DISESEASES OF INSECT CAUSED BY FUNGI- 1

Diseases of Insects Caused by Fungi:

Fungus Makes Mosquitoes More Susceptible to Malaria

Name

Institution
 DISESEASES OF INSECT CAUSED BY FUNGI- 2

Table of Contents

Fungus Makes Mosquitoes More Susceptible to Malaria..........................................................3

Abstract......................................................................................................................................3
Introduction................................................................................................................................4
Overview of malaria...............................................................................................................4
Malaria vectors.......................................................................................................................4
Anopheles funestus group...................................................................................................5
Literature review........................................................................................................................6
Effects of fungi to mosquitoes...................................................................................................6
Classification of fungi.........................................................................................................7
Safety and environmental effects of the entomopathogenic fungi......................................7
Materials and methods.............................................................................................................10
Mosquito culturing...............................................................................................................10
Entomopathogenic fungi......................................................................................................10
Culture isolate.......................................................................................................................10
Data analysis.........................................................................................................................11
Effects of exposing the female Anopheles funestus to the fungi beauveria bassiana..............11
Discussion................................................................................................................................13
Association of the sensitivity of entomopathogenic fungus infection in Anopheles finest..15
Effect of malaria on human health...........................................................................................16
Effects of malaria to the economy and future research areas...................................................17
Conclusion................................................................................................................................17
 DISESEASES OF INSECT CAUSED BY FUNGI- 3

Fungus Makes Mosquitoes More Susceptible to Malaria

Abstract

Malaria vectors, for one to be able to control it, they should major make reliance on the initial

basic concept application of using chemical insecticides. One of the fundamental nature of

the concept is the continued increase of incidences of insecticide resistance in the verge of a

target vector population, which is coupled up with the general threat of having an

environmental contamination which is now one of the basic and primary concern in the

approach to save the environment. However, the use of biological agents which are now

aimed at bringing a complement will be in existence as the insecticide based nature of control

will also be in use as previously proposed. An example of the fundamental character of the

medical and biological behavior of the species, Metarrhizium anisole and the other species

the Beauveria bassine there is a realization that the efficacy of the species M. anisopliae the

Sorokin strain is more strong than the Beauveria bassiana. Experiments which have been

carried out have had a general analogy to find out the effect of fungus in the malaria parasite.

The relationships are to be redesigned from the aspect of a proper research and experiments,

the baseline information on the nature of the interactions of the mosquito fungus will have a

base focus on the efficiency of the entomopathogenic fungus M. anisopliae. The life history

of the general behaviors of the malaria vector under two types of environments which are in

the laboratory as well as in the semi-field conditions is keenly considered to have a response

on the mosquitoes. The collected information is important in building up the facilitation of

further control of the malaria vector.

 DISESEASES OF INSECT CAUSED BY FUNGI- 4

Introduction

Overview of malaria

Malaria is a prominent disease, and its predominance has been for many decades. The

origin of the name is in from the ancient Romans. It is the work of Charles Laveran who was

determinant and showed that malaria's causative agent was a parasite called the plasmodium,

in a different instance there is a separate mentioning of Sir Ronald Ross who worked from

India and made a demonstration of confirming that a next host of the parasite is human and

bird (Carringtos and Simmons, 2015). Africa remains one of the most affected continent

having an estimation of up to 247 million individuals who are in clinical cases and among

this 3.3 million of the people are at the risk of having the infection and 1 million are the

numbers of deaths from malaria.

Malaria vectors

The transmission of the malaria parasite is majorly by a mosquito, and it is not a

random species rather the species of genus Anopheles. At least when put in comparison there

is a relative word count of up to 40 anopheline species which are important to the human

malaria vector in a worldwide consideration. Relatively these vectors are not similar rather by

a high rate out range very different (Vector Control at Household Level in Lobito Town,

2015). The significant difference is based on the transmission of the potential in

communication. As a consideration to the malaria vector, the efficiency is due to the

preference of the human blood as well as the rapid change in an adaptation of the parasite to

the environment (Vector Control at Household Level in Lobito Town, 2015). When this

happens, there is a slower rate of digestion of blood and thus a higher oocyst in the infections

rate. Malaria vectors have the capability of having a sustenance in the aspect t of
 DISESEASES OF INSECT CAUSED BY FUNGI- 5

development as well as the transmission of the parasites of malaria significant to human as

the host.

