Wheat: The Raw Material

CHAPTER 1
Wheat: The Raw Material
The flour miller is the first wheat user who is affected by the quality of
wheat. It is estimated that 25% of the flour quality is determined by the
milling technology, mill adjustment, and environmental conditions in the
mill, and 75% by the quality of the wheat. The miller evaluates incoming
raw material for its price and quality. Price is dependent on factors such as
supply, demand, and transportation costs. In the trade, quality is mainly
based on wheat grading and factors such as protein level and any damage to
the wheat. Following the wheat purchase, the miller has the power to evalu-
ate, select, segregate, prepare, and blend wheat mixes for milling. The
miller has two ultimate aims: first, to supply the customer with the specified
product quality and, second, to efficiently separate the three main parts of
the wheat kernel (bran, germ, and endosperm), the economic values of
which are related to their purity.
One of the major contributors to variance in quality is wheat variety.
Wheat is cultivated on all continents except Antarctica, and about 30,000
wheat varieties of 14 species are grown throughout the world. However, only
about 1,000 varieties are of commercial significance. Breads and other prod-
ucts made from flour reflect the characteristics typical of the wheat grown in
various parts of the world. Emigration, changes in demographics, changing
living styles, and, in many cases, supplying wheat-deficient areas are the main
reasons for the transport of wheat from one side of the globe to the other.
Wheat is harvested globally in unbroken continuity throughout the year.
Table 1-1 shows the approximate harvest months for some of the major
wheat- producing areas.
More than 500 wheat varieties are available in the United States, where
a wheat breeder can certify a new wheat variety and sell it on the market.
Wheat classification presently is based on a system established in 1916
(U.S. Congress, 1916) and put into effect in 1917. Descriptors such as brush
size, germ angle, cheek angle, kernel shape, seed coat texture, kernel color,
1
2 CHAPTER 1
and kernel vitreousness are used for classification. However, none of these
characteristics is directly related to milling and baking quality. This has led
to criticism, and currently the wheat-classification system in the United
States is under revision.
In some countries, the number of wheat varieties on the market is fixed.
For instance, in Canada, the Wheat Board certifies the varieties that farmers
can grow. The different varieties grown by farmers are brought together
from large areas and blended by local elevators before the bulk of the wheat
reaches the mill elevator for storage. The miller evaluates the incoming
wheat and segregates it to different storage bins. However, the wheat han-
dling system now also provides identity-preserved (IP) wheat, i.e., wheat
that is segregated during growing and harvesting, kept in separate bins, and
transported separately from harvest to milling because of specific qualities
or milling objectives. The extra efforts required to segregate IP wheat usu-
ally result in a premium market price.
Universally, a wheat buyers first concerns are the cost and sanitation of
the raw material. In addition, the buyer must consider the following end-use
quality factors: moisture level, percent flour extraction, test weight (TW),
kernel size, presence of impurities, percent of damaged kernels, protein
content, mycotoxin level, pesticide residue, and end-product functionality.
Not all of these factors are considered in the various wheat-classification
TABLE 1-1
Harvest Months in Some of the Major Wheat-Producing Areas
Month Area
January Argentina, Uruguay, Chile, and New Zealand
February Upper Egypt and Southern India
March Egypt, Libya, and India
April India, Lower Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Syria, Southern Morocco, and Mexico
May Algeria, Tunis, Morocco, Central and Southern Asia, and, in the
United States, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Louisiana
June Italy, Spain, Portugal, Greece, Turkey, Asia Minor, Central China,
Southern France, and, in the United States, North Carolina,
Georgia, Arkansas, Texas, Virginia, Indiana, Illinois, Kentucky,
Tennessee, Oklahoma, Missouri and Kansas
July France, Austria, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia,
Switzerland, Southern Russia, North China, Japan, Southern
Germany, and, in the United States, New York, Pennsylvania,
Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Missouri, Nebraska, Kansas,
Colorado, and Oregon
August Southern Canada, Central Russia, Great Britain, Germany, Belgium,
Holland, Denmark, Poland, Manchuria, and, in the United States,
Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, Oregon, and
Washington
September Sweden, Norway, Finland, Northern Russia, Canada, Siberia, and, in
the United States, North Dakota, Montana
October Northern Scandinavia, Northern Russia, Northern Canada, and Alaska
November Peru, Brazil, and Northern Argentina
December Argentina, Australia, and South Africa
WHEAT: THE RAW MATERIAL 3
systems used for trading throughout the world. While wheat milling tech-
nology is becoming similar in different parts of the world as a result of
knowledge transfer, grading and evaluation of raw material is still inade-
quate. The lack of an internationally acceptable grading system causes lack
of uniformity in shipments, confusion between suppliers, and dissatisfaction
among customers. Uniformity among shipments will become more impor-
tant as processing technologies become more sophisticated and additional
quality factors are considered in wheat grading.
In wheat-growing countries, the millers selection of wheat depends upon
the market and upon the location of the mill relative to the wheat supply. A
mill located in a soft wheat-growing region usually processes soft wheat.
However, Tembo et al (1999) used a decision-making model that confirmed
the traditional conclusion that mills should be located near flour users rather
than in wheat-production areas. Wheat-importing countries tend to have mills
that process many different classes of wheat. Milling several classes requires a
more sophisticated milling operation to efficiently process the wheat.
The Wheat Kernel

A kernel of wheat is a dry, one-seeded fruit. Its color is one of the most
constant variety characteristics; length and endosperm texture are the other
two. Wheats are classed as white or red, with the exception of some
Abyssinian and durum varieties. The dark color of the red wheat is primar-
ily from pigments in the seed coat, but it is influenced also by the texture
and vitreousness of the endosperm and the level of pericarp transparency.
The endosperm length is related to variety and to the location of the kernel
in the spikelet during development. Levi and Anderson (1950) studied the
protein content of individual wheat kernels on a wheat head. The protein
content of kernels within a wheat head showed a variation of 2.7% and had
a standard deviation of 0.6%. The standard deviation of protein content for
spikelets within heads was about 1.1% (each spikelet contains one to three
kernels, Fig. 1-1). Protein contents for spikelets tended to decrease toward
Fig. 1-1. Development of a wheat head. (Adapted from Smith, 1945)

