10 Introduction To Protective Relays

Chapter 10: Introduction
to Protective Relays
Importance of protection
Getting a handle on a fault
Elementary diagrams, phasing,
polarity
Zones of protection
Types of relays
10 Intro to relays Notes on Power System Analysis 1
Introduction
Protective Relays
Devices that protect power
systems from faults:
short circuits
other abnormal conditions
underfrequency, overvoltage, etc.

Design Criteria
Protective relays should be:

fast
reliable
selective
economical
Design achieves balance
Importance of Protection
Limit the damage due to short
circuits
Often faulted equipment is
damaged
Other equipment is also at risk
Protect the system from
abnormal conditions
Relays (logic elements)
Electro- Digital Electronic

mechanical Digital Multifunction
Electronic
Overcurrent logic built into most LV breakers
A Simple Example
Consider a generating plant serving
load via two transmission lines
G: Generator B: Breaker
T: Transformer L: Line
G B1 L1
L2
T1 T2
Example
G B1 L1
L2
T1 T2
Three-phase
short circuit
Fault on a line should be cleared
by tripping line circuit breakers at
both ends
Short Circuits
Protection from short circuits
often with overcurrent protection
calculation of short-circuit
currents is necessary
computer software for
computation of short-circuit
currents
Example of typical short circuit
Fault at X:
Three-phase short circuit
Single-phase to ground short circuit
Phase to phase short circuit
Double phase to ground short circuit
Look at the rms value of the ac current

just after the short-circuit occurs
The following phasor diagrams are

qualitative only. Use short-circuit study
for actual values.
Phasor diagram before the fault
Vca
Vcn
Vbc Ic
Ib Van
Ia
Vbn
Vab
Normal

Ib Ic
Vab
Three Phase
Ia Short Circuit

Single phase - ground short circuit
Vcn Vca
Vbc Van
Vab
Vbn Single Phase
to Ground
Ia
Short Circuit
Phase to phase short circuit
Vbc Vca
Ic
Ib
Vab
Phase to Phase
Short Circuit
Phase-phase-ground short circuit
Ib Vca Ic
Vbc
Vab
Phase to Phase
to Ground
10 Intro to relays Notes on Power System Analysis Short Circuit 15
Getting a Handle on a Fault
For any fault, find a measurable
quantity to distinguish fault
from normal, for example:
Overcurrent
Undervoltage
Impedance

AC Elementary Diagram
a b c Phase sequence a-b-c
CT
Protected Line
c
52 b
a
51-C 51-B
51-A
51-N
AC Bus
51: Time overcurrent relay
52: AC circuit breaker
DC Elementary Diagram
Relay operating coil
Relay contacts
51-A 51-B
s s to 51-C
51-A 51-B 51-B and 51-N
51-A s s
52
TC
52a
Remarks
The elementary diagrams are
drawn for electromechanical
relays
The auxiliary relay marked with s
is the seal-in or contact switch
This is not usually needed with
solid-state relays
Conventional contact positions
Convention: contacts are
shown in the de-energized or
non-operated position
52a is auxiliary contact that is in
same position as the breaker
52b is auxiliary contact that is in
the opposite position as the
breaker
ANSI C37-2 Device Numbers
21 Distance Relay
25 Synchronizing Device
27 Undervoltage Relay
32 Directional Power Relay
49 Thermal Relay
50 Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay
51 AC Time Overcurrent Relay
52 AC Circuit Breaker
ANSI C37-2 Device Numbers
59 Overvoltage Relay
67 AC Directional Overcurrent
72 DC Circuit Breaker
76 DC Overcurrent Relay
79 AC Reclosing Relay
81 Frequency Relay
86 Lockout Relay
87 Differential Relay
a b c
Phase sequence a-b-c
52
Protected Line
a
b
c
52 52a
TC
AC Bus
Ph 1 Ph 2 Ph 3 Gnd
Trip
Electronic Relay
51-A, 51-B, 51-C, 51N
plus other functions
Phasing and Polarity
Both a circuit (or elementary

diagram) and a phasor diagram
are needed to establish polarity
or reference directions
Reference direction shows the
actual direction of quantity when
it is positive
Phasing and polarity
p q r s
V R jXl jXc I
Unambiguous
Vqr V with both
Vrs Vpq I diagrams

Phasor diagrams for 3-phase
1 C
N 3 N A
SEQ 3-2-1 SEQ A-B-C
2 B
Philosophy of Protection
Both an art and a science

Well-designed system will use:
Overlapping primary zones of
protection
Some form of backup protection

