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Keywords: This paper assumes that tourism educated and trained students play different roles (in driving future
Tourism tourist demands and in meeting current tourist preferences, respectively), and it states that the main
Education features characterising the four stakeholders involved in the design, development and implementation of
Training
tourism programmes (rms, students, educational and governmental institutions), together with the
Evolutionary game
main facts they face in taking their decisions, lead to a non-optimal strategic long-run equilibrium, where
Dynamic model
tourism non-graduated or differently-from-tourism graduated employees prevail. The development of
an evolutionary model allows to identify the main features characterising rms and students, to be
focused on by educational and governmental institutions, in order to move towards the optimal
equilibrium, where tourism graduated employees prevail, while the development of a dynamic model
allows to show that this equilibrium is not detrimental to tourism trained employees. This work also
suggests a possible educational strategy that could allow to move away from the non-optimal
equilibrium, by achieving public objectives (such as environmental or ethical tourism), by relying on
feasible educational approaches (about what and how to teach), and by taking into account the private
characteristics (of rms and students). Therefore, balancing tourism education and training is both
possible and benecial to all stakeholders involved.
2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
0278-4319/$ see front matter 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2008.03.006
F. Zagonari / International Journal of Hospitality Management 28 (2009) 29 3
trained (at school), and are more likely to be dynamic if educated 2. Two types of tourism operators
(at university).
In the tourist sector there are (many) small rms, that cannot A dynamic operator is here dened as somebody aiming at
afford any effective on-the-job training for employees, and (few) driving the future tourism demand; for example, a hotel keeper
large rms, that cannot solve the problem of retaining their skilled who tries to foster a market demand from environmentally
staff (Peacock and Ladkin, 2002). Thus, educational institutions concerned tourists, or a restaurant keeper who tries to favour the
must be involved in the process of educating and training students. use of ethical products. Next, a static operator is here dened as
Next, tourism often accounts for a large proportion of GDP (both in somebody aiming at satisfying the current tourism demand; for
developed and developing countries), it shows high (static) example, a hotel or a restaurant keeper who satisfy consumer
potentials, both in economic (increasing size) and social (employ- preferences.
ment basin) terms, but it also shows high (dynamic) threats, for Notice that governmental institutions could aim at making
example about environmental and ethical issues (Dale and tourist services characterised by greater environmental or ethical
Robinson, 2001). Thus, governmental institutions must also be contents being more appreciated by consumers.
involved in setting the training and education processes.
Section 3 focuses on the main features characterising each of 3. Stakeholders preferences
the four main stakeholders involved in the design, development
and implementation of education and training programmes The previous section identied the different roles played by
(enterprises, students, educational institutions and governmental (static) trained and (dynamic) educated operators. This section will
institutions), the main facts faced by them, together with decisions discuss the main features characterising each of the four main
that are usually taken (with a short and/or narrow perspective) and stakeholders involved in the design, development and implemen-
decisions that should be taken instead (with a longer and/or tation of education and training programmes (enterprises,
broader perspective), by showing that tourism non-graduated or students, educational institutions and governmental institutions),
differently-from-tourism graduated employees are likely to the main facts faced by them, together with decisions that are
prevail. usually taken (with a short and/or narrow perspective) and
The development of an evolutionary model (Section 4) allows to decisions that should be taken instead (with a longer and/or
highlight the main features characterising rms and students, that broader perspective). It will be stressed that tourism non-
lead to this strategic non-optimal long-run equilibrium (i.e. static graduated or differently-from-tourism graduated (static) employ-
students and employees), and that should be referred to by ees are likely to prevail in the tourism labour market.
educational and governmental institutions, in order to move Notice that it is assumed that all stakeholders have already
towards the strategic optimal long-run equilibrium (i.e. dynamic chosen the tourism sector so that rms must choose whether to
students and employees), where tourism graduated employees employ tourism graduated (dynamic) vs. tourism non-graduated
will prevail. or differently-from-tourism graduated (static) students (i.e. rms
This emphasis on tourism educated students, however, could be cannot change their activity sector), students must choose tourism
detrimental to tourism trained students. Section 5 develops a graduating vs. tourism non-graduating or non-tourism graduating
dynamic model to show that an effective education system (to courses (i.e. students cannot change their study eld), educational
prepare dynamic operators) might actually increase employment institutions must identify tourism curricula (i.e. they are not
opportunities for static operators (involved in training pro- interested in other courses), and governmental institutions must
grammes), to a greater extent in a technological lively sector specify tourism policies (i.e. they do not care about other
and to a lesser extent in a mature industry. interventions).
