Field Effects in Membrane Modules

The Effects of Alternating Electromagnetic Fields in the

Context of the Grahamtek Membrane Modules
by

Hans G. L. Coster, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia 2006

Summary
An analysis is presented of the effects of rapidly alternating magnetic fields produced by
AC currents flowing through coils wound around membrane separation modules. The
effects of particular interest relate to the induced, alternating, electric field generated by
the time varying magnetic fields. The electric fields in turn give rise to circulating
electric currents of cations and anions that in turn interact with the magnetic field to
produce radial currents from the so called Lorentz forces. The flows of ions, particularly
in the unstirred layers near the membrane surfaces will interfere with the formation of
crystallites and hence reduce the fouling of the membranes.

Further, the non-uniform nature of the induced electric fields produce electro-mechanical
forces that act on neutral as well as charged particles. The induced dipole moments
produced by the induced electric fields also lead to dipole-dipole interactions in particles
which promote aggregation of such particles into larger aggregates. Such aggregation will
tend to reduce fouling by increasing the critical flux at which fouling normally
commences.

1. Introduction
The Grahamtek reverse osmosis membrane modules incorporate coils wound around the
module which are energized by alternating, audio frequency, electric currents.

The alternating electric currents in the coils establish alternating electro-magnetic fields
in the feed solution that significantly decreases the fouling of the membranes and
therefore greatly eliminates the loss of performance of the membranes over time.

Here we set out how the alternating currents in the coils establish alternating magnetic
fields which in turn produce alternating electric fields and how these electro-magnetic
fields interact with particles in the feed water to produce effects that can minimize
fouling of the membranes.

In this report an overview is first given in sections 2 and 3 of the basic physical processes
underlying the electro-magnetic effects. In section 4 we present specific field
calculations and some experimental observations relevant to the Grahamtek membrane
module.

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 Field Effects in Membrane Modules

2. Magnetic Fields
When a current flows through a coil a longitudinally oriented magnetic field is
established, as qualitatively depicted in figure 1.

Figure 1. Magnetic field pattern (blue lines)

produced by an electric current flowing through a
coil (orange) wound around the membrane
module. The figure shows the magnetic field
pattern during the positive half cycle. When the
current reverses, the magnetic field also
reverses.

2.1 Steady or DC magnetic fields

If the current flowing through the coils is a DC current then the magnetic field will be
steady and show no variation in time, although it varies along the coil, particularly near
the two ends of the coil.

Steady magnetic fields have no effects on particles unless they are composed of magnetic
material, or the particles are electrically charged and are moving rapidly in directions at
right angles to the field, that is in the radial direction.

In the case of the membrane modules, the radial velocity of the particles is generally very
low so that even charged particles, including ions such as sodium and chloride will not be
greatly effected by a steady (DC), magnetic field.

2.2 Alternating (AC) Magnetic Fields

When the current flowing through the coil is alternating, the magnetic field produced will
also be alternating in time. In the Grahamtek modules there are 3 separate coils and the
current in each alternates at audio frequencies (2 kilohertz). The geometric pattern of the
field remains the same as that shown in figure 1 but the intensity of the field builds up to
a maximum value then declines to zero and reverses direction and builds back up to a
maximum in the reverse direction , then declines to zero and reverses back to the original
direction. It completes two thousand cycles or so of this per second.

The significance of the alternating nature of the magnetic field is that such a time-varying
magnetic field produces an electric field which is of a circular pattern, oriented at right
angles, everywhere, to the magnetic field. The relationship between the magnetic and
electric fields and electric currents are described by the Maxwell equations; see Appendix
1.

The induced electric field is given by the following Maxwell equation (in cylindrical
coordinates),

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 Field Effects in Membrane Modules

 1 ∂E z ∂E   ∂E ∂E z   ∂Eφ 1 ∂Er Eφ  ∂B
∇xE = i − φ  + j r −  +k − +  = =−
 r ∂φ ∂z   ∂z ∂r   ∂r r ∂φ r  ∂t

Note from this that for steady magnetic fields ( ∂B = 0 ), the induced electric field wll be
∂t
zero.

This electric field pattern is qualitatively depicted in Figure 2 where the electric field is
shown in red. The electric field will be in a circular direction and will alternatively be in
a clockwise or anticlockwise direction depending on the direction of the magnetic field at
that time. The electric field intensity, like that of the magnetic field, will go up and down
and reverse in direction etc in a cyclic manner at the frequency of the AC current passed
through the coils but will be out of phase with the magnetic field.