Zones of protection
Transf
Bus 2 Zone
Zone Line 1 Zone
Gen Zone Bus 1

Zone Line 3
Line 2
Zone
Zone
Overlapping zones
Zone A CB
Zone B
CT B CT A
Trip all zone A Trip all zone B
Zones A and B overlap at circuit

breaker CB
Faults in overlap trip both zones
No gaps in protection
Types of Relays
Function:
Magnitude relays
Directional relays
Ratio relays
Differential relays
Pilot relays

Types of Relays
Technology
Electromechanical
Analog electronics
Digital electronics
programmable
multifunction
intelligent electronic devices
Desired Attributes
Reliable
Dependable (trips when it should)
Secure (does not trip when it
should not)
Selective (only trips its zone)
Fast (minimize damage)
Economical
Design Tradeoffs
Dependability versus Security

Selectivity versus Speed
Everything else versus Cost

Instrument Transformers
Sense voltage or current and
transform to a manageable level
VT voltage transformer (also called
PT for potential transformer)
steps a high voltage to a low
voltage, e.g. 115 kV : 115 V

Sense voltage or current and
transform to a manageable level
VT voltage transformer (also called
PT for potential transformer)
CT current transformer
steps a high current to a low current,
e.g. 2000:5 A CT Ratio

VT: Conventional transformer
with small losses and exciting
current and with a precisely
known voltage ratio
CCVT: At higher voltages, use a
capacitive-coupled voltage
divider feeding a VT
CT: Current transformer has
one turn (typical) on primary
and many turns on secondary
Iron-core device may saturate on
heavy fault currents
Designed to drive a short circuit
(relay coils, ammeter coils, etc.)
secondary resistance provides a
burden (load) to the CT, causing a
voltage drop
Window type current transformer
Primary
conductor
Current
transformer
Is
Ip Symbol for current
To relays transformer showing
polarity marks
Standard relaying accuracy class
limits for CT's with 5 A secondaries
For example C200 will have no worse
than 10% error up to 20x5A=100A,
unless the burden is greater than
200V/100A = 2 ohm
Graph on next slide gives more
information

800 C800, T800
700
Vsec 600
[V]
500
400 C400, T400
300
200 C200, T200
100 C100, T100

C50, T50
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Isec [A]
Backup Protection
Remote backup (old)
Use remote relays and breakers to
back up station in case of failure
Takes out a large part of the system
Local backup (new)
Add redundant redundant relays and
instrument transformers to provide
backup protection
Remote Backup
Distance relay at p:
X Measures impedance to
r fault, zone 1
q 3 underreaches line p-q,
1 2 zone 2 overreaches line
p R p-q, zone 3 is remote
backup for next line q-r

Remote Backup
Set zone 1 to cover 90% of line pq
trips with no delay
Set zone 2 to cover 110% of line pq
trips after delay to coordinate with
breaker at q looking to r
Set zone 3 to back up line from qr
trips after a long time delay to
coordinate with slowest downstream
breaker
Widespread outage from backup
Local Backup
Redundant relays
and instrument
B
transformers
A
S S Breaker failure
Timer for
failure relays (supervised
S by overcurrent relay
Trip A S) initiate timer to
Trip all
local trip all local
breakers breakers
Overcurrent Protection
Example of time-overcurrent
protection
Directional overcurrent protection
Distribution system protection
Fuses
Example of overcurrent
protection
Source 1 2
52-1 52-2
51-1 51-2
System is simplified for 3

illustration of principles Load
Example
Max CT
Bus Min Fault Load
Fault Ratio
1 1395 A 1208 A 200:5 60 A
2 695 A 602 A 100:5 50 A
3 521 A 451 A - 100 A

Very Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay Curves
100
100
Time
[sec] M is the
10 10
Multiplier
Tvi ( I , 1 )
Tvi ( I , 2 ) Setting
Tvi ( I , 5 )
Tvi ( I , 10 )
1 1 M=10
M=5
M=2
0.1 0.1
0.1 1 10 M=1 100
1
0.5 I
10 20
Current [per
10 Intro to relays Notes on unit ofAnalysis
Power System pickup setting] 48
51-2 Setting
sees load current of 100 A
set pickup at 2 x load = 200 A
on sec of CT: 200 A x (5/100) = 10
A (10 A tap or 200% of CT sec)
time multiple M = 1 (fastest since no
downstream coordination)
check pickup on min fault: 451/200
= 2.25 x pickup (2.5 to 3 is better,
but this is OK)