Estimated percentages of malaria cases which are due to the Plasmodium falciparum.

(Op de Beeck, et.al, 2015).

When consideration is made over the types of anopheline which are responsible for

transmission can be sought, and they are three in number. The three are Anopheles gambiae

and An. gambiae complex as well as the An. funestus which belongs to the funestus group. A

close look into the three types of parasites will make the study to have an ability to make a

fruitful conclusion which we will have our argument based on the facts of the biochemistry of

the parasites.

Anopheles funestus group

In the classical realm, there are other similar species and are at an estimation of 9 with

same characters. The members of the general group tend to have a small variation of the
 DISESEASES OF INSECT CAUSED BY FUNGI- 6

nature of the morphological aspect, and that tends to be the little dark mosquitoes. When they

are at a specific stage, there is a change in the development ability and that it tends to be the

slight morphological aspects (Vector Control at Household Level in Lobito Town, 2015). For

one to be able to differentiate the species from others, there is a small distinguishable

morphological difference along the life stages of the larvae. The difference can be found in

the molecular and the general cytogenetical of the species.

Prevalence of malaria cases (Op de Beeck, et.al, 2015).

Literature review

Effects of fungi to mosquitoes

The type of fungi in question will be the entomopathogenic fungi, most of the time it

has been thought to have some different results, and it has been amongst the first organisms

which have shown permeate to the environment and thus relatively to be in use as a malaria
 DISESEASES OF INSECT CAUSED BY FUNGI- 7

control tool. The longevity of the adult mosquito tends to be having the largest impact when

the aspect of the vector capacity, as well as the transmission intensity of the population of the

mosquitoes (Vector Control at Household Level in Lobito Town, 2015). There is a target and

which is the use of bio-control agents to be able to make an insularity that there is a small

resistance of the mosquitoes. In the relative diversion, it does not imply that a biocontrol in

place is employed and then, a development of a deliberate killing of the mosquito.

Biopesticides which can be able to make a follow the predictions can, therefore, be in use the

technology to control mosquitos.

Classification of fungi

The nature of fungi will make a prediction on the chemical composition of the

species, and so the outcome will be different (Valero-Jimnez et.al, 2015). Following the

taxonomic groups then; the fungi pathogenic to insects are as follows; the Zymogomycota,

Chytridiomycota, and Deuteromycetes. In general, some of the fungi has been in use as an

ingredient for mycoinsecticides and mycoacaricides (Valero-Jimnez et.al, 2015). Naturally,

this nature makes the two-species become one of the world most used, and it has a worldwide

distribution on the naturally occurring soils.

Safety and environmental effects of the entomopathogenic fungi

There is a concern over the rise in the use of fungal spores over the potential risks of

health an extension of the interest goes to the aspect when the same is applied indoors. A

consideration of the present risk, there is a little individual opportunistic nature of the

pathogen (Op de Beeck, et.al, 2015). The inability of them to survive in the specified

environment makes it a more tolerant to the human body temperature as it formulates a

substance, the conidia in the mineral oil also the Castrol oil which may give a rise of the

adhesive force of the insects cuticle. In recent laboratory studies, there is a real research
 DISESEASES OF INSECT CAUSED BY FUNGI- 8

which has there is an evidence of an apparent reputation of the fact that the species which are

the Beauveria species are on the surface of the water in a location in Norway this is not a

concern to the underground water (Op de Beeck, et.al, 2015). There is another aspect of

airborne fungi, this is the spore of the common fungi, in turn, the species is abundant indoors

at a different nature of the species, there is an exposure of the fungal spores in more familiar

place which include tropical and the temperate climate.

Diagram illustration (Op de Beeck, et.al, 2015).

There is thought that the applications of the system result in a relative increase in its

exposure levels. About the studies, there is no adverse effect of infection as well as distress

which is in report follow-up in the act of inhalation or rather oral or eye which will be

exposed (Op de Beeck, et.al, 2015). It is not only in these instances but also about the fate of

the subcutaneous or the intraperitoneal injections of the rats and rabbits not forsaking the

mice with dry ether or the conidial suspension. Based on the toxicity of the which have been
 DISESEASES OF INSECT CAUSED BY FUNGI- 9

revealed by the laboratory tests, in various animals thus this fungus has no risk to humans

which will result to the toxic levels of bad aspects to the environment.