Figure 2. The pattern of the electric field

(red lines) produced by the alternating
magnetic field (blue) . The circular electric
field reverses direction (with the magnetic
field) during each half cycle of the AC
current in the coil.

3. Effects of the Alternating Magnetic and Electric Fields on Particles

The alternating magnetic and electric fields have several inter-related effects on particles
present in the feed water. Some of these particles are neutral (electrically uncharged) and
some are charged. The latter includes ions of sodium and chloride in the seawater feed as
well as charged colloidal particles. Uncharged particles include neutral particulate
(neutral colloidal) contaminants, fungi, bacteria, proteins etc.

The neutral and charged particles are acted on by different mechanisms.

3.1 Effects of Alternating Electric Fields

There are two mechanisms by which the induced electric field interacts with dissolved
solids and other particles in the feed water.

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 Field Effects in Membrane Modules

3.1.1 Electric currents induced in the sea water feed.

The sea water feed contains a high concentration of sodium and chloride ions in addition
to other minor components. The sea water is therefore electrically highly conducting.
The induced circular patterns of electric field act upon these sodium and chloride ions to
produce circular electric currents; the chloride ions move in the opposite direction to
sodium ions because the chloride ions are negatively charged whilst the sodium ions are
positively charged. The chloride and sodium flows are depicted in the illustration 3. The
calcium ions in the sea water will similarly be in the direction of the sodium currents.

Because of the alternating nature of the induced electric fields, the sodium and chloride
currents reverse directions every half-cycle of the AC current passed through the coil.

The flow of the sodium, calcium and chloride currents etc. are tangential to the surface of
the membranes which are wound in a near circular spiral pattern.

Figure 3. Flows of ions during the positive half cycle (left) and negative half
cycle (right). Red: flow of positive ions (sodium, calcium etc.) and Blue: flow of
negative ions (chloride ).

The continuous movement of the ions will interfere with the formation of the diffusion
polarization layer at the membrane surface and reduce the formation of crystalline
deposits and hence reduce the process of fouling of the membranes.

3.1.2 Electro-Mechanical effects on electrically neutral particles

The concentric circular patterns of electric field induced by the alternating magnetic field
are not uniform in intensity. This leads to an important additional electro-mechanical
effect known as “dielectrophoresis”. When neutral particles are placed in a non-uniform
electric field they will experience a force whose strength depends on the properties of the
material that the particles are composed of and the degree of non-uniformity of the field
(gradient in the square of the field strength). This effect is illustrated in Figure 4.

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 Field Effects in Membrane Modules

Dielectrophoretic

Dielectrophoretic
FORCE

FORCE
Figure 4. Electric dipoles induced in
electrically neutral particles in a non-
uniform electric field. The induced
dipoles interact with the non-uniform
electric field to produce a net force
++ + + -- -- whose direction is the same in both
-- - - half cycles (and depends on the
++++ direction of the gradient in the field).
Electric Field

Positive Half-cycle Negative Half-cycle

Note that the force is in the same direction even though the electric field is alternating in
direction each half cycle.

Whilst it is not possible to arrange to directly observe using microscopic methods the
dielectropheresis inside the membrane module, the effect could be seen in experiments
under the microscope with AC electric fields applied using electrodes inserted into a
solution. The effect is illustrated in Figure 5.

Before application
of field
Figure 5. An example of dielectrophoresis of
silica particles suspended in water as seen
under the microscope. An AC signal was
applied to two electrodes. Top micrograph was
the situation before the signal was turned on.
The bottom micrograph shows the repulsion of
the particles from the vicinity of the electrodes
where the field strength is strongest creating
exclusion zones around the electrodes.
Negative DEP
in a field at 15 kHz

In addition the effects relating to non-uniform of the electric field that arises from the
alternating magnetic field, the induced electric field also induces electric dipoles in
neutral particles and this causes these particles to be attracted to each other. This is
illustrated in Figure 5.

Whilst the electric field is alternating in direction, the force between the particles due to
induced dipoles is always attractive.

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 Field Effects in Membrane Modules

++ + + -- --
-- - - ++ ++

Figure 7. Electric dipoles induced in neutral

Positive Half-cycle
Applied Electric Field particles by the electric field. The dipoles,
Negative Half-cycle
like the electric field alternate in direction
during each half cycle but the force produced
+
++ +
- ---
between the particles is always attractive.
-- - - ++++
++ + + - ---
-- - - ++++
+ ++ + ----
-- - - ++ ++
+
++ + ----
-- - - ++ ++

Positive Half-cycle Negative Half-cycle

Again, while it is not possible to arrange to use a microscope to see such particle
aggregation inside the membrane module, the effect could be demonstrated separately
under the microscope in fluids using electrodes inserted into the fluid to apply the AC
electric fields. Experiments were performed with silica particles suspended in water and
an example of the results obtained is shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8. Aggregation of silica

No applied field
particles.
(a) before the field was switched
on and
(b) 5 seconds after the15 kHz
AC field was switched on.