51-1 Setting
sees load current 150 A
pickup: 2 x 150 A = 300 A
on CT sec: 300 A x 5/200 = 7.5 A
(7.5/5 = 1.5) Set pickup at 150% of
CT
set to backup 51-2 for min fault at 3 if
possible: 451/300 = 1.5 (eventually
trips which is good)
check coordination with 51-2

coordination between 51-1 and 51-2
coordinate at max fault seen by both
relays (max fault at 2 is 695A)
51-1 sees 695 x 5/200 = 17.4 A sec
or 17.4/7.5 = 2.3 x pickup
51-2 sees 695 x 5/100 = 34.8 A sec or
34.8/10 = 3.5 x pickup
51-2 on M = 1 curve gives Top = 0.4
sec at 3.5 times pickup, from time-
current curves

Coordination (contd)
allow 0.3 sec coordination margin
between adjacent relays
51-1 needs to operate after
0.4+0.3 = 0.7 sec
at 2.3 times pickup, M=1 gives Top
= 0.8 sec

Very Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay Curves
100
100
Time
[sec]
M is the
10 10
Multiplier
Tvi ( I , 1 )
Tvi ( I , 2 ) Setting
Tvi ( I , 5 )
Tvi ( I , 10 )
1 0.8 1 M=10
M=5
0.4
2.3 3.5 M=2
0.1 0.1
0.1 1 10 M=1 100
0.5
1 I
10 20
10 Intro to relays CurrentNotes

[per unit
on Power of pickup setting]53
System Analysis
Summary of settings for example
Pickup [% of M = Time
Bus CT Ratio
CT sec A] Multiplier
1 200:5 150 % 1
2 100:5 200 % 1
Coordination Margin = 0.4 seconds

for max fault on bus 2
Comments on example
There are often downstream devices
that we need to coordinate with
Settings of relay depend on
technology
electromechanical relay settings
entered via taps and dials
electronic relay settings entered into
software via keyboard or via dials +
keyboard
Comments
Simple overcurrent relays are not
sufficient for network systems:
Loop type subtransmission
High-voltage transmission
networks
These use directional
overcurrent or directional
distance relays
Distribution Systems
Power transmission lines
interconnect generating plants
and main substations
Power subtransmission lines
connect main substations with
other substations and large
customers
Distribution Systems
Power distribution lines deliver
power to all other customers,
and to loads within the
premises of large customers
Power distribution lines may be
medium-voltage or low-voltage:

Distribution systems
Medium-voltage systems use
nominal voltages above 1 kV and
below 60 kV
Low-voltage systems use nominal
voltages under 1 kV
Medium-voltage lines may be
utility lines or contained within
a large industrial system
Distribution systems
Medium-voltage utility systems
will be considered first
Overhead lines
Underground lines
Medium-voltage industrial
systems and low-voltage
industrial systems will be
considered later
Overview
Most power distribution systems use
overcurrent protection
Protects system against short circuits
Also helps protect apparatus from
damage (secondary)
Hardware used (switchgear, relays)
varies by system type, but function
is ordinarily overcurrent protection
FEEDER #1
115:12.47 kV
HV SYSTEM
FEEDER #2
FEEDER #3
THREE-PHASE LINE
SINGLE-PHASE LINE
FUSE RECLOSER CIRCUIT BREAKER
THREE-PHASE DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER BANK
CAPACITOR BANK

Overview
MV utility system uses power
circuit breakers or automatic
circuit reclosers at substation
To save time, call this the
station breaker in either case
Taps may be protected by fuses,
reclosers, or sectionalizers
Line Sectionalizing
Line sectionalizing may be done with
reclosers, sectionalizers, fuses, or
switches
Typical system showed a single feeder
sectionalizing recloser (radial feeder)
A switch (either load-break or
disconnect) could be used
Load-break switches may be equipped
with remote controls (considered later)

Line Sectionalizing
In the simple example system, only
one recloser was used
Placed near the end of the reach of
the station breaker
Set for automatic operation with a
preset number of trip and reclose
operations
Covers the entire feeder with rapid
fault clearing
Restores service for temporary faults
Line Sectionalizing
FEEDER #1
115:12.47 kV
HV SYSTEM
FEEDER #2
BREAKER ZONE RECLOSER ZONE
CIRCUIT BREAKER RECLOSER

FEEDER #3
Overlapping zones of protection:

Station breaker overlaps recloser zone
Recloser sectionalizes line, increases
reliability
Line Sectionalizing
Fault at X is cleared by recloser
FEEDER #1
115:12.47 kV
HV SYSTEM
FEEDER #2
BREAKER ZONE RECLOSER ZONE
FEEDER #3

