amount ranging from 2.14 wt% and 13 wt%,
respectively.
White cast iron
When the white cast iron is fractured, white coloured cracks are seen
throughout because of the presence of carbide impurities. White cast
iron is hard but brittle. It has lower silicon content and low melting
point.
Grey cast iron
Grey is the most versatile and widely used cast iron. The
presence of carbon leads to formation of graphite flakes that does not
allow cracks to pass through, when the material breaks.
Most cast irons have a chemical composition of 2.54.0% carbon,
13% silicon, and the remainder is iron.
 Malleable cast iron
Malleable cast iron is basically white iron that
undergoes heat treatment to convert the carbide into
graphite. The resultant cast iron has properties that
vary from both grey and white cast iron.
Ductile cast iron
Ductile cast iron is yet another type of ferrous
alloy that is used as an engineering material in many
applications. To produce ductile iron, small amount
of magnesium is added to the molten iron, which
alters the graphite structure that is formed.
 Non-Ferrous Metals
Copper - Soft, easy to form, good conductor
Aluminum - Soft, easy to form, good
conductor
 High Temperature Alloys
Iron Based
Nickel Based - Hastelloy
Cobalt Based - Thermospan
 Ferrous Metals: Applications
Structural: building structures, concrete
reinforcement
Automotive: chassis, engine parts, drive train,
body parts
Marine: ship hulls, structure, engines
Defense: tanks, weapons
Consumer Products: appliances, recreational
vehicles, toys, utensils and tools
 Nonferrous Metals: Applications
Architectural: aluminum windows and
doors
Automotive: aluminum engine blocks,
copper wiring, wheel casing
Marine: brass/bronze fittings, bearings,
propellers
Defense: brass shell casings
Consumer Products: electrical wiring,
utensils, jewelry, electronics
 Properties of Materials
Mechanical Properties: strength, toughness(the way
material reacts under sudden impact), ductility,
hardness, elasticity, fatigue(failure under cyclic loading),
creep (time dependent failure).
Behavior Under Loading: tension,compression,
bending, torsion, shear.
Physical Properties: density, specific heat, thermal
expansion, thermal conductivity, melting point, electrical
and magnetic properties.
Chemical Properties: oxidation, corrosion,
degradation, toxicity, flammability.
 1. True elastic limit
2. Proportionality Limit
3. Elastic limit
stress 4. Off set Yield Point

strain

General Stress Strain Diagram

Stress Strain Relationship
stress

strain

Stress Strain Diagram for Ductile Material

stress

strain

Stress Strain Diagram for brittle Material

P :Proportionality Limit
E:Elastic limit
Yu: Upper Yield Point
Yl :Lower Yield Point
S:Ultimate Strength
B:Breaking Point
 Mechanical Properties
Hardness(resistence to indentation) tests -
Rockwell, Brinell
Toughness - Charpy impact
Tensile(ability to sustained the tensile load)
strength
Ductility
Elasticity (The property of returning to an
initial form or state after removal of
external force)
 Mechanical Properties
Plastic deformation - Doesnt return to
original shape.
Ductility - Elongation less than 5% is
brittle, More than 5% is Ductile.
 Plastics (Polymers)
Compared to metals, plastics have lower
density, strength, elastic modulus, and thermal
and electrical conductivity, and a higher
coefficient of thermal expansion

The design of plastic parts should include

considerations of their low strength and
stiffness, and high thermal expansion and low
resistance to temperature.
 Plastics: Applications
Architectural: electrical and thermal insulation,
weather seals, carpets, wall coverings, paint .

Aerospace: electrical and thermal insulation,

instrument panels, seals .

Automotive: body panels, instrument panels,

electrical and thermal insulation, seals, hoses, tires .

Consumer Products: toys, sporting goods,

appliances, tools, utensils, clothing, shoes, packaging.
 Manufacturing a Product:
General Considerations
Material Selection
Processing Methods
Final Shape and Appearance
Dimensional and Surface Finish
Economics of Tooling
Design Requirements
Safety and Environmental Concerns
HEAT TREATMENT
 HEAT TREATMENT
Heat Treatment defined as the controlled
heating and cooling of metals for the
primary purpose of altering their properties
(strength, ductility, hardness, toughness,
machineability, etc)
Can be done for Strengthening Purposes
(converting structure to martensite)
Can be done for Softening and Conditioning
Purposes (annealing, tempering, etc.)
 HEAT TREATMENT PROCESS
Temp x Time