Aggregation of
particiles in a
field at 20 kHz

The attractive forces between the particles induced by the electric field (which itself
derives from the alternating magnetic field) will lead to an aggregation of particles that
then can be more readily swept way by the cross flow of the feed water and will give
increase the values for the critical flux at which fouling commences.

In the Grahamtek modules the electric field produced by the alternating magnetic field is
highly non-uniform and this, together with the electric dipoles induced by the electric
field, have strong effects on the particulate matter in the feed water.

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 Field Effects in Membrane Modules

The forces arising from this effect will be stronger in feed water of lower electrical
conductivity (that is of lower salinity) and indeed it has been found that the prevention of
fouling on energizing the coils is more pronounced in brackish water feeds than in sea
water.

3.2 Effects of Magnetic fields

The magnetic field does not interact directly with particles in the feed unless they
magnetic.

However, the magnetic field can indirectly act on charged particles that are moving as a
result of the induced electric field (as described above). This force is known as the
“Lorentz Force”.

3.2.1 Lorentz Force

This force arises whenever charged particles are moving in a magnetic field.

FL = n | q v B sin θ |

Where θ is the angle between the velocity and magnetic vectors,

q is the charge on the ion and
n is a (unit) vector in a plane normal to both the magnetic field and the velocity vector.

Lorentz force

Bmagnetic field Figure 9. Diagram illustrating the

direction of the Lorentz force.
θ
v
velocity
of cation
(electric current vector)

In the Grahamtek module the magnetic field is alternating at audio frequencies and the
induced electric field (and hence induced flows of the ions) are alternating at the same
frequency. Because the Lorentz force depends on both the magnetic field and the electric
field, the resulting force is always in the same direction. In this case the patterns of the
magnetic and electric fields produces a Lorentz force which is in a radial direction.

This can assist also in reducing the build up of the diffusion polarization layer at the
membrane boundary and interfere with the formation of crystallites within the diffusion
polarization layer at the surface. The diffusion polarization layer normally impedes the
flux and causes fouling.

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 Field Effects in Membrane Modules

4. The Grahamtek Electro-magnetic Membrane Module

The Grahamtek electro-magnetic membrane module is fitted with three spatially
separated coils which are connected to an AC inverter 3-phase power supply; see figure
10a.

85 105 406

10

532 1222 302 1222 302 544

302

Coils
each 200 turns

Figure 10a. A cross-sectional drawing of the Grahamtek module showing the three coils

Coil #2 Phase 1 Phase 2

Coil #1 Coil #3
Current

Phase 3

Time

Figure 10b. The phase relationship between the AC currents in the 3 coils.

The total length of the three coils combined is significantly shorter than the length of the
membrane module. The coils are connected in a star pattern circuit so that the current in
each coil is 120o out of phase with the adjacent coil as illustrated in Figure 10b.

The inner, collection tube will normally be filled with water of very low salinity and
hence very low electrical conductivity. The outer cylindrical vessel containing the spiral
wound membranes (not shown) contains saline solution and will have a very high
electrical conductivity. The relevant electrical/dielectric parameters for the module
which were used for the calculations are tabulated in the Appendix 2.

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 Field Effects in Membrane Modules

4. 1 Field Patterns in the Grahamtek Module

4.1.1 Magnetic Fields

The AC magnetic field pattern is shown in Figure 11. The plot shows the field pattern
when the current in coil #1 is at its peak. The currents in coils #2 and 3 and hence also
the magnetic fields in the vicinity of the coils, are then considerably smaller as the
currents are out of phase with that in coil #1 by 120o.

It is immediately apparent that the magnetic field pattern is far from uniform along the
module; very significantly less uniform than would be obtained if the coils:
(a) extended over the entire length of the module and
(b) the currents in the three coils were in phase.

Coils

Figure 11(a) .Contours of the magnetic field in the

membrane module. The magnetic field is here
plotted at the time that the current in coil #1 is at its
maximum value. The field in the vicinity of coil #2
is smaller at that time and in the vicinity of coil #3 is
similarly smaller but also in the opposite direction.

Figure 11b. Expanded view of the vector magnetic

field in the vicinity of coil #1.

NOTE:
In both figures the length and position of the coil is
correctly drawn but the wires in the coil are not
drawn to scale.