Line Sectionalizing
Fault at X is cleared by recloser

No permanent outage for
temporary fault
Outage only downstream of
recloser for permanent fault

Fuses
The simplest form of overcurrent
protection is the fuse
Types of fuses common on MV
distribution:
Expulsion fuse
Current-limiting fuse

Expulsion Fuse
Expulsion fuse in open-type
cutout shown below
Fuse link (inside tube) produces
an arc on melting
Expulsion tube emits deionizing
gases
Gases are expelled from tube and
fault is cleared at current zero
Expulsion Fuse Cutout
LINE TERMINAL
BRACKET
EXPULSION TUBE
PORCELAIN
SUPPORT
OPEN TYPE FUSE CUTOUT

(NOT TO SCALE)
LINE TERMINAL

Fusible Link
TIN-PLATED BUTTON HEAD
TIN FUSIBLE ELEMENT
CUTAWAY VIEW OF TYPICAL FUSE LINK

TUBE (NOT TO SCALE)
LEADER
Tin fusible element shown

Other types are also available
Link fits inside expulsion tube
Expulsion fuse clearing fault
FAULT CURRENT
AVAILABLE CURRENT
X/R INFINITE
TIME
MELT TIME
FUSE
CIRCUIT VOLTAGE VOLTAGE
TRANSIENT RECOVERY VOLTAGE

Current-Limiting Fuse
Current-limiting fuse clears the fault
quickly by forcing the current to zero
Long fusible element packed in silica
sand
Sand confines the arc to small area
Produces high pressures and very high
resistance
Resistance forces current to zero
Current-Limiting Fuse Clearing
FAU LT CUR RENT
C IR C U IT A V A IL A B L E C U R R E N T
VO LTA G E X /R IN F IN IT E
T IM E
M E L T T IM E
F U SE V O L T A G E

Recovery Voltage
Compare the expulsion fuse
voltage to the current-limiting
fuse voltage
Expulsion fuse clears near peak
voltage. Ringing transient due to
interrupting RLC circuit

Recovery Voltage
Compare the expulsion fuse
voltage to the current-limiting
fuse voltage.
Current-limiting fuse clears near
zero system voltage
Fuse voltage controlled by careful
design of link
Little ringing due to system
Distribution Transformer Fusing
Fuse protecting transformer must:
clear short-circuit in transformer
not damage fuse link on inrush current,
load pickup, short-time overloads
coordinate with upstream line
sectionalizing devices (fuse or recloser
upstream)
provide a degree of protection for
severe overloads
Inrush/Load Pickup Curve
T [SEC] 2 x 3.62 = 7.24 A
100
COLD-LOAD FUSE MINIMUM MELT

PICKUP CURVE TIME CURRENT CURVE
FUSE MAXIMUM CLEARING
TIME CURRENT CURVE
10.
3 x 3.62 = 10.9 A
For illustration.
1.0
6 x 3.62 = 21.7 A
Use actual inrush
INRUSH CURVE
pickup and fuse
0.1 12 x 3.62 = 43.4 A curves.
25 x 3.62 = 90.5 A
0.01 I [A]
1 10 100 1000

T [SEC] 2 x 3.62 = 7.24 A
100
COLD-LOAD FUSE MINIMUM MELT

PICKUP CURVE TIME CURRENT CURVE
FUSE MAXIMUM CLEARING
TIME CURRENT CURVE
10.
3 x 3.62 = 10.9 A
1.0
6 x 3.62 = 21.7 A
INRUSH CURVE
0.1 12 x 3.62 = 43.4 A
25 x 3.62 = 90.5 A
0.01 I [A]
10 Intro to relays 1 Notes10 100
on Power System Analysis 1000 81
Fuse Ratio
Ratio of minimum melt current to
transformer full-load current
High fuse ratio allows more
transformer heating on overload but
is more secure from inrush current
Low fuse ratio allows less transformer
heating on overload but is less secure
from inrush current
Typical fuse ratios are around 2 to 4