Advantages of using B. bassiana and M. anisopliae fungi

In the verge to use the fungi, there is a response which makes the fungi a good aspect

for the experiment. One of the intimate relation which should be known is the that, these

fungi are mostly host specific, and majorly makes it a cost-effective mass production of even

locally. They can be able to live as saprophytes in nature, with this notion it now requires an

external contact to kill an insect, when it is in comparison with the fungi (Povelones, et.al,

2015).. There is evidence which comes out to signify that the slow killing mechanism of the

fungus is imposed on the limited selection of pressure which is apparently applied on the

mosquitoes. Fungi spores are viable as they are of sound quality when taken regarding the

persistence of the virulence of the species when it is in comparison to the M. anisopliae. As a

fact of the chemical composition, there is a high competition of attractive alternative.

(Povelones, et.al, 2015). The resulting experiments carried out makes a good implication of

the need to show that an insecticide-resistance of a mosquito will be affected by the fungus.

Therefore, there is a synergetic explanation to this fact that they are both some fungi of

indoor residual spraying when in comparison.

 DISESEASES OF INSECT CAUSED BY FUNGI- 10

Illustration of movement ((Povelones, et.al, 2015).

Materials and methods

Mosquito culturing

In most cases, the mosquito colonies are in use for the study of the cultures species

and mostly in major research institutions. Majorly the colonies are to be reared at the range of

conditions of 26 2 as well as at an estimate of 80 2% of the relative humidity in place.

The time for the cycles is at 12/12 hours (Jimenez, et.al, 2015). After a successful culture,

there is an excellent outcome of on the hatching eggs, and it is fed to the transfer of the

product to 8 cm diameter plastic bowl which contains distilled water then here hatching will

be facilitated.
 DISESEASES OF INSECT CAUSED BY FUNGI- 11

Entomopathogenic fungi

Culture isolate

The species Metarhizium anisopliae which is dry is in isolation and the two strains

derived are chosen it is because different characteristics can be deployed with a different type

of colonies. When the colonies are received, there is some regular maintenance of them

stored at a 4 degrees dark place until when they are ready to use. (Jimenez, et.al, 2015)

Data analysis

On the aspect of data analysis, there is a different change in the sequential manner of

the nature of the behavior of the fungi and the Plasmodium species regarding its

susceptibility. The calculations which majorly include the assumptions from the cumulative

mean will form a base analysis of the data collected. The standard errors in the overall

distribution come because of the simple contamination and other variants in the composition.

The mean cumulative data of the surviving mosquitoes will be in use to be able to manage the

exact proportion each day, and the replicates are calculated across the graph. The mean is

then obtained from the overall graph and a conclusion made from that perspective.
 DISESEASES OF INSECT CAUSED BY FUNGI- 12

Effects of exposing the female Anopheles funestus to the fungi beauveria bassiana

The resulting effect of the curves from the figures suggests that there is a more than a

relation to the significance of the study (Povelones, et.al, 2015). There is a general role play

of the mortalities differences regarding the rates, and this is that the infected An. Funestus

ranges (p<0.001) which are the females which have an exception of being of Fumoz exposed

for a rather long time of 3 hours are (F=1.76, p=0.18). Thus, in general, they become more

susceptible to the entomopathogenic fungi than the later of Fumoz-R at (p<0.05).

 DISESEASES OF INSECT CAUSED BY FUNGI- 13

Graphs showing results (Povelones, et.al, 2015)

Discussion

The results above have a clear evidence on the permanent change the susceptibility

incurred. There is a random realization of the need to have findings of other researchers. The

modes of the mosquitoes, when exposed to the cohorts of the entomopathogenic fungi, has a

variation of the cases as from the methods which are in use for every investigation (Op de

Beeck, et.al, 2015). In this study an emphasis is placed on the needs of the wanted character

research, all the experiments of this study are carried out by a plastic cage which contains

hair rollers which are again dusted by 100 mg of dry conidia, it is an approach which is

mostly in use to infect the An. Gambiae.