4 CHAPTER 1
the top in about the top third of the head; the top two spikelets of each head
generally had decidedly lower protein content than the remaining spikelets.
The unique morphology of the wheat kernel presents a technical chal-
lenge in the process of grinding it to flour. This is because the kernel has a
surface crease that, in commonly grown varieties, extends inward nearly to
or beyond the center of the kernel. Evers (1970) studied the creation of the
crease in a developing wheat kernel from the second day of endosperm
development until maturity. He suggested that thick-walled cells on the
developing wheat kernels ventral side are less active meristematically than
the other peripheral cells. Hence, in the central region, all or most of the
starchy endosperm cells originate by division on the dorsal side, whereas, in
the lateral regions, divisions occur from all areas of the peripheral layer.
Mabille and Abecassis (2003) suggested a method for modeling the
morphology of the wheat kernel from which milling yield can be predicted
better than from the hectoliter weight. The model is based on five parame-
ters: grain length, thickness, width, crease depth, and a parameter describ-
ing the furrow shape.
Endosperm
The wheat endosperm contains, on average, about 30,000 cells that vary in
size, shape, and composition of starch granules and protein depending on their
location in the kernel (Ziegler, 1969). Table 1-2 shows the various constituents
of the wheat kernel and their specific gravity. Starch, protein, and bran content
are all important in determining the potential flour yield from the wheat. The
amount of flour that can be extracted from the kernel depends mostly on the
percentage of endosperm. Heavier kernels with large endosperm contain more
starch and protein and have the potential to yield more flour. The protein and
mineral contents of the endosperm follow a pattern. For protein, distribution in
the endosperm is the lowest in the center, with a gradient of increase in protein
content through the endosperm to the bran coat (Morris et al, 1945). The
gradient in mineral content (analytically named ash because it is what is left
TABLE 1-2
Specific Gravity of the Wheat Kernel Constituents
Substance Specific Gravity
Starch 1.53
Sugar 1.60
Cellulose 1.53
Water 1.00
Fats 0.94
Gluten 1.297
Mineral content 2.50
Air 0.001293
after incineration of the endosperm or other parts of the wheat kernel) also
increases from the center to the outer layers of endosperm, but it is not
identical in all wheats (Hinton, 1959).
Bran
The pericarp and the outermost tissues of the wheat kernel, including large
portions of the aleurone layer, compose what is known commercially as
bran. The pericarp (fruit coat) consists of two layers. The outer pericarp is
made up of the epidermis (epicarp), hypodermis, and remnants of thin-walled
cells. The inner pericarp is made up of intermediate-cell, cross-cell, and tube-
cell layers. The pericarp envelops the seed and is fused with the seed coat,
which consists of the testa (or episperm), the pigment strand, and the hyaline
layers (MacMaster et al, 1971). Together, they form two protective layers
around the kernels interior components, the endosperm and the germ. When
tissues beneath the seed coat are exposed, moisture, mold, etc. gain access to
them more readily than when the seed coat and fruit coat are intact.
There is no natural line of cleavage between the pericarp and the seed coat
layers that envelop the germ and starchy endosperm. This fact accounts for
some of the difficulties encountered in separating the two during flour milling.
The pericarp and the seed coat layers form the bran, which is separated
during the milling process. The adjacent layer, the aleurone, which is actually
part of the endosperm, normally remains attached to the bran during
conventional milling. The mean thickness of bran at ordinary moisture content
(1318%) was found to be 67 m regardless of the type of wheat; that of the
aleurone layer was 3036 m (Crewe and Jones, 1951). The total bran is
about 14.5% of the whole wheat; a more detailed breakdown is epidermis
3.9%, cross-cell layers 0.9%, testa 0.6%, and hyaline and aleurone 9.0%. The
ash content of bran is known to be 1020 times that of the endosperm.
In the classical milling process, using rolls to separate the endosperm
from the bran, the miller tries to achieve minimal abrasion or damage to the
bran layers. The goal is to keep the bran as whole as possible and in its
original thickness, so that certain spots are not weakened and likely to split
during milling.
Germ
The germ is structurally a separate entity of the kernel; therefore, the
separation of germ from endosperm should require no breaking of the endo-
sperm cell walls. The wheat germ contains the embryo and the scutellum,
which are separated from the endosperm by the epithelial layer. The embryo
draws materials for initial germination and growth from the endosperm,
through the epithelial layer. Germination is initiated by the activation of the
6 CHAPTER 1
germ enzymes via heat and moisture. These enzymes are of two main types:
proteolytic, or protein-liquefying, and amylolytic, or sugar-producing. Due to
the action of the latter type, some of the starch in the proximity of the germ is
changed to sugar and is used to feed the germ and permit growth (Scott,
1951). Fleming and Johnson (1964) recognized a gibberellin-like hormone
secreted from the embryo that effects the formation of -amylase in the
endosperm during the first three or four days of germination.
The germ, usually about 23% of the kernel by weight, is partly embed-
ded in the endosperm at the base of the kernel. It is rich in oil and protein.
The germ is composed of two major parts, the embryonic axis, which at
germination develops into the seedling, and the scutellum, which nourishes
it. The embryonic axis is composed of the shoot (plumule), which points
toward the brush end of the grain, and the primary root, which points
toward the base. Protective sheaths cover these delicate parts; the coleoptile
sheathes the plumule, and the coleorhiza covers the primary root. This root,
the projecting lower tip of the germ, is especially vulnerable to mechanical
injury during harvesting and handling and is often broken, exposing germ
tissue. There is a direct relationship between the length of the embryo
projection and the amount of mechanical damage done to the embryo. The
embryo projection and shape of the area around the germ also affect the
ease of separating the germ from the rest of the kernel.
The germ separated in the commercial mill is actually the embryonic
axis of the wheat kernel; the softer and less-rigid scutellum is left attached
to the bran.
Brush
At the kernel end opposite the germ, there is a brush or cluster of
hairs. Wheat varieties differ materially in the size of the brush. The kernel
hairs, which are extensions of the pericarp, are about 1015 m in diameter
and 0.5 mm long (MacMasters et al, 1971). Undesirable materials are some-
times entangled in them. Depending on the milling practices used, the hairs
might end up in the flour. Intensive scouring of wheat during cleaning stages
usually removes the kernel hairs. A study by Keenan (1923) indicated that
flours made from purified middlings material showed a low hair count, while
flours originating in the breaks showed a higher hair count.
Wheat Grading
Advances are being made in research and regulations to grade wheat on
parameters that would exhibit its trading value and processing qualities.
Grading terms and methods are still not defined by an international stan-
dard, although processing equipment and systems are similar, and end usage
qualities are expressed with the same terms. Many trade and processing
problems would be eliminated if the same parameters and methods were
used for wheat grading and evaluation internationally. It is just a matter of
time before open markets will force wheat producers, traders, millers, and
wheat flour end users to create a global method of wheat grading.
Professionals in producing, trading, grading, and processing should identify
the factors of importance for different wheats. For example, durum wheat
for the production of bright, speck-free semolina for pasta is processed
differently from common wheat and should also be graded differently on
global standards that ensure quality. In the United States and other major
wheat-producing countries, the grain grading system is under constant revi-
sion. Proposals for change are made public in the Federal Register, allow-
ing 60 days after publication for comments before the final decision is
made.
Wheat is bought in the cash market based on a sample shown to the
buyer. In the United States, there are eight classes for wheat: durum, hard
red spring, hard red winter, soft red winter, hard white, soft white,
unclassed, and mixed. Unclassed wheat is any variety of wheat that is not
classifiable under other criteria provided in the wheat standards. This class,
which has no subclasses, includes any wheat other than red or white in
color. Mixed wheat is any mixture of wheat that consists of less than 90%
of one class and more than 10% of another class or combination of classes
that meet the definition of wheat (GIPSA, 1995).
In the grain exchange or in an export transaction, wheat is evaluated
according to official grades. Table 1-3 shows the combined factors that
determine the grade of wheat in commercial channels in the United States.
The wheat grade is determined in the United States according to various
factors, on a sample free from dockage. Wheat specifications change con-
tinuously as a result of new variety development and trade and quality
requirements. Websites listed at the end of the chapter and other informa-
tion sources should be used to follow the changes in grading procedures.
Wheat Sampling
Very large quantities of wheat can be transferred today with the
equipment available in ships and elevators. One of the greatest challenges of
modern wheat handling and milling operations is the rapid evaluation of
incoming wheat, so that the wheat can be directed to the appropriate bin. A
representative sample must be collected, weighed, and tested in a matter of
minutes. The wheat can be evaluated objectively when a representative sam-
ple of at least 2,000 g from the entire lot is available. Sampling can be a
constant source of error in all methods of wheat evaluation; therefore,
procedures should be adopted according to official standards. In the United
8 CHAPTER 1
States, and in some other countries, wheat-grading agencies use the same
sampling devices and procedures as the U.S. Grain Inspection, Packers,
and Stockyards Administration (GIPSA) for official inspection.
The probe is the best tool for obtaining a sample from a truck or rail car
awaiting unloading. To achieve accurate wheat mixing, the elevator operator
TABLE 1-3
U. S. Grades and Grade Requirements for Wheata
Grades U.S. Nos.
Grading Factors 1 2 3 4 5
Minimum Pound Limits of