Tourism can be hardly dened as an industry (Lickorish, 1991),
since it is an area of economic activity linking sectors through the 3.1. Enterprises
common objective of its consumers (Amoah and Baum, 1997).
Next, tourism can be hardly described as a discipline in its own Employers do not recognise the importance of education: quite
right (Tribe, 1997), since it lacks a theoretical underpinning often the industry is dominated and controlled by entrepreneurs
(Cooper et al., 1993). Thus, several approaches exist about what who have a complete lack of appreciation of tourism education and
and how to teach. A standardised international tourism education, underlying theories, framework and concepts that should guide
with specialisation and theming with base of knowledge is tourism as a major social and economic global phenomenon (UK,
suggested in Section 6.1, as a possible educational strategy that Peacock and Ladkin, 2002). Moreover, there is no interest in
would allow to move towards the strategic optimal long-run education by people involved in recruitment, since that would help
equilibrium (represented in Section 4), by achieving public people progress faster and higher in a career path (UK, Amoah and
objectives (highlighted in Sections 3.3 and 3.4), by relying on Baum, 1997). Finally, employers perceive uncertain nature and
feasible educational approaches, and by taking into account the content of tourism degrees, and unclear differences from other
private characteristics of rms and students (stressed in Sections related service sector programmes, offered by educational institu-
3.1 and 3.2): opportunities and difculties of the required tions (UK and Brazil, Knowles et al., 2003).
coordination between stakeholders are emphasised in Sections These features make rms to be intrinsically inclined to choose
6.26.4. non-graduated employees. In particular, the industry seeks personal
Therefore, discussion and analysis developed in this paper skills (such as communication, adaptability, and leadership)
allows to conclude that balancing education and training is both (Canada, Martin and McEvoy, 2003) and foreign language ability
possible and benecial to all stakeholders involved. (UK, Leslie et al., 2004), as well as it accuses educational institutions
Notice that the quotations of the most recent contributions has of providing broad-based, generic knowledge linked with the
implied that case studies refer to different countries (as specied learning of other disciplines (e.g. business studies and economics)
before references), both developed and developing countries (see (UK, Dale and Robinson, 2001) and of moulding tourism graduates
volume 5, June 2006 of J. of Teaching in Travel & Tourism for additional with wrong qualications (Thailand, Esichaikul and Baum, 1998).
case studies): this seems to suggest that the analysis here developed Next, enterprises had no choice in the past, and it is now often
pertains to structural characteristics of the tourist sector. difcult to replace qualied non-graduate personnel with inexper-
4 F. Zagonari / International Journal of Hospitality Management 28 (2009) 29
ienced university graduates (Turkey, Collins, 2002). In particular, These features make students to be intrinsically inclined to
small business (e.g. family and three/four-stars hotels) cannot afford choose non-graduating courses.
any in-service training for employees additional to that offered by There appears minimal advanced career opportunity for people
training institutions or trade associations, i.e. small rms cannot bear with the right tourism skills and/or professional competencies,
the cost of moving to graduated employees. Moreover, large rms especially at supervisory and managerial level, and there is no a
(e.g. international chains and ve-stars hotels) do train employees career ladder that one must climb in order to reach fully meaningful
regularly, although they face the problem of retaining their skilled well-paid positions, with a paternalistic management style that
staff: trained employees move to a new hotel that does not provide hinders career prospects (Kenya, Mayaka and Akama, 2007).
training and offer higher compensation, i.e. large rms would not Next, the level of education in the tourist industry is painfully
obtain permanent benets by moving to graduated employees, due low, with a tough competition with non-skilled employees
to competition by other large rms (Denmark, Hjalager and (Denmark, Hjalager and Andersen, 2000) and with differently
Andersen, 2000). Finally, both small and large rms do not develop skilled employees (Turkey, Collins, 2002) in terms of wages and
formal in-house training systems due to the high drop-out rates, working conditions rather than in terms of qualications. This
since students consider the tourism industry as a rst step (in case of feature is even exacerbated by the fact that students enrolled in
career ambitions) or a temporary occupation (in case of young tourism graduating courses are adversely selected, since tourism
people): the tourist industry is a refuge when job opportunities in industry suffers from a poor image as an employer: low social
other sectors are scarce. In other words, both small and large rms status, long and irregular working hours, willingness to serve, low
are strategically driven by these facts to choose tourism non- salaries, few social welfare and benets, with other sectors of the
graduated or differently-from-tourism graduated employees. economy offering more attractive jobs (UK, Amoah and Baum,
Consequently, decisions actually taken by enterprises are often 1997). Consequently, the tourism industry is characterised by a
as follows. Employers ll their needs from those people with rapid turnover of staff, with a persistently contingent workforce,
practical experience more so than those with a university degree: employed under very exible conditions, on non-standard terms
2-year degree students with work experience are preferred over 4- and on a part-time and seasonal basis (Denmark, Hjalager and
year degree students. In particular, small-rm employers especially Andersen, 2000). This feature is even aggravated by the fact that
tend to prefer job experience to qualications in recruitment (UK, students expectations about job conditions are often biased
Amoah and Baum, 1997), with multi-role employees, while large- (Turkey, Collins, 2002), while those about career perspectives are
rm employers look for management skills (Brazil and UK, Knowles often unrealistic, wrongly conveyed by educational institutions
et al., 2003). Next, in case of low-quality services, differently (China, Lam and Xiao, 2000).