The data acquired is revealing a lot of information about the fungi, the illustration

which is a more prominent id that B. basin is highly pathogenic. The mortality rate of the

general result is 99% which is in achievement in 14 days that is post infection (Heinig et.al,

2015). The 14 days make a representation of an approximate time which is required for
 DISESEASES OF INSECT CAUSED BY FUNGI- 14

Plasmodium parasites to be able to produce the sporozoites in their salivary glands to ensure

a that the female anopheles mosquito to make it potentially infective to human. The rate and

presence of the high mortality rate are because of the infected fungus samples which are the

controls which are a relative attribution to the cuticle damage. Fungal invasion of the general

internal organs, as well as the tissues and the fungal toxin, is in a release (Valero-Jimnez

et.al, 2015). Entomopathogenic fungi are in an invasion process and mostly in their host by

having first making a penetration of the fungal conidia and thus making a representation of

the first barrier of the defence mechanism of the host. The cuticle thinness will be a variation

of different strains of the species. It is thus a direct correlation of the skin thickness as well as

the susceptibility to the insecticide intoxication which has been shown by some general

sclerotized cuticles (Valero-Jimnez et.al, 2015). Which have a variation in size and

considerable stiffness as well as hardness between the insects and having a low and high

variation of resistance to the enzymatic or rather the chemical degradation? In a more

compact manner, the change in the cuticle and the stiffness, as well as the composition, is an

explanation of the party response to the fungal infection which is seen in the different strains

which are in use in the experiment.

However, the saprophytic growth of the cadavers which are drawn from the fungus

samples which were exposed is in use as a confirmation of a fungal infection. In the table,

above makes a reference and shows that the similarity presented is because of the high

sporulation while using the fungi (Mitri et.al, 2015). A supporting strategy is found in the

share of the same saprophytic requirements of the fungi whereby the maximum growth to be

in achievement; the environment needs to have a relative humidity of slightly above 92% as

well as the temperature should be within the range of the given sample level, which is 22-26 0.

Sporulation will now come in as partly as the temperature regulated to the required standards,
 DISESEASES OF INSECT CAUSED BY FUNGI- 15

the relative humidity is in the range of 75 100% which makes a favourable environmental

aspect of optimal sporulation (Roux et.al, 2015). There is a relative measure of this nature

aspect of humidity which exceeds 75% in generally all the experiments, and thus the resultant

cadavers. When random dissection of the presence of spores is made, it is a realization that

the presence of the spores is because of hemocoel of the non-sporulated species individually

bringing out the concept that they die from the fungal infection.

The pattern which is the general mortality difference of the treatment in the cohorts

will make a response to the exposure of the timeline. When we have exposure to the most

likely limiting factor will be the general increase in the successful fungus infection which is

done at the appropriate temperature as well as the relative humidity (Hemalatha et.al, 2015).

The public schedule is 6 hours and 24 hours which are meant for exposure periods; they are

in return a helping factor in nature with which many considerations are made to be able to

deduce a relevant positive result. The considered ratio of increase in of the exposure time will

have an inevitable resultant of a decrease in the survival when it is in exposure for longer

times. However, a study made in the recent times shows that the subsequent increase in the

mortality rate is because of the exposure. The mode of exposure in more dependent on the

entomopathogenic fungus which might be significantly the causative impact of their death.

Most of the variation in the mortality rates are between the An. Funestus strain, and it

has a widespread infection in the final attribution of the strains which may be having the

relation and the functionality of the difference in the psychological variations which are

found between them, and this may have led to the association of the insecticide phenotypes

which are resistance or susceptible (Wilke and Marrelli, 2015). One of the possible ways to

be able to get an answer to the most uncertain prospects is that, and there will increase the

material use as the genetic composition of the organism has changed. Another interaction is to
 DISESEASES OF INSECT CAUSED BY FUNGI- 16

be seen in the insecticides susceptibility to fungal infection which is in suggestions from the

data.