Test weight
Hard red spring wheat or white club wheat,
lb/bu 58.0 57.0 55.0 53.0 50.0
All other classes and subclasses, lb/bu 60.0 58.0 56.0 54.0 51.0
Maximum Percent Limits of
Defects
Damaged kernels
Heat (part of total) 0.2 0.2 0.5 1.0 3.0
Total 2.0 4.0 7.0 10.0 15.0
Foreign material 0.4 0.7 1.3 3.0 5.0
Shrunken and broken kernels 3.0 5.0 8.0 12.0 20.0
Totalb 3.0 5.0 8.0 12.0 20.0
Wheat of other classesc
Contrasting classes 1.0 2.0 3.0 10.0 10.0
Totald 3.0 5.0 10.0 10.0 10.0
Stones 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Maximum Count Limits of
Other material
Animal filth 1 1 1 1 1
Castor beans 1 1 1 1 1
Crotalaria seeds 2 2 2 2 2
Glass 0 0 0 0 0
Stones 3 3 3 3 3
Unknown foreign substance 3 3 3 3 3
Totale 4 4 4 4 4
Insect-damaged kernels in 100 g 31 31 31 31 31
U.S. Sample grade

Wheat that:
(a) Does not meet the requirements for U.S. Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; or
(b) Has a musty, sour, or commercially objectionable foreign odor (except smut or garlic
odor) or
(c) Is heating or of distinctly low quality.
a
Source: Grain Inspection, Packers and Stockyard Administration (1995).
b
Includes damaged kernels (total), foreign material, and shrunken and broken kernels.
c
Unclassed wheat of any grade may contain not more than 10.0% of wheat of other classes.
d
Includes contrasting classes.
e
Includes any combination of animal filth, castor beans, crotalaria seeds, glass, stones, or
unknown foreign substance.
or the miller should install a sampler at the end of the mixing process,
before the wheat reaches the ship hold or the mill cleaning house.
Systems have been suggested that evaluate samples automatically using
a video camera to record the view of a spread-out sample and compare the
different materials observed to a given standard. The standard is based on
recorded views of foreign materials and dockage, as well as the data calcu-
lated from that material. The system, which can run a 50-g sample in 23
min, operates without human intervention (Conrads, 1995).
Dockage
Dockage, or nonwheat material, is separated from the sample using the
Carter-Day Dockage Tester, a machine (Fig. 1-2) that is set differently for
each kind of wheat. Dockage has never been an official part of the grade in
the United States. Dockage is traditionally deducted from wheat sale, not by
law, but rather as a long-standing practice in the trade. Usually, wheat buy-
ers would specify in the tender or contract the maximum dockage that
would be acceptable.
Fig. 1-2. Carter-Day Dockage Tester officially used by the Federal Grain Inspection
Service to separate the dockage before grading. (Courtesy of Carter Day International,
Inc.)
10 CHAPTER 1
Grading Factors
Below is a discussion of the grading factors for wheat and their relation-
ship to milling and the resultant flour quality. Additional parameters related
to wheat quality are described in Chapter 2.
Test Weight
Test weight (TW) is a factor that has served the grain-processing indus-
try for a century. It began about 1890 with the early trading of wheat from
the Mississippi Valley to East Coast mills. To the miller in the past, the
weight of a specific volume of grain, the bushel weight, was a rough guide
to the amount of flour that the wheat might be expected to produce. The
weight of a specific volume has its practical use today to estimate the
weight or content of a ships load, a rail car, or a storage bin. For this pur-
pose, it will be used for many years to come. However, for processing pur-
poses, it is not accurate enough to accommodate the needs of the milling
industry, which uses sophisticated equipment to improve efficiencies and
profit margins.
In the United States, TW is expressed in terms of pounds per Winchester
bushel (2,150.42 in.3 capacity) as determined on a dockage-free test portion
of the original wheat sample using an approved device in accordance with
instructions in the GIPSA manual. A test weight determination procedure is
also described in Approved Method 55-10 (AACC, 2000). In metric meas-
urements, it is the weight, in kilograms, of a hectoliter of wheat. The proce-
dures used to determine the hectoliter weight of wheat are different from
those used to determine the bushel weight (Fig. 1-3). They differ with
regard to quantity of sample used, the dimensions of the measurement ket-
tle, the grain-drop procedure, the pack factor, the means of striking excess
grain from the kettle and, consequently, the measured results. Therefore,
formulas were developed, instead of the previously used factor, to predict
the hectoliter weight from the TW (Orr, 1997). For durum wheat, the
following formula could be used:
MBD = [1.292 (TW)] + 0.630
To predict the hectoliter weight of all other wheat except durum, the follow-
ing formula could be used:
MBD = [1.292 (TW)] + 1.419
where MBD = metric bulk densities, expressed in units of kg/hL, and TW =

customary test weights, expressed in units of lb/bu. Prediction is based on
the use of a 1-L chrondrometer apparatus.
The TW of wheat is not always an indication of the amount of flour that
should be extracted from a certain quantity of wheat. When wheat varieties
and classes drawn from the same locations are used in a mill blend, the TW
may be considered as one of the factors in determining the potential yield.
This is not true when widely varying varieties and classes of wheats are
used and the percentage of types is changed. TW determination is affected
Fig. 1-3. Instruments to measure test weight (A) and hectoliter weight (B).Test
weight scale and filling hopper. (A, Courtesy of Seedburo Equipment Co.; B,
courtesy of Buhler Corp.)
12 CHAPTER 1
by the following conditions: vibrations in the testing lab, various levels of