Transformer Damage Curves
ANSI C-57 standards give damage
curves, which should lie above and
to the right of fuse maximum
clearing curve
Compromise with damage curve is
preferable to miscoordination with
upstream device
Miscoordination is preferable to fuse
damage on load pickup
Shunt Capacitor Fusing
Shunt capacitors for power-factor
correction are usually fused
Will not usually protect against
device failure
Can prevent tank rupture
Capacitor manufacturer can supply
rupture curves for coordination
with fuses
Typical capacitor rupture curve
T [S E C ]
100
10.
FU SE CU RVES N O T O K
TANK M AY RUPTURE
1 .0
FU SE CURVES O K
TA N K W ILL N O T R U P TU R E
0 .1
0 .0 1 I [A ]
10 100 1000 10000
Capacitor Fusing
Curve shown for illustration only
Use actual curves from
manufacturer
Fuse should withstand 135% of
nominal capacitor current
Allows 10% overvoltage + 15%
overcapacitance +10% harmonic
current
Capacitor Fusing
Grounded-wye capacitor with one
phase completely shorted:
fault current = available single
line-ground short-circuit current
Ungrounded-wye capacitor with
one phase completely shorted:
maximum fault current = 3 X
normal capacitor current
Ungrounded wye capacitor with
phase a shorted to neutral
Vcn Vca
Ia
Normal Vbc Van Ic

Vbn Ib
Vab
Ia
Vcn
Phase a shorted
to neutral
Vbn Ic
Ib

Capacitor Inrush
High-frequency damped
sinusoid: estimate inrush I2 t
and compare to capacitor
Rule of thumb:
I2 t = K Isc[kA] Ic[A]

Capacitor Inrush
I2 t = K Isc[kA] Ic[A]
if X/R=0.5 then K = 3
if X/R=10 then K = 27

Capacitor Inrush
Isolated capacitors rarely have
inrush problems
If capacitors are connected back
to back, see ANSI C37 for more
information about capacitor
switching
Inrush for back-to-back capacitor
banks is a severe problem that
should be carefully considered

10 Introduction To Protective Relays

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Chapter 10: Introduction

10 Intro to relays Notes on Power System Analysis 2

Protective relays should be:

Electro- Digital Electronic

Look at the rms value of the ac current

The following phasor diagrams are

10 Intro to relays Notes on Power System Analysis 11

10 Intro to relays Notes on Power System Analysis 12

10 Intro to relays Notes on Power System Analysis 16

Both a circuit (or elementary

10 Intro to relays Notes on Power System Analysis 25

SEQ 3-2-1 SEQ A-B-C

Both an art and a science

10 Intro to relays Notes on Power System Analysis 27

Gen Zone Bus 1

Trip all zone A Trip all zone B

Zones A and B overlap at circuit

10 Intro to relays Notes on Power System Analysis 30

Dependability versus Security

10 Intro to relays Notes on Power System Analysis 33

10 Intro to relays Notes on Power System Analysis 34

10 Intro to relays Notes on Power System Analysis 35

10 Intro to relays Notes on Power System Analysis 39

400 C400, T400

200 C200, T200

100 C100, T100

10 Intro to relays Notes on Power System Analysis 42

System is simplified for 3

10 Intro to relays Notes on Power System Analysis 47

10 Intro to relays Notes on Power System Analysis 49

10 Intro to relays Notes on Power System Analysis 50

10 Intro to relays Notes on Power System Analysis 51

10 Intro to relays Notes on Power System Analysis 52

10 Intro to relays CurrentNotes

Coordination Margin = 0.4 seconds

10 Intro to relays Notes on Power System Analysis 58

FUSE RECLOSER CIRCUIT BREAKER

THREE-PHASE DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER BANK

10 Intro to relays Notes on Power System Analysis 62

10 Intro to relays Notes on Power System Analysis 64

CIRCUIT BREAKER RECLOSER

Overlapping zones of protection:

10 Intro to relays Notes on Power System Analysis 67

Fault at X is cleared by recloser

10 Intro to relays Notes on Power System Analysis 68

10 Intro to relays Notes on Power System Analysis 69

OPEN TYPE FUSE CUTOUT

10 Intro to relays Notes on Power System Analysis 71

CUTAWAY VIEW OF TYPICAL FUSE LINK

Tin fusible element shown

TRANSIENT RECOVERY VOLTAGE

FAU LT CUR RENT

10 Intro to relays Notes on Power System Analysis 76

10 Intro to relays Notes on Power System Analysis 77

COLD-LOAD FUSE MINIMUM MELT

10 Intro to relays Notes on Power System Analysis 80

COLD-LOAD FUSE MINIMUM MELT

0.1 12 x 3.62 = 43.4 A

10 Intro to relays Notes on Power System Analysis 82

Normal Vbc Van Ic

10 Intro to relays Notes on Power System Analysis 88

10 Intro to relays Notes on Power System Analysis 89

10 Intro to relays Notes on Power System Analysis 90