Atmosphere Cooling
Temperature C

Water
Carburizing, Decarburizing Oil In
Deoxidation, oxidation
Air Furnace

Quenching Normalizing Annealing

Time
 PROCESS OF HEAT TREATMENT
Why? Heat treatment process

Total Hardening Quenching Tempering

Precipitation Hardening
Improving Mechanical Carburizing CarbonitridingQuenching
property Soft Nitriding
Nitriding
Wear Resistance
Fatigue Resistance Surface Hardening Sulfurizing Nitriding
Strength
Local hardening
InductionLaserElectron beam
Carbide Film coatingdiffusion treatment
Surface Reforming Treatment Deposition
ion implantation etc
Improving workability
and other property
Full anneal
Machinability
Spheroidizing annealing
Forgeability
Stress relief annealing
Stress relief
Grain refinement annealing
Magnetic properties
Magnetic annealing
Microstructure realignment
Normalizing
Effect of Cooling rate on Structure
 Annealing Process
To soften a metal
Grain refinement for improving mechanical
properties
Relieving internal stresses after hot and cold
work
To modify other mechanical and physical
properties
To remove gases trapped in the metal during
initial casting
 Normalizing (Air Quenching)
Heating the steel 30-50 degree C above its
upper critical temperature (for hypo-eutectoid
steel) or Acm line. It is held at this temperature
for about fifteen minutes and then to cool
down in still air/even in furnace
To refine the grain structure of steel to improve
machinability, tensile strength
To remove strain cause by hot and cold
working
 Difference between Annealing and
Normalising
Annealing (softening): to attain better
machinability, softening and greater removal of
internal stresses
Normalising: to improve mechanical properties
Normalising is carried out at relatively higher
temperature than annealing process
 Hardening Process
Surface or case hardening process
Carburizing : Carbon is used to increase
surface strength
Cyaniding: Cyanide is used
Flamed: Flame is used
Nitriding: Nitrogen gas is used
Similar other effects
 Effect of Alloying Elements

Tungsten: High temperature, wear resistance.

Chromium: Increases wear resistance,
corrosion resistance and toughness.
Vanadium: increase the toughness, To increase
hardenability and strength of the steel
High speed steel or tool steel : 18%
Tungsten+4% Chromium+1% Vanadium in
0.7% carbon
 Effect of Alloying Elements
Nickel: increases toughness and hardenability
Vanadium:
Cobalt: Improves strength at high temperatures
and magnetic permeability.
Titanium: In conjunction with Boron, increases
the effectiveness of the Boron in the
hardenability of steel.
Molybdenum: Increases the hardness
penetration of steel and high temperature
tensile strength.
 Effect of Alloying Elements
Silicon: added in steel 0.05-0.3% to prevent
porosity.
Sulphur: Improves machinability.
Manganese: To remove undesirous iron
sulphide
Phosphorus: Phosphorus, in small amounts,
aids strength and corrosion resistance
 Special Steels
Stainless Steels:
High speed steels:18:4:1
Spring steels:
Magnet Steel
 Homework
Why are alloys so popular?

Because the addition of alloy provides the

mechanical properties needed for strength,
corrosion resistance and ductility.
 Homework
Discuss the concept of plasticity in terms of
a materials ability to withstand changes in
its shape when being formed under
pressure.

A material that can be formed under

pressure (forged) must have Plasticity. For
example Aluminum can be formed under
pressure but cast iron cant.
 Homework
How do Plasticity and Ductility differ?
Plasticity is the propensity of a material to
undergo permanent deformation under load.
Ductility is a measure of how much strain a
material can take before rupturing. A material
with high ductility will be able to be drawn into
long, thin wires without breaking. A material
with low ductility is instead brittle, and though
it may be strong, once it deforms enough, it
will simply rupture
 Homework
List some products made with Refractory
metals. How are the metals made?
Light bulb filaments, electrodes, gas
turbines, crucibles. These metals are pure
elements.
Appendix
 Strength

Measure of the material property to resist

deformation and to maintain its shape
It is quantified in terms of yield stress or
ultimate tensile strength.
High carbon steels and metal alloys have
higher strength than pure metals.
Ceramic also exhibit high strength
characteristics.
 Hardness
Measure of the material property to resist
indentation, abrasion and wear.
It is quantified by hardness scale such as
Rockwell, Vickers and Brinell hardness
scale.
Hardness and Strength correlate well
because both properties are related to in-
molecular bonding.
 Ductility
Measure of the material property to deform before
failure.
It is quantified by reading the value of strain at
the fracture point on the stress strain curve.
Example of ductile material :
low carbon steel
Aluminum
It may be expressed by either
Ductility (contd)
 Brittleness
Measure of the materials inability to
deform before failure.
The opposite of ductility.
Example of brittle material
glass,
high carbon steel,
Ceramics
 Concrete is a highly brittle material, having a
much greater strength in compression (sc=34.5
MPa) than tension (st=2.76 MPa).