foreign material as well as deformed or broken wheat, moisture level of the
wheat, wheat shape and roughness, ambient conditions, operator efficiency,
and equipment conditions. One of the big disadvantages of using TW in
todays trade and processing is that the determined weight cannot be cor-
rected to a dry or fixed-moisture basis.
Minimum TWs to meet a certain grade for hard red spring wheat and
white club wheat are lower than those for all other classes and subclasses.
Heat Damage
Heat-damaged wheat is specified by the GIPSA as kernels, pieces of
wheat kernels, and other grains that are materially discolored and damaged
by heat and remain in the sample after removal of dockage and shrunken
and broken kernels. As shown in Table 1-3, not more than 0.2% (by
weight) of heat-damaged kernels is allowed in grade No. 1 of hard red win-
ter (HRW) wheat.
The chief causes of heat damage to wheat are unfavorable weather
conditions at the time of harvest and faulty methods of handling the crop
during the period from harvest to marketing. The conditions under which
the wheat is stored on the farm, in the country elevator, or in the terminal
elevator are important factors affecting heat damage to wheat. Heat damage
can be caused by cutting wheat when it is too green or too wet and storing it
in bulk without first reducing the moisture content to below 12.5%. Under
damaging circumstances, rapid respiration takes place in the kernel, and
heat develops. The action is accelerated as the temperature rises. Depending
on the intensity of the heat developed, the wheat kernel becomes darkened
in color, the gluten is weakened, or the wheat becomes unfit for human
consumption.
Results of tests performed with samples of HRW, hard red spring
(HRS), durum, white, and soft red winter wheat with various degrees of
heat damage have indicated that wheat discolored to the shade known as
skin-burned is of inferior milling quality (Coleman and Rothger, 1927).
Chemical analyses show that the flour milled from badly discolored wheats
does not contain as much crude protein as the flour milled from sound
(undamaged) wheat. Also, a higher ash content is associated with the ker-
nels showing the greatest amount of discoloration. This characteristic can be
observed during milling, where bran from discolored samples chips rather
than flakes off and is associated with less efficient separation from the
endosperm.
Compared with the bread made from samples of sound wheat, bread
made from a skin-burned sample showed a reduction of 30% in loaf vol-
ume, whereas bread made from mahogany-colored kernels suffered a reduc-
tion in loaf volume of approximately 50% (Coleman and Rothger, 1927).
The texture of the crumb, the shade of the crumb, and the color of the
crumb in the bread made from samples of wheat with skin-burned and
mahogany discoloration were progressively inferior to those found in bread
made from the sound sample.
Heat-damaged kernels also affect farina and semolina quality by caus-
ing high speck counts. Millers should limit these kernels to a maximum of
four per 100 g of wheat for milling of farina and semolina.
Shrunken and Broken Kernels
Shrunken and broken kernels are defined by GIPSA as the matter that
can be removed from a test portion of the dockage-free sample by use of an
approved device in accordance with procedures described in the Grain
Inspection Handbook (FGIS, 1989). The approved device is the 0.064-
3/8-in. oblong-hole sieve.
The term shrunken is the same as shriveled, the term used in some
countries. Shrunken kernels may be distinguished from sound kernels,
regardless of size and texture, by their low content of endosperm, low spe-
cific gravity, and high ratio of length to width (Simmons and Meredith,
1979). The kernel width may be used as a simple field technique to estimate
kernel weight. In normal grains, kernel weight gives a useful prediction of
flour yield, but this is not applicable to frost-shrunken grains. Frosting may
prevent or slow the processes of pericarp degradation, so frosted grains have
a greater relative amount of bran. Schwimmer (1947) stated that shriveled
kernels display a disproportionately higher amylase concentration. The
effect of percent broken and shrunken wheat kernels on flour yield is
summarized in Table 1-4. For example, addition of 3% broken kernels to
the wheat fed to the first break caused an average reduction of 0.3% and
0.8% in the laboratory and the commercial mill, respectively.
Foreign Material
Foreign material in a wheat sample is defined as all matter other than
wheat that remains in the sample after the removal of dockage and shrunken
and broken kernels. The foreign material content varies among wheat-grow-
TABLE 1-4
Reduction in % Flour Extraction as a Result of Percent
Broken and Shrunken Kernels in the Wheat Mixa
Added Broken Added Shrunken
3% 6% 9% 3% 6% 9%
Laboratory average 0.3 0.6 1.0 0.6 1.6 1.8
Commercial mill average 0.8 1.7 3.3 1.1 4.2 6.3
a
Source: Schfer (1956).
14 CHAPTER 1
ing locations and is dependent on harvest and grain-handling methods. The

variations in foreign material content in wheat loads demand the millers
alertness and continuous examination of results in order to make the necessary
adjustments and screen changes in the cleaning house equipment.
Total Defects
Total defects is the sum of total kernel damage, foreign material, and
shrunken and broken kernels (Table 1-3). To be within a grade, the sum of
total defects cannot exceed the limits shown in the table.
Wheat of Other Classes
Wheat of other classes has some significance to the operative miller.
Limits of Wheat of Other Classes are divided into two categories: Con-
trasting Classes and Total of Other Classes.
Contrasting classes are regarded as follows: 1) durum wheat, hard white
wheat, soft white wheat, and unclassed wheat in the classes hard red spring
wheat and hard red winter wheat; 2) hard red spring wheat, hard red winter
wheat, hard white wheat, soft red winter wheat, soft white wheat, and
unclassed wheat in the class durum wheat; 3) durum wheat and unclassed
wheat in the class soft red winter wheat; and 4) durum wheat, hard red
spring wheat, hard red winter wheat, soft red winter wheat, and unclassed
wheat in the classes hard white wheat and soft white wheat.
Total of Other Classes refers to the maximum allowed amount of wheats
from the contrasting classes as well as from other classes that are not regarded
as contrasting. For example, in the first case above, soft red winter wheat,
which is not regarded as a contrasting class to hard red spring and hard red
winter wheats, counts toward the allowed maximum Total of Other Classes.
The following are other special grade requirements, some of which
interfere with the milling process and final products: Ergoty wheat is wheat
that contains ergot at more than 0.05% by weight. Garlicky wheat con-
tains, in a 1,000-g portion, more than two green garlic bulblets or an equiva-
lent quantity of dry or partly dry bulblets. Light smutty wheat has an
unmistakable odor of smut or contains, in a 250-g portion, smut balls, por-
tions of smut balls, or spores of smut in excess of a quantity equal to five
smut balls, but not in excess of a quantity equal to 30 smut balls of average
size. Smutty wheat contains, in a 250-g portion, smut balls, portions of
smut balls, or spores of smut in excess of a quantity equal to 30 smut balls
of average size. A representative sample (~500 g) of infested wheat
contains two or more live weevils, or one live weevil and one or more other
live insects injurious to stored grain, or two or more live insects injurious to
stored grain. Treated wheat has been scoured, limed, washed, sulfured, or
treated in such a manner that the true quality is not reflected by either the
numerical grades or the U.S. Sample grade designation alone.
Canadian Grading System