Association of the sensitivity of entomopathogenic fungus infection in Anopheles

finest

The direct effects of the neurotoxic nature of the insecticides on the

entomopathogenic fungus there is a relative classification of the factors which affect

proliferation inside the mosquito which is infected mosquitoes which are not in a study. Thus,

the fungus which could have the interactions with the species for three days' exposure this is

done before it is exposed to permethrin (Vyas et.al, 2015). There is a significant change in the

way the mortality rates increase in the female Anopheles' species. When this happens, a

suggestion is made that; there is a proposal that PBO when exposed there is no enhance the

virulence of the species. The mortality of the number of growth will make a relative range of

50% of the fungal infected mosquitoes are dead, and it is not on a relative scale of the

reduction of PBO. There is a slight difference in the rate at a significant state of p<0.05

(Vector Control at Household Level in Lobito Town, 2015). PBO has no natural insecticidal

effect, of this nature, there is a change in insecticidal effect, this in place it serves a broad

range of enhancement in the toxicity levels which have been in recognition of metabolic

substrates which is as a means of detoxifying the enzymes.

Effect of malaria on human health

Malaria is an infectious disease in consideration, and it is caused by plasmodium

which is carried by the female Anopheles' mosquito. Per the national institute dealing with

allergy and infectious diseases the four species of Plasmodium are in relatively found in the

Africa and the subtropical regions of Asia as well as South and Central America. It is one of

the causes of recurrent symptoms, and its effects are in general a long lasting fatal when it is
 DISESEASES OF INSECT CAUSED BY FUNGI- 17

in attribution in some cases. The common symptoms of the infections are inclusive of some

characterized paroxysms or rather the recurrent attacks which develop in majorly three

stages; this is per the National Institute of infectious diseases (Lindahl and Grace, 2015). To

beginning with the first stage, it is associated with some conversant minor changes the attacks

and chills development. A moderate to a general severe shaking, this may have an

accompaniment by vomiting as well as diarrhea. As the temperature of the body drops, there

is a significant change in the way it grows, after the infectious mosquito bite will now start

multiplying in the cells.

The effect of malaria on the human health will have an inclusion of significant

changes of body functionality. To begin with, Infection with the P. falciparum makes a lead to

a severe disease which has fatal complications (Foumane et.al, 2015). Other effects will be a

result of hemolytic anemia; it is a condition which is a relevant factor which is caused by the

destruction of the blood cells by the Plasmodium microorganisms. It may lead to a

development of a weak body, and this will have a blood count and thus cause pale skin. The

other fatal effects are the cerebral malaria which is a result of a more complicated situation pf

the infected blood going to the brain which then blocks the blood vessels. When this

condition occurs, it may lead to swelling of the brain thus doing severe damages to the brain

functionality (Syrjnen et.al, 2015). Some of other serious problems of malaria will have an

inclusion of dehydration, liver or rather kidney failure as well as breathing problems, in turn,

the spleen may lead to another condition which is an internal hemorrhage. When this is not

controlled, and it spreads then, it leads to meningitis, which is inflammation of the inner

meninges, in other words, the membranes which surround the brain as well as the spinal cord.
 DISESEASES OF INSECT CAUSED BY FUNGI- 18

Effects of malaria to the economy and future research areas

Malaria has a significant impact on the economy as it affects principal activities of the

individual as well as the nation. One of the impacts is that, malaria is not good for business as

the disease is responsible for the employees being absent at work, when this happens, and a

recorded increase in the cases. Will make a resultant of care spending this leads neglecting

the functions of the economic activities, when this happens the economy is affected directly

by the output of the overall production of an organization which then feeds to the national

statistics of economy (Spottiswoode, et.al, 2015). Another consideration of the children from

developing countries as well as women in the rural areas, will be affected by the greatest risk

of death and in turn, when this happens the economy is impacted by an increase in child

mortality, and thus the production of the country goes down significantly (Heinig and

Thomas, 2015). The other aspect is that much of the funds which would be channeled to

industrial growth is being shifted to other areas where is to buy medical facilities to support

the children and women.

Conclusion

In conclusion, a fungus that makes a composition of the immune system about the

mosquitos will make them more susceptible to the spreading of the infection malaria. The

environmental micro-organisms which include the fungi will have a considerable variation in

the regions they are located. Most of the finding which tries and explain the essence of

malaria being bigger about the problematic aspect it causes (Zhao et.al, 2015). Microbes that

have the tendency to block the Anopheles' mosquito from being infected by the parasite

which because malaria have been in identification in the past studies and researchers have

identified that the mosquito will be more infected and thus spread the diseases. It is a more

rampant, and it is naturally common and occurs mainly on a significant, not on the impact of
 DISESEASES OF INSECT CAUSED BY FUNGI- 19

transmission of malaria. Effective measures should be taken to be able to manage the spread