This is why concrete

is reinforced with
steel bars or rods
whenever tensile
forces are applied to a
structure.
 Toughness

The ability of a metal to deform

plastically and to absorb energy in the
process before fracture is termed
toughness.
Toughness is the area under the
stress-strain curve, and is a measure
of the total energy absorbed until
failure.
There are several variables that have
a profound influence on the toughness
of a material. These variables are:
Strain rate (rate of loading)
Temperature
Notch Effect
 Toughness (contd)
A metal may possess satisfactory toughness under static loads
but may fail under dynamic loads or impact.
As a rule ductility and, therefore, toughness decrease as the rate of
loading increases.
Temperature is the second variable to have a major influence
on its toughness.
As temperature is lowered, the ductility and toughness also decrease.
The third variable is termed notch effect, this is mainly related
to the distribution of stress.
A material might display good toughness when the applied stress is
uniaxial; but when a multiaxial stress state is produced due to the
presence of a notch, the material might not withstand the simultaneous
elastic and plastic deformation in the various directions.
 Toughness (contd)
Impact toughness can be measured by Charpy
V-Notch Test
The potential energy of the pendulum
before and after impact can be calculated
form the initial and final location of the
pendulum.
The potential energy difference is the
energy it took to break the material.
absorbed during the impact.
At low temperature, where the material is
brittle and not strong, little energy is
required to fracture the material.
At high temperature, where the material is
more ductile and stronger, greater energy
is required to fracture the material
The transition temperature is the boundary
between brittle and ductile behavior.
The transition temperature is an extremely
important parameter in material selection.
 Few Definitions(1/2)
Nitriding is a heat treating process
that diffuses nitrogen into the surface of a metal to
create a case hardened surface.
Carburizing or carburising (British English) is
a heat treatment process in
which iron or steel absorbs carbon liberated when
the metal is heated in the presence of a carbon
bearing material, such as charcoal or carbon
monoxide, with the intent of making the metal
harder.
 Few Definitions(2/2)
Annealing: This term is used to define a heat
treatment process that produces some softening of
the structure. True annealing involves heating the
steel austenite and hold for some time to create a
stable structure. The steel is then cooled very slowly
to room temperature. This produces very soft
structure, but also creates very large grains which
are seldom desirable because of poor toughness.
Normalizing: Return the structure back to normal.
The steel is heated until it just starts to form
austenite, it is cooled in air. This moderately rapid
transformation creates relatively fine grains with
uniform pearlite
 Tempering
Tempering is a process of heat treating, which
is used to increase the toughness of iron-based
alloys.
Tempering is usually performed after
hardening, to reduce some of the excess
hardness, and is done by heating the metal to
some temperature below the critical
temperature for a certain period of time, then
allowed to cool in still air.
 Precipitation hardening
Precipitation hardening, also called age
hardening, is a heat treatment technique used
to increase the yield strength of
malleable materials, including most structural
alloys of aluminum, magnesium,
nickel, titanium, and some stainless steels.
 Cast iron
Cast iron is iron or a ferrous alloy which has
been heated until it liquefies, and is then
poured into a mould to solidify. It is usually
made from pig iron. The alloy constituents
affect its color when fractured: white cast
iron has carbide impurities which allow cracks
to pass straight through. Grey cast iron has
graphite flakes which deflect a passing crack
and initiate countless new cracks as the
material breaks.
 Cast iron tends to be brittle, except for malleable
cast irons. With its relatively low melting point,
good fluidity, castability, excellent machinability,
resistance to deformation and wear resistance,
cast irons have become an engineering
material with a wide range of applications and are
used in pipes, machines and automotive
industry parts, such as cylinder heads (declining
usage), cylinder blocks and gearbox cases
(declining usage). It is resistant to destruction and
weakening by oxidation (rust).