In Canada, the Canadian Grain Commission (CGC) is responsible for
setting grain standards for wheat. The Commission establishes export
standard samples for a number of grades. The export standard for each
grade, established each year, is a mixture of three parts of wheat, equal to
the average quality of the grade for the respective crop year, and one part of
wheat equal to the minimum quality permitted by the basic grade. All
Canadian varieties are registered and are equal to reference varieties of
acceptable end-use quality. Non-registered varieties are referred to as wheat
of other classes. Determination of excess dockage in graded wheat samples,
using the Carter-Day Dockage Tester, designates them as not commercially
clean.
The Canadian grading system lists several classes of wheat, subdivided
into Canada Western and Canada Eastern. Spring wheats include Canada
Western Red Spring (CWRS), in which there are three subclasses; Canada
Western Amber Durum (CWAD), which has four subclasses; Canada West-
ern Soft White Spring (CWSWS), in which there are three subclasses; Can-
ada Prairie Spring White (CPSW), with two subclasses; and Canada Utility,
with two subclasses. Canadian winter wheats include Canada Western Red
Winter (CWRW), in which there are two subclasses; Canada Eastern Red
Winter (CERW), which has five subclasses; and Canada Eastern White
Winter (CEWW), with five subclasses. Feed wheat could be any variety of
nondurum wheat.
Contrasting classes. This term refers to color and applies only to the
grading of red spring, utility, red winter, red and white prairie spring and
eastern winter wheats such as soft white spring in red spring wheat or
amber durum in red winter wheat.
Wheat of other classes or nonregistered varieties. When the percentage
by weight of other classes or nonregistered varieties exceeds the tolerance
specified for the lowest schedule grade, samples are graded Wheat,
C.W./C.E. Feed.
Australian Grading System

The Australian Wheat Board annually issues receiving standards and
dockage schedules that list grade specifications and tolerances for Austra-
lian standard white, Australian general purpose, and Australian feed wheat.
The Australian wheat is classified into classes that fall into two categories:
milling and nonmilling wheats. The milling wheat group includes Austra-
lian prime hard, Australian standard white, Australian soft wheat, and
Australian durum wheat. They are further classified into grades based on
the state of origin, protein content, grain hardness, milling quality, and
16 CHAPTER 1
dough properties. Two additional classes, Australian general-purpose wheat

and Australian feed wheat, contain grains that do not conform to the stan-
dards of milling wheat in term of test weight, weather damage, levels of
unmillable material, or inclusion of foreign matter. The minimum falling
number is 300 sec, 350 sec, and 300 sec for Australian standard white,
Australian prime hard, and Australian hard wheats, respectively. Only
Australian hard wheat from northern New South Wales and Queensland is
allowed a minimum falling number value of 250 sec. The maximum mois-
ture content of Australian wheat is 12.5%. The maximum allowed unmilla-
ble material other than wheat is 1% for Australian standard white, 1% for
Australian prime hard, 1% for Australian hard, 1% for Australian soft, 2%
for Australian general purpose, and 3% Australian feed wheat.
Russian Grading System

All member states in the Commonwealth of Independent States continue
to operate the state standards (Gosudarstvennye Standarty, or GOST) estab-
lished under the Soviet Union. GOST standards cover Food Wheat (OST
VKS 7064); Strong Wheat, Requirements for State Grains (GOST 9354-
67); Durum Wheat, Requirements for State Grains (GOST 9353-67); and
Wheat for Provision Distribution (OST VKS 7006) (State Standards of the
USSR, 1971). The Russian wheat is described in five classes and their sub-
classes, based on their color and vitreous structure. The classes include
I. Red-grain spring (subclasses: vitreous dark-red spring, red spring,
light-red spring, yellowish red spring, and yellow spring)
II. Spring durum (subclasses: dark-amber spring [durum], light-amber
spring [durum])
III. White-grain spring (subclasses: vitreous white-grain spring, white-
grain spring)
IV. Red-grain winter (subclasses: vitreous dark-red winter, red winter,
light-red winter, yellowish red winter, yellow winter)
V. White-grain winter
In general, all classes and subclasses are typified with characteristics
inherent in leading designated varieties.
The grading system, which contains five grades, is based on factors such
as wet gluten, hectoliter weight, impurities, and wheat defects. (An addi-
tional Extra grade is designated by GOST 9353-90 mainly for its high
gluten content.) The maximum moisture level is 15.5% for grades 13 and
16.0% for grades 4 and 5. Zelinskiy et al (2002) reviewed the issue of wet
wheat gluten as a quality and grading factor in Russia. The minimal wet-
gluten-content values for bread wheat, according to the GOST 9353-90, are
36, 32, 28, 23, and 18% for wheat grades Extra to grade 4, respectively. No
minimal wet-gluten content is designated for wheat grade 5. Grades differ
also by the gluten quality, which is determined using the gluten deformation
index. For example, a value between 43 and 77 is determined as good for
the grade Extra. The minimum falling number for grade Extra to grade 2 is
above 200 sec. The falling number value for grade 3 is 200251 and for grade
4 is 80150. Specific to this grading system is the effect of kernel size. The
maximum percentage of kernels allowed through a 1.70 20 mm sieve is 5%
for grades 1 and 2, 7% for grade 3, 8% for grade 4, and 10% for grade 5.
Originally, the GOST grading system was not designed for international
trade. Logistics, seed availability, farming methods, production costs (about
nine times higher than in other major grain-producing countries), adequate
storage facilities (postharvest losses up to 25%), and traditional bread
requirements existing in different parts of the country created a situation in
which the GOST standards are not implemented in all transactions.
European Grades
The European wheat grading standards are based on the approach of the
International Association of Cereal Chemistry (ICC) and have been
accepted as the European Economic Community (EEC) official method
(EEC, 1975). Wheat is evaluated on the basis of its besatz (extraneous
matter) content, which is made up of three parts: Kornbesatz, Schwartzbe-
satz, and Insect material (Zwingelberg and Zwingelberg, 1999). Kornbesatz
contains broken and shrunken kernels, other grains, sprouted kernels,
insect-damaged kernels, frost-damaged kernels, and kernels with discolored
germ. Schwartzbesatz contains weed seeds, ergot, damaged kernels, and all
other foreign materials. Insect material contains insect fragments and live
beetles.
The proper category is determined by sieving a known-weight sample
with two sieves. The upper sieve has 3.5-mm perforations and the lower has
1.75-mm perforations. The material that remains on the upper sieve is
designated Schwartzbesatz. The material that passes through the lower sieve
contains shrunken and broken kernels that are part of the Kornbesatz. The
fraction between the sieves is inspected, and all defects are separated and
divided into broken kernels, other grains, and sprouted kernels. The weight
obtained for each class of besatz is expressed as a percentage, based on the
original sample weight. In the trade, discounts are made based on the
variation from the besatz allowed for a particular year. As an example, the
specification for a particular year could be maximum 1% black besatz
(Schwartzbesatz), maximum 1% broken kernels and grain besatz (Kornbe-
satz), and maximum 2% sprouted kernels.
All sections of the French cereal industry contributed to a new grading
system for wheat that has been used in trading contracts since the 1999 har-
vest. The new French wheat classes are based on protein content, baking
18 CHAPTER 1
strength (W determined with the Chopin alveograph), falling number, and

physical criteria (Anonymous, 2000). The Office National Interprofession-
nel des Crales (O.N.I.C.) determines four classes. The highest class, E,
shows the following specifications: protein >12%, W >250, falling number
>220, and physical criteria 76/15/4/2/2. These physical criteria indicate,
respectively, specific weight 760 kg/m, less than 15% moisture, less than
4% broken kernels, less than 2% sprouted kernels, and less than 2% impuri-
ties.
Other National Grading Systems