It should be remembered that the field is varying in time at the frequency of the supply
feeding the coils and that the location of the instantaneous maxima in the field as a
function of position is not static because of the phase separation of the currents in the
three coils. The pattern alternates cyclically at the supply frequency (2,000 Hz). The

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 Field Effects in Membrane Modules

field in the vicinity of one coil will be in the opposite direction of the other two with that
pattern cycling at the supply frequency.

4.1.2 Induced Electric Fields

The time varying (AC) magnetic fields induce an electric field which has a circular
pattern.

As pointed out in earlier, the circular electric field will act on the ions in the fluid to
produce circular fluxes of cations in one direction and anions in the counter direction,
with the direction of these alternating each half cycle. The pattern of the intensity of the
induced electric currents resulting from this field is shown in Figure 12 at an instant in
time when the current in coil #1 is at a maximum value.

Figure 12. The pattern of induced currents (carried by cations and anions) in the saline
solution as a result of the induced electric field produced by the time varying magnetic fields.
The pattern is here shown for the instant when the current in coil #1 is at its maximum. At that
instant the magnetic field in the vicinity of coil #1 is at its maximum and the rate of change of
that field at that instant is zero. The currents in coils #2 and #3 are then smaller but changing
more rapidly.

It should be noted that at any instant in time the induced electric field intensity varies
with radial position but also varies along the module with the position at which the
electric field has maximum values itself varying also in time by virtue of the phasing
between the coils. The pattern thus travels back and forth along the module at frequency
of the supply energizing the coils (~ 2000Hz) and moves radially also at the field
frequency at any one position. Because the induced electric field in the vicinity of each
coil is out of phase with that in the vicinity of the adjacent coils, the circulating currents
of cations and anions will at times during each cycle be in opposite directions. Thus
would create very complex flow patterns in the regions between the coils and patterns
that themselves break up and reform at the supply frequency.

Such complicated patterns of the flows of ions will interfere with the formation of
crystallites, particularly in the diffusion polarization layer where such processes
otherwise can give rise to fouling of the membrane.

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 Field Effects in Membrane Modules

4.1.2 Dielectrophoretic Forces

As pointed out earlier, neutral particles can experience a very strong force arising from
induced electric dipoles. These dielectrophoretic forces are directly proportional to the
gradients in the (square) of the electric fields. Contour maps of E2 are shown in Figure
13. The contour pattern along the module follows a similar pattern to that of the
magnetic field from which it is derived but is more spatially delineated because of the
functional relationship between the two.

2 2
Figure 13. Contour plots of E along the module at the instant when E has a maximum
values in the vicinity of coils # 2 and #3. At that instant the current in coils #2 and #3 are
essentially zero but changing most rapidly whilst the current in coil #1 is large but changing
more slowly and the induced electric field in the vicinity of coil #1 is relatively smaller.

The dielectrophoretic forces are proportional to the gradient in E2 and these are
illustrated in Figures 14 and 15 where the gradients in E2 in a longitudinal and radial
direction are plotted as a function of position along the module.

Figure 14. Plots of the gradient in

2
E along the module, just near the
Gradient in E along module

+92 outer periphery. The gradients

plotted are at the instant when the
2
value of E is at its maximum value
+36.9
in the vicinity of coils # 2 and #3.
The current in coils #2 and #3 are
then changing most rapidly. The
2

0
current in coil #1 is at that instant
changing less rapidly and the
-36.9
induced electric field in the vicinity
of coil #1 is then much smaller.
The dotted line shows the gradient
-92.1 0 2
2.215 3.101 3.987
in E a third of a cycle later (when
0 1.329
Distance it is at its maximum value).

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 Field Effects in Membrane Modules

It can be immediately discerned that in the direction along the module, the
dielectrophoretic forces (grad E2) show sharply peaked patterns that reverse at the centre
of each coil. The patterns alternate twice per cycle (that is at 4000 Hz).

Figure 15. The gradient in E2

517
in a radial direction at the
centre of each coil at an
Gradient in E radially

instant at which the induced

367
electric field at that point is a
maximum. The pattern decays
2

away twice per cycle and the

pattern in the vicinity of each
168
coil is out of step with the
others.
13.5 0

0 1.329 2.215 3.101 3.987

Distance

Radially the dielectrophoretic forces monotonically increase from the centre to the outer
boundary. The pattern of dielerctrophoretic force at each coil is out of step with that in
the adjacent coils but is in the same radial direction. The patterns repeats twice per cycle
of the supply (that is at 4000 Hz).