graduated students are required (Canada, Martin and McEvoy, In other words, students are strategically driven by these facts to
2003) or non-skilled employees are trained on the job (Thailand, prefer tourism non-graduating or differently-from-tourism grad-
Esichaikul and Baum, 1998). uating courses.
To summarise, rms look for tourism non-graduated or To summarise, students employed in the tourism industry turn
differently-from-tourism graduated students. This seems to be out to be consistent with requirements put forward by rms: due
conrmed by the low level of education observed in several to low motivations, tourism non-graduated students are attracted
countries (Denmark, Hjalager and Andersen, 2000; Australia and to vocational tourism studies because of the relatively high
UK, Lashley and Barron, 2006). probability of acquiring a position and a job security, by perceiving
Nevertheless, employers should be aware that there is a call for it as a glamorous industry providing opportunities for adventure
changing skill requirements due to rapidly technological advances, (USA, Cole et al., 2006); differently-from-tourism graduated
as well as for continuing education of employees; moreover, that students are people with university degrees who get jobs very
mature consumers will require specialisation; nally, that profes- soon after graduation, but new recruits have high intentions to quit
sional and well-educated workforce is essential in the provision of the job when they nd that the salary package of the industry is not
quality service and enhancing overall service delivery in a global as competitive as others, and the pressure and stress at work is
market. unexpectedly high, or leave the tourism industry to do a career
elsewhere (Denmark, Hjalager and Andersen, 2000).
3.2. Students Nevertheless, students should be aware that a vocational, skill-
based programme inevitably restrains future job opportunities;
Individuals aiming for a job in tourism often have no traditional conversely, conceptual programmes that confer extended knowl-
career ambitions, by emphasising job autonomy, pleasant life style, edge will increase career opportunities.
and job permanence (smaller in low-quality service rms): it
seems to t well with the emerging youth culture in which rapid 3.3. Educational institutions
shifts are seen as positive advantage, by looking down rigid careers
(Denmark, Hjalager and Andersen, 2000). There is no general agreement as to where the study of tourism
Next, individuals who like working with other people are likely really belong, at university or middle schools (Kenya, Mayaka and
to display extrovert personality characteristics and right-hand Akama, 2007), so that tourism studies are often tagged to unrelated
brain preference (Australia and UK, Lashley and Barron, 2006). departments and unconnected courses, and are housed in different
Thus, tourist students usually prefer learning styles that are elds, including geography, sociology, . . . so that there is lack of
concrete rather than abstract, and active rather than reective: in coherence in the teaching and training approaches adopted in the
other words, they enjoy practical activity, but are less comfortable numerous tourism-related programmes. Thus, a large freedom in
with theorising and reection. Sometimes (UK, Lashley, 1999; choosing the course contents prevails. Moreover, there has been a
Australia, Barron and Accordia, 2002) they display preferences for dramatic increasing number of tertiary academic and training
activist learning styles, according to act rst and consider the courses (UK, Peacock and Ladkin, 2002). Thus, a high competition
consequences later; sometimes (Hong Kong, Singapore, and between course suppliers is observed. Finally, there appears to be a
Taiwan, Wong et al., 2000) they display preferences for reector lack of strategic plans and policy guidelines on the development of
learning style, with learning through observation and beneting tourism training and education in many countries (UK, Amoah and
from the opportunity to think before acting. Baum, 1997), with divergent, and sometimes opposed, curricula
F. Zagonari / International Journal of Hospitality Management 28 (2009) 29 5
development viewpoints and training approaches within regions. tourism graduating course vs. a tourism non-graduating or a non-
Thus, a lack of binding policy suggestions in moulding the course tourism graduating course. Thus, this framework would seem to be
contents prevails. well depicted by referring to the job matching literature (about
These facts lead educational institutions to provide tourism training and education issues, see Dolado et al., 2000; Brunello and
education and training being predominantly industry-driven (or Medio, 2001; Rosholm and Svarer, 2004; Moen and Rosen, 2004).