China is the leading producer of wheat and also the largest consumer of
wheat. Only a small fraction of the wheat produced in China is traded on
international markets. On the other hand, Argentina exports most of the
wheat it produces. Argentina produces two classes of wheat: hard durum
and semihard bread wheat. Standards consist of five grades for common
wheat and three grades for durum. In many cases, wheat importing and
exporting countries grade wheat grown for internal consumption by stan-
dards different from those accepted on the international markets.
Wheat Quality Parameters

Wheat Moisture
Wheat moisture is not a grade factor, but some countries indicate a
maximum allowed moisture content in wheat (France, 16% and Australia,
12.5%). In Canada, five levels of moisture content can be applied to grades:
straight, tough, damp, moist, and wet. Red spring wheat, for example, is
straight grade if its moisture content is 14.5% or lower; tough if its moisture
content is between 14.6% and 17.0%; and damp if its moisture content is
over 17% (CIGI, 1982). Proximate data such as protein content are cor-
rected in the United States to 12% moisture basis and in European countries
to dry basis. The logic behind the usage of 12% as the moisture basis for
wheat is that, in general, at about 25C and 60% relative humidity, wheat
moisture will equalize to 12%. Under the same conditions, flour moisture
would equalize to about 14%. Accordingly, wheat farmers, traders,
inspectors, and millers recognize wheat moisture determination as one of
the major parameters. In the United States, the Motomco 919 moisture
meter is the approved instrument used by GIPSA (Fig. 1-4). Various testing
methods for wheat moisture exist, of which the most popular are based on
the following principles; drying, distillation, chemical, electrical resistance,
electrical capacity, microwave, and infrared absorption.
Fig. 1-4. Motomco moisture meter. (Courtesy of Seedburo Equipment Co.)
Wheat Ash
Ash is the residual inorganic material left after incineration and is
expressed as a percentage of the original sample. The ash value is corrected
to a dry basis or any moisture basis for comparison. Ash is another quality
factor used to evaluate wheat flours and other mill products in the trade.
Millers are always looking for wheats that will produce low-ash flours, but
there are unusual instances that affect this objective. Certain wheats produce
relatively low-ash straight grade flour, but, regardless of the amount of
clear flour that is taken out, it is difficult to produce a low-ash patent
flour. Other high-ash, straight-grade flours lose ash rapidly as clears are
removed. These examples show that inorganic material is not always pro-
duced in the same way in the bran and endosperm of different samples of
grain.
The gradient of ash content increases from the center to the outer layers
of the wheat kernel (Hinton, 1959). This variability of mineral content can
20 CHAPTER 1
be attributed to environmental and genetic factors and to their interaction.

Several mineral elements show high positive correlation with protein con-
tent in both flours and bran.
In some varieties, ash is concentrated in the outer layers of the endo-
sperm. In this case, the ratio between straight-flour ash content (FA) and
whole-wheat ash content (WA) is lower. When this value is known, the
efficiency of the mill can also be determined by comparing the actual
FA/WA to the optimum FA/WA. Small variations of ash in flour do not nec-
essarily imply the presence of different amounts of bran.
In general, the ash itself does not affect flour properties, and thus it can
be argued that ash content should not be regarded as a flour quality parame-
ter in bakers specifications. However, as is shown later, ash values of
wheat, intermediate streams in the mill, and final products can be important
means and tools for mill adjustment and control.
Thousand-Kernel Weight
Thousand-kernel weight (TKW) is determined today using semiauto-
matic counting instruments. The weight of 1,000 counted kernels is deter-
mined, or the number of kernels is counted in a preweighed sample and the
weight of 1,000 kernels is calculated from it (Fig. 1-5). The count includes
sound, whole kernels from which all foreign material and broken kernels
have been removed. The weight of 1,000 kernels can be corrected to a dry
basis or any moisture basis. TKW can give the miller important information
about the wheats millability potential. If two samples have the same size
distribution of kernels but different TKWs, that indicates that the heavier
kernels have a higher percentage of endosperm than the lighter ones. This
Fig. 1-5. Count-A-Pak seed counter, used to determine thousand-kernel weight.

(Courtesy of Seedburo Equipment Co.)
can be explained by the fact that the specific gravity of endosperm, 1.46
g/cm3 (made up of about 87.5% starch at 1.48 g/cm3 and 12.5% protein at
1.32 g/cm3), is higher than that of bran, which is about 1.27 g/cm3. TKW is
one of the wheat quality parameters highly correlated with flour yield.
Kernel Size
One of the major wheat physical characteristics that influence process-
ing in the mill is kernel size. In a given mill with fixed corrugations and
sieves apertures, change in kernel size affects grinding performance. Wheat
kernels break up differently when acted upon with different corrugation
specifications. Accordingly, the miller should consider the parameter of
kernel size distribution and strive to be within a certain tolerance for opti-
mum results. The size distribution of kernels in a wheat sample can be
determined by using the following procedure. Two hundred grams of wheat
are placed on the top sieve of a stack of three Tyler standard sieves (num-
bers 7, 9, 12). The stack of sieves is placed in a Ro-Tap sifter (Fig. 1-6) and
sifted for 60 sec. The Ro-Tap sieve, with its rotating and bouncing action,
has an advantage over plain shaking action in causing a maximum of ker-
nels to pass a certain sieve mesh. The percentage remaining on each sieve is
then determined, multiplied by factors, and summed to obtain a single num-
ber denoting the theoretical flour yield. The factors can be calculated using
a multiple regression analysis for a mill, based on a database in which per-
centages of wheat sizes are the independent variables and actual flour yields
Fig. 1-6. Ro-Tap sieve shaker, used to determine size distribution in a wheat
sample. (Courtesy of Seedburo Equipment Co.)
22 CHAPTER 1
are the dependent variables. Each mill has its own specific factors that are
related to its technical parameters.
Physical and chemical differences are found not only among different
wheat varieties, but also among differently sized kernels of the same wheat
variety. In the latter case, the differences are due to environmental influ-
ences, particularly those that affect the rate of photosynthesis just preceding
the ripening of the grain. Soil, moisture, humidity, sunshine, temperature,
fertilization, and wind are considered the most potent factors.
Plumper wheat kernels or those that weigh more have a larger percent-
age of endosperm. Data show that, in the last 15 days of growth, single-
kernel weight increased two and a half times (Bailey, 1915). The percentage
of endosperm steadily increased, and the percentage of the seed coat plus
germ decreased. The data also indicate that, in wheat that has been prema-
turely ripened by lack of moisture or other unfavorable growing conditions,
the percentage of endosperm is less than that in fully matured wheat.
Although no significant difference in bran thickness can be seen between
large kernels and small kernels, a difference in the ratio of total kernel vol-
ume to bran volume exists. The representative values of the percentage of
endosperm, germ (embryo and scutellum), and outer layers (pericarp, testa,
and aleurone) are 81.0, 3.5, and 15.5%, respectively, for smaller kernels and
83.5, 2.5, and 14.0%, respectively, for larger kernels (Kent, 1966).
A fairly regular decrease in flour yield is found as wheat kernels
decrease in size. The ash content of flour milled to the same extraction level
from small kernels is significantly greater than that of flour from larger ker-
nels. Within the same wheat variety, large kernels possess lower protein
content than small kernels. The same tendency is found in the protein con-
tent of flour from wheat varieties with different-sized kernels. However,
comparison of protein content between the whole wheat flour and the
finished flour shows a smaller protein loss with the large kernels. Thus, a
higher flour protein content may not be guaranteed by paying a premium
for high-protein wheat, if it is made up of small kernels.
The behavior of different sizes of wheat kernels in the milling process
was studied to examine the influences of kernel size on water absorption
during tempering and break release in the break system, the relationship
between kernel size and the intermediate stock distribution in the milling
system, and the rheological properties of flours from different sized ker-
nels (Li and Posner, 1987). Table 1-5 shows that TW and TKW decrease as
the wheat kernel size decreases. The tendency for pearling value to
increase with a decrease of wheat kernel size indicates that pearling values
of wheats are comparable only when kernel size distributions are similar.
Wheat kernels differing in size show a great difference in the amount of
water absorbed. Amount of absorbed water is negatively related to wheat
kernel size (Fig. 1-7). The higher ratio of surface to volume of small kernels
is believed to contribute to their greater water absorption. Apparently, small