4.1.3 Induced Currents of Cations and Anions

The circular induced electric fields arising from the time varying magnetic fields give rise
to currents of cations and anions as discussed under 2.1 and Figure 3. The currents so
produced in the membrane module under consideration are shown in Figure 12. In this
figure the currents are shown at the time when the current in coil #1 is at its peak. In the
saline feed water the electric current will be carried by cations flowing in one direction
and anions in a counter direction; each carrying 50% of the total current.. In the vicinity
of a given coil the pattern flips from clockwise for cations to anti-clockwise each half
cycle of the current flowing in the coil. These circulating flows of cations and anions
reach peaks at different times along the module because of the phase difference of the
currents flowing in each coil.

The circulating currents of cations and anions will tend to interfere with the formation of
crystallites in the unstirred layer at the membrane surfaces and hence reduce fouling.

4.1.5 Lorentz Forces

The circular induced currents arising from the time varying magnetic fields also interact
with the magnetic field itself to produced a force on the ions carrying the current. This
Lorentz force described in section 3.2.1

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 Field Effects in Membrane Modules

For the system under consideration the magnetic field is everywhere at right angles to the
induced electric currents in the feed solution and the Lorentz force is always in a radial,
outward direction, irrespective of the part of the AC cycle or position along the module
(i.e. the direction is time and space independent).

The patterns of the Lorentz force are shown in Figure 16. The magnitude of the Lorentz
force varies in time along the module because of the phase shifts in the currents in the
external coils.

Figure 16. The pattern along the module of Lorentz force on ions. The forces are radially
outwards and vary cyclically in time with the pattern of maximum and minimum moving
along the module during each cycle. Note that whilst the current in each coil reverses
direction during each half cycle, the Lorentz force is always in the same direction, radially
outwards. The force is in the same direction for both cations and anions.

The radial movement of anions and cations will also interfere with the formation of
crystallites and lead to a dynamic situation in the otherwise unstirred layer near the
membrane surface where the fouling processes develop.

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 Field Effects in Membrane Modules

Appendix
1. Maxwell equations for the electromagnetic field
The AC magnetic field so produced will induce AC electric fields. In an RO module
devoid of membranes and fluids these induced electric fields would be circular in nature.

The presence of the spiral-wound RO membranes and the conducting saline (or even
fresh water) fluid between the membranes will distort the electric field patterns.

The governing equations for the field are:

∇.D= ρ ∇.B =0

∂D ∂B
∇x H = σ E + ∇ xE=− (1)
∂t ∂t

With B = µ r µ0 H and D =εr εo E

The four equations in (1) are known as the Maxwell’s equations for the electromagnetic
field.

Here:
B is the magnetic induction field
H is the Magnetic field
D is the electric Displacement field
E is the Electric field strength
ρ is the electric charge density (space charge)
σ is the electrical conductivity of the material
ε o is the permittivity of free space
ε r is the dielectric constant (relative permittivity) of the material
µo is the magnetic permeability of free space
µ r is the relative permeability of the material (membrane or saline solution)

The Magnetic induction field can be calculated starting with Ampere’s law:
)
µo µ r
dl x r
4∏ ∫ r2
B= i

Where:
dl is the element of wire whose contribution to the magnetic field is given by this
expression
)
r is a unit vector in the direction from the vector element dl to the point of interest

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 Field Effects in Membrane Modules

r is the distance from the current element

i the actual current flowing through the wire element dl

The contributions from all parts of the solenoidal coil are then integrated to obtain the
magnetic field at any point within the system.

2. Module Parameters

Module is cylindrical and consists of an inner tube and an outer tube.

Tubes
Made of polymer

The length of the tubes are 4430 mm

Diameter of inner tube: 105 mm outside dimension
Diameter of outer tube: 405 mm outside dimension
Tube wall thickness: 10mm
Dielectric constant of polymer tube walls: ε = 3 negligible conductivity

Fluids
Both tubes contain fluids
Inner tube filled with fluid “a”
Annulus between inner tube and outer tube filled with fluid “b”

Properties of the fluids

εa = 78 . εo σa = 6 . 10-5 S/m
εb = 78 . εo σb = 3 S/m
µa = 1 . µo µb = 1 . µo
εo = 8.85 . 10-12 µo = 4 π .10−7

Coil and currents

Length of each coil: 302 mm
Number of turns each coil:200
Number of coils: 3
Current flowing: Io = 10 amps
Frequency of AC current: 2000 Hz

Current in coil A I = I o sin ωt

2π
Current in coil B I = I o sin (ωt + )
3
 4π 
Current in coil C I = I o sin  ωt + 
 3 
Frequency ω = 2 π f and f=2000 Hz

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 Field Effects in Membrane Modules

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