employability-driven) with narrow perspectives of either profes- However, these models assume, among other things such as on-
sionalism (i.e. responding to industrys requirements for a skilled the-job search or endogenous turnover, an exogenous proportion
workforce) or service quality (i.e. meeting the tourists expecta- of trained and educated students (workers) as well as an
tions) (China, Cai and Zhang, 2004; South Africa, Kaplan, 2004; exogenously amount of high quality and low quality rms
Italy, Pechlaner et al., 2006). In other words, students are often (vacancies), and aim at predicting, among other things such as
formed to meet local and current demands with no specialisation. wage dispersion or job duration, the amount of training as
Nevertheless, educational institutions should be aware that dependent on the efciency of the matching process (or search
several alternative routes could have been taken: for example, frictions) or the exogenous or endogenous inow rate into
prepare students to respond to the changing demands of the highly unemployment (or employment).
volatile, competitive and sophisticated, global tourism industry, This paper is not focused on unemployment or employment
rather than to meet current demands, form students for the rates or market efciency so these models do not seem the best
international rather than for the local market (Australia, Barron, references to explain the prevalence of a strategic non-optimal
2006), prepare students for specialist functions in the industry, long-run equilibrium: the evolutionary game literature seems to
rather than for generic employment positions. be more appropriate. However, the job matching models can be
considered in order to identify payoffs for rms and students. In
3.4. Governmental institutions particular, by using large case letters for rms and small case
letters for students, we will call G and g the return to high quality
There is little evidence of public and private commitment to rms from employing tourism graduated students, and the return
initiate well-coordinated long-term investment in tourism train- to graduated students from working in high quality rms,
ing and education (Thailand, Esichaikul and Baum, 1998). respectively; we will name N and n the return to rms from
However, the rationale for government involvement could be employing tourism non-graduated or differently-from-tourism
based on at least two reasons: moving the labour market towards a graduated students, and the return to students from working in
quality enhanced tourism services, for rms to compete inter- low quality rms, respectively; we will call CE and ce the cost for
nationally in the global tourism market, by raising quality rms to train tourism graduated students, and the cost for students
standards and gaining competitive advantage, and for students to complete a tourism graduating course, respectively; we will
to be reective practitioners, with a harder learning effort today for name CT and ct the cost for rms to educate tourism non-
satisfactory occupation tomorrow; dealing with environmental graduated or differently-from-tourism graduated students, and
(South Africa, Tesone, 2004) and ethical (UK, Canada, and Australia, the cost for students to complete a tourism non-graduating or a
Hudson and Miller, 2006) issues, towards a tourism that is differently-from-tourism graduating course. Thus, the strategic
sustainable through time (in both developed and developing interaction between students and rms can be represented as in
countries), and that favours the poverty reduction and equity Table 1.
enhancement or contrasts racial and gender discrimination (in Notice that it is here assumed that higher returns G and g to
developing countries) as well as that prevents corporate scandals. rms and students arise where the match between high quality
Nevertheless, models of integration between the development rms and tourism graduated students occurs only.
of national tourism policy with that of education and training Features characterising rms and students can be depicted as
provision for the sector are offered by the Republic of Ireland and follows. Firms are intrinsically prone to disregard tourism
Canada. graduated students, because they do not recognise the importance
of education (small G N), there is no interest in education by
4. The optimal long-run equilibrium dynamic students and people involved in recruitment (G N < 0), they perceive uncer-
employees tain nature and content of tourism degrees, and unclear differences
from other related service sector programmes (unclear G N).
The previous section highlighted the prevalence of tourism Next, they are strategically driven to avoid the tourism graduated
non-graduated or differently-from-tourism graduated employees students, because small rms cannot bear the cost of moving to
in the tourism labour market. This section will present it as a graduated employees (large CE), large rms would not obtain
strategic non-optimal long-run equilibrium, by stressing that the permanent benets by moving to graduated employees (large CE),
employment of tourism graduated students is an equilibrium too. and both small and large rms face a high drop-out rates by
In our context, there is a single labour market where high and employees (large CE).
low tourism-service quality rms can choose to employ tourism Similarly, students are intrinsically prone to choose tourism
graduated students vs. tourism non-graduated or differently-from- non-graduating courses, because people aiming for a job in tourism
tourism graduated students, while each student can choose a often have no traditional career ambitions (small g n), they enjoy
Table 1
The tourism labour market as an evolutionary game
Students choose
Tourism graduating courses G CE, g ce N CE, n ce
Tourism non-graduating or differently- N CT, n ct N, n ct
from-tourism graduating courses
6 F. Zagonari / International Journal of Hospitality Management 28 (2009) 29
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