wheat kernels also offer greater resistance to water diffusion into the
endosperm than large wheat kernels do. Moisture can be observed to
migrate from small wheat kernels to large ones. This equilibration process
occurs after water addition if enough time is allowed for moisture migration
and if no stratification or separation by size occurs as a result of early with-
drawal of wheat from the bin.
Figure 1-8 explains a procedure to evaluate the effect of kernel size on
milling performance. All original wheat samples were conditioned to 16%
TABLE 1-5
Wheat Physical Tests as Affected by Kernel Sizea,b
Large Medium Small
Test weight (lb/bu) 60.0 a 54.7 b 53.4 c
TKW,c g 31.7 a 18.7 b 12.1 c
Pearling value, % 51.7 a 60.3 b 78.8 c
Wheat ash, %d 1.702 a 1.798 b 1.914 c
Wheat protein, % d 11.3 a 12.2 b 12.1 b
Straight flour yield, %d 71.1 a 64.5 b 62.8 c
Straight flour ash, % d 0.390 a 0.421 b 0.490 c
Straight flour protein, %d 9.5 a 10.2 b 9.8 b
a
Source: Li and Posner (1987); used by permission.
b
Values designated by different letters are significantly different at the 5% level. Values
designated by different letters with a prime sign are significantly different at the 1% level.
c
Thousand-kernel weight.
d
Expressed on 14% moisture basis.
Fig. 1-7. Relationship between kernel size and water penetration rate into three
sizes during tempering. (Reprinted, with permission, from Li and Posner, 1987)
24 CHAPTER 1
moisture and milled in triplicate. The working conditions of each break mill
stand were fixed. Consequently, the kernel size of the wheat became the
only factor influencing the break releases. In other words, the ratio of the
minimum dimension of wheat kernels to the width of the milling gap deter-
mined how severe the grinding action would be. In the first and second
break, this ratio was greater for large wheat kernels than for small ones.
Therefore, a more severe grinding action, especially squeezing action, was
forced on the large wheat kernels (Table 1-6). This resulted in more com-
plete detachment of endosperm from the outer layers of the kernels. Also,
the lower surface-to-volume ratio of the large wheat kernels provided less
available outer-layer area to which the endosperm might adhere. As a result
Fig. 1-8. Three procedures to evaluate the effect of kernel size on milling
performance. (Reprinted, with permission, from Li and Posner, 1987)
TABLE 1-6
Break Releasesa,b as Affected by Kernel Sizec,d
Break Large Medium Small System A System B
I 37.14 a 24.80 b 20.57 c 30.76 d 30.92 d
II 49.25 a 44.38 b 42.11 c 46.02 d 45.95 d
III 60.90 a 61.64 a 62.26 a 62.35 a 60.80 a
IV 52.73 a 55.46 a 53.27 a 51.33 a 51.21 a
a
Break releases are weight percentages of the stock over 20 W sieve in each break system.
b
Values are expressed on as is moisture basis.
c
d
Values designated by different letters are significantly different at the 1% level.
of these two factors, high break releases were obtained from large wheat
kernels in the first and second break. The data for total cumulative break
releases (Table 1-6) show the behaviors of different sized kernels in the
break system. More stock is released from larger kernels in the head break
systems.
Because the grinding action of the tail break rolls is much more severe
than that of the head break rolls, the chance for the bran to be powdered is
greater. The milling stock (over a sieve 20W or 910 m) of large wheat
kernels coming to the tail break rolls is much less than that of medium-sized
and small wheat kernels. Therefore, with large kernels, fewer fine bran
particles result from the severe grinding action of the late break rolls.
The yields of different sizes of intermediate stocks (coarse, medium,
and fine) in break systems are presented in Table 1-7. It can be seen that
more coarse stocks, also called sizings, and fewer fine stocks were pro-
duced from large wheat kernels than from small and medium-sized ones. A
positive relationship exists between wheat kernel size and the sizings yield.
Maximum sizing production is favorable for a high yield of low-ash flour.
Therefore, the high sizing yield of large wheat kernels is one of the reasons
for their high yield of low-ash flour.
Figure 1-9 shows the cumulative ash curves of the HRW wheat samples
milled by the different procedures shown in Figure 1-8. The highest ash
curve was obtained from milling the separated, small wheat kernels. For a
given ash content, the smaller the wheat kernel, the lower the flour extrac-
tion. The cumulative ash curve of milling system C is lower than that of the
other two systems (Fig. 1-8). Therefore, milling system C seems to be better
than systems A and B in terms of low-ash flour yield.
It is technically possible to increase the cumulative break releases of the
early break systems and the sizing production of small wheat kernels by
adjusting the technical specifications of the rolls, such as pitch, spiral,
action, and grinding gap. Especially by adjusting the first and second break
roll surfaces and grinding, it should be possible to increase the yield of low-
TABLE 1-7
Percent Yields of Different Sizing Stocks in the Break System
Affected by Kernel Sizea,b
Stockc Large Medium Small System A System B
Coarse 53.26 a 47.22 b 44.07 c 49.95 d 50.11 d
Medium 14.53 a 15.82 b 16.54 c 15.72 d 15.77 d
Fine 10.82 a 13.17 b 13.60 b 11.43 a 13.25 b
Flour 8.02 a 6.71 b 7.37 b 5.78 c 7.58 b
a
b
Values designated by different letters are significantly different at the 5% level. Values
designated by different letters with a prime sign are significantly different at the 1% level.
c
Coarse, overs on 50 GG; medium, overs on 70 GG; fine, overs on 10 XX.
26 CHAPTER 1
Fig. 1-9. Cumulative ash curves from three testing procedures (described in Fig. 1-7),
showing the effect of kernel size on wheat millabillity. (Reprinted, with permission, from
Li and Posner, 1987)
TABLE 1-8
Protein Content and Gluten Yield of Straight-Grade Flour
from Different Sized Wheatsa,b
Large Medium Small System A System B
Protein, % 9.5 a 10.2 b 9.8 c 9.7 ac 9.9 c
Wet gluten, % 23.9 24.5* 23.4 23.7 23.9
Dry gluten, % 9.7 10.1* 9.8 9.6 9.7
a
b
Values designated by different letters are significantly different at the 5% level. The values
designated by an asterisk are significantly greater at the 10% level. All values are expressed
on 14% moisture basis. Results are averages of triplicate experiments.
ash flour from each kernel size category. Milling procedure C potentially
could be a better alternative, especially in the primary breaks. Nevertheless,
research is needed to determine the corresponding optimum technical
specifications for each kernel size category and to economically evaluate
this practice.
Flours from different sized wheat kernels differed in their gluten yields
(Table 1-8). A significantly higher gluten yield was found in the flours
milled from medium-sized wheat kernels. The higher protein content of
flour from medium-sized kernels relative to flours from the other kernels
may contribute to the corresponding higher gluten yield.
TABLE 1-9
Farinograph Data of Straight-Grade Flours Milled from Different Sized Wheatsa,b
Large Medium Small System A System B
Absorption, % 55.3 a 54.7 b 54.5 b 54.6 b 54.6 b
Arrival time, min. 1.9 a 1.2 b 1.0 b 1.3 c 1.2 c
Departure time, min. 13.2 a 19.3 b 26.2 c 17.5 b 19.0 b
Stability, min. 11.3 a 18.3 b 23.2 c 16.2 b 17.8 b
Peak time, min. 5.2 a 2.4 b 2.2 b 4.9 c 3.8 d
MTI,c BU 40 20 20 20 30
a
b
Values designated by different letters are significantly different at the 5% level.
c
Mixing tolerance index, in Brabender units.
The farinograph mixing curves of straight-grade flours milled from