of the infection as it causes many deaths and with a reversal manner a significant damage to

the economy (Sarwar, 2015). When it is not in control, there is a significant drop on the needs

of coming up with effective methods to control the infections, as the micro-organisms keep

on changing and thus become relatively resistance to diseases and treatment. It is controlled

the economy will see significant growth for the need for a stable economy starts from a

healthy nation.
 DISESEASES OF INSECT CAUSED BY FUNGI- 20

References

Carrington, L.B. and Simmons, C.P., 2015. Human to mosquito transmission of dengue

viruses. Protective Immune Response to Dengue Virus Infection and Vaccines: perspectives

from the field to the bench, p.24.

Sarwar, M., 2015. c. Reducing Dengue Fever through Biological Control of Disease Carrier

Aedes Mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae). International Journal of Preventive Medicine

Research, 1(3), pp.161-166.

Zhao, H., Lovett, B. and Fang, W., 2016. Chapter Five-Genetically Engineering

Entomopathogenic Fungi. Advances in genetics, 94, pp.137-163.

Heinig, R.L. and Thomas, M.B., 2015. Interactions between a fungal entomopathogen and

malaria parasites within a mosquito vector. Malaria journal, 14(1), p.1.

Spottiswoode, N., Duffy, P.E. and Drakesmith, H., 2015. Iron, anemia and hepcidin in

malaria. The Importance Of Iron In Pathophysiologic Conditions, p.268.

Syrjnen, L., Kuuslahti, M., Tolvanen, M., Vullo, D., Parkkila, S. and Supuran, C.T., 2015.

The -carbonic anhydrase from the malaria mosquito Anopheles gambiae is highly inhibited

by sulfonamides. Bioorganic & medicinal chemistry, 23(10), pp.2303-2309.

Foumane, V., Besnard, P., Le Mire, J., Fortes, F., Dos Santos, M., Carnevale, P. and Manguin,

S., 2015. First Knowledge, Attitude and Practices (KAP) Survey of Mosquitoes and Malaria

Vector Control at Household Level in Lobito Town (Angola). Journal of Infectious Diseases

& Therapy, 2015.

Lindahl, J.F. and Grace, D., 2015. The consequences of human actions on risks for infectious

diseases: a review. Infection ecology & epidemiology, 5.

 DISESEASES OF INSECT CAUSED BY FUNGI- 21

Vyas, N., Prakash, S. and Dua, K.K., 2015. Metabolites of Metarhizium anisopliae against

Malaria Vectors and Non Target Organisms. Entomology, Ornithology & Herpetology, 4(2),

p.1.

Wilke, A.B.B. and Marrelli, M.T., 2015. Paratransgenesis: a promising new strategy for

mosquito vector control. Parasites & vectors, 8(1), p.1.

Hemalatha, P., Elumalai, D., Janaki, A., Babu, M., Velu, K., Velayutham, K. and Kaleena,

P.K., 2015. Larvicidal activity of Lantana camara aculeate against three important mosquito

species. J. Ent. Zoo. Stu, 3, pp.174-181.

Roux, O., Vantaux, A., Roche, B., Yameogo, K.B., Dabir, K.R., Diabat, A., Simard, F. and

Lefvre, T., 2015, December. Evidence for carry-over effects of predator exposure on

pathogen transmission potential. In Proc. R. Soc. B (Vol. 282, No. 1821, p. 20152430). The

Royal Society.

Mitri, C., Markianos, K., Guelbeogo, W.M., Bischoff, E., Gneme, A., Eiglmeier, K., Holm, I.,

Sagnon, N.F., Vernick, K.D. and Riehle, M.M., 2015. The kdr-bearing haplotype and

susceptibility to Plasmodium falciparum in Anopheles gambiae: genetic correlation and

functional testing. Malaria journal, 14(1), p.1.

Valero-Jimnez, C.A., van Kan, J.A., Koenraadt, C.J., Zwaan, B.J. and Schoustra, S.E.,

Experimental evolution to increase the efficacy of the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria

bassiana against malaria mosquitoes: effects on mycelial growth and virulence. A

multidisciplinary approach to study virulence of the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria

bassiana towards malaria mosquitoes, p.85.

 DISESEASES OF INSECT CAUSED BY FUNGI- 22

Heinig, R.L., Paaijmans, K.P., Hancock, P.A. and Thomas, M.B., 2015. The potential for

fungal biopesticides to reduce malaria transmission under diverse environmental

conditions. Journal of Applied Ecology, 52(6), pp.1558-1566.

Op de Beeck, L., Janssens, L. and Stoks, R., 2016. Synthetic predator cues impair immune

function and make the biological pesticide Bti more lethal for vector mosquitoes. Ecological

Applications, 26(2), pp.355-366.

Povelones, M., Osta, M.A. and Christophides, G.K., 2016. Chapter Eight-The Complement

System of Malaria Vector Mosquitoes. Advances in Insect Physiology, 51, pp.223-242.

Jimenez, C.V., 2016. A multidisciplinary approach to study virulence of the

entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana towards malaria mosquitoes(Doctoral

dissertation, Wageningen University).

Samuel, M., Oliver, S.V., Coetzee, M. and Brooke, B.D., 2016. The larvicidal effects of black

pepper (Piper nigrum L.) and piperine against insecticide resistant and susceptible strains of

Anopheles malaria vector mosquitoes. Parasites & vectors, 9(1), p.1.

FAAP, F., 2016. Forecasted Impact of Climate Change on Infectious Disease and Health

Security in Hawaii by 2050.

Naseem, S., Malik, M.F. and Munir, T., 2016. Mosquito management: A review.

Killeen, G.F., Govella, N.J., Lwetoijera, D.W. and Okumu, F.O., 2016. Most outdoor malaria

transmission by behaviourally-resistant Anopheles arabiensis is mediated by mosquitoes that

have previously been inside houses. Malaria journal, 15(1), p.1.

Konrad, B.P., 2015. On the dynamics of HIV and malaria infection: insights from

mathematical models (Doctoral dissertation, University of British Columbia).

 DISESEASES OF INSECT CAUSED BY FUNGI- 23

Kibria, G., 2016. Why are women in developing countries more vulnerable to climate

Change. Climate change implications on women with reference to food, water, energy, health,

and disaster security. 10p. ResearchGate Online Publication. DOI, 10.

DAlessandro, S., Tullio, V. and Giribaldi, G., 2015. Beyond Lysozyme: Antimicrobial

Peptides Against Malaria. In Human and Mosquito Lysozymes(pp. 91-101). Springer

International Publishing.

SA, K., 2015. Virulence of Metarhizium anisopliae soil and commercial isolates against

Culex quinquefasciatus Say, a vector of Bancroftian filariasis, and Aedes aegypti L., a vector

of dengue fever.

u Mohammed, B.R., Abdulsalam, Y.M. and Deeni, Y.Y., 2015. Insecticide resistance to

Anopheles spp. mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) in Nigeria: A.

Westby, K.M., Muturi, E.J. and Juliano, S.A., 2016. How do Nutritional Stress and La Crosse

Virus Infection Interact? Tests for Effects on Willingness to Blood Feed and Fecundity in

Aedes albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae). Journal of medical entomology, 53(1), pp.166-171.

Angler-Rodrguez, Y.I., Blumberg, B.J., Dong, Y., Sandiford, S.L., Pike, A., Clayton, A.M.

and Dimopoulos, G., 2016. A natural Anopheles-associated Penicillium chrysogenum

enhances mosquito susceptibility to Plasmodium infection. Scientific Reports, 6.

Emidi, B., Kabula, B., Tungu, P., Massaga, J. and Kisinza, W., Insecticide resistance testing in

malaria vectors in Tanzania: Challenges in mosquito sampling and rearing under field

conditions. Rwanda Journal, 2(1), pp.60-64.

Vyas, N., Dua, K.K. and Prakash, S., 2015. Larvicidal Activity of Metabolites of Metarhizium

anisopliae against Aedes and Culex Mosquitoes. Entomology, Ornithology & Herpetology:

Current Research, 2015.

 DISESEASES OF INSECT CAUSED BY FUNGI- 24

Lafferty, K.D. and Mordecai, E.A., 2016. The rise and fall of infectious disease in a warmer

world. F1000Research, 5.

Mohammed, A., 2015. Assessment of Malaria Vector Control Program in Kosti

Administrative Unit-White Nile State-2008 (Doctoral dissertation, uofk).