different sized wheat kernels and different milling systems were evaluated
(Li and Posner, 1987). Statistical analysis of the data from these curves is
summarized in Table 1-9. The flour from large wheat kernels had higher
water absorption and a longer peak time than the flours from small and
medium-sized wheat kernels. The flour from small wheat kernels showed
greater mixing stability than the flours obtained from large and medium-
sized wheat kernels. (The farinograph instrument is described in Chapter 2.)
Two peaks were obtained on the farinograph curves of the flour from
medium-sized wheat kernels and the flours from original wheats used in
milling procedures A and C. However, this two-peak phenomenon could not
be seen on the curves of the flours of small and large wheat kernels. Interest-
ingly, if the curves of the flours from large wheat kernels are superimposed on
those of flours from small wheat kernels, the resulting curves are quite similar
to those of the flours from medium-sized wheat kernels.
The rheological variation among the flours from different sized wheats
indicates the potential differences in their baking qualities.
Uniformity of wheat kernel size plays an important role in milling
stability. From the millers standpoint, wheats that are uniform in kernel size
are desirable because they allow the use of technical specifications for milling
equipment and produce consequent economic benefits. Each mill has an
optimum specific kernel size distribution. It has been suggested that wheat
kernel size distribution should become one of the wheat-grading criteria.
Kernel Shape
Kernel shape is a physical characteristic that is of interest because of its
use in classification. It is used to classify wheat as hard or soft but in the
future probably also will help in refining the technology of milling. Image
analysis is used to determine kernel shape. Algorithms have been produced
to characterize shape parameters of entire grains and the germ.
28 CHAPTER 1
Pearling Value
To determine pearling value, 20 g of wheat with all foreign material and
broken kernels removed is retained for 1 min in a Strong Scott laboratory
barley pearler (Fig. 1-10) equipped with a No. 30 grit stone and a 10-mesh
screen made of wire 1.041 mm (0.041 in.) in diameter (Tyler Code Fijor).
Pearling value is the percent of original sample remaining over a 20-mesh
wire after pearling. This value can be used as a measure of kernel hardness.
Results are affected by kernel size distribution because the smaller kernels
are pearled to a lesser extent in the fixed distance between the emery wheel
and the screen. To generate meaningful information for the miller, equally
sized kernels (throughs and overs of a sieve size) should be pearled.
Kernel Hardness
Kernel hardness is regarded mainly as a segregation parameter used in
the trade, where the main parameters influencing different end uses of soft
and hard wheat are the level of protein and its quality. Some new hard
wheats function as hard wheat but have the kernel appearance traditionally
associated with soft wheats, and vice versa. The importance of the distinc-
tion in marketing and use is commonly acknowledged. Hardness plays a
very important role with regard to quality and the suitability of grinding a
Fig. 1-10. Barley pearler, used to determine resistance to abrasion. (Courtesy of

the Seedburo Equipment Co.)
certain wheat on a mill. Different approaches have been described by vari-

ous researchers. Particle size index (PSI) is regarded as an indication of the
milling performance of wheat. Moisture content affects hardness determina-
tion using the PSI method, as does the grinding device (Method 55-30;
AACC, 2000). PSI values obtained by grinding wheat samples through a
properly calibrated, burr-type grinder correlate significantly with break
flour yield from an Allis-Chalmers, batch type, experimental mill
(Yamazaki and Donelson, 1983).
The deficiency of the current practice of segregating hard and soft
wheat is that the determined hardness value is not related to the processing
quality of the wheat. Mill flows of soft and hard wheats differ substantially
in their roll surface and sieving area, and therefore wheat should be classi-
fied to reflect millability in addition to protein specifications. Obuchowski
and Bushuk (1980) evaluated wheat after conditioning to five different
moisture levels. Results showed that protein content had no effect on
endosperm hardness but the wheat kernel bran content did.
The single-kernel characterization system (SKCS 4100) was developed by
the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service Grain
Marketing Research Laboratory (Martin et al, 1993) (Fig. 1-11). The device
measures kernel texture by crushing the kernels one at a time, recording the
force required, and reporting the average force for crushing the kernels in
terms of a hardness index (HI). Figure 1-12 shows a schematic description of
the SKCS working principle (Method 55-31, AACC, 2000). This device is
used to rapidly and accurately measure individual wheat seed hardness, mois-
ture, weight, and size at a rate of approximately 110 kernels per minute.
Fig. 1-11. Single-kernel characterization systemSKCS 4100. (Courtesy of the

Perten Co.)
30 CHAPTER 1
Fig. 1-12. Schematic description of the single-kernel characterization system

working principle, showing Singulator and crushing mechanism. (Courtesy of the
Perten Co.)
Satumbaga et al (1995), Gaines, et al (1996), Osborne et al (1997), and

Williams (2000) worked with different wheats to determine the correlation
with relevant reference data (e.g., wheat characteristics, potential storage
ability, optimization of wheat conditioning, and prediction of flour milling
performance). High correlation (r = 0.83) was obtained between SKCS data
on wheat and the starch damage contents of flours produced on a pilot mill.
Price is a major factor in wheat-buying decisions. However, experience
has shown that suitable quality for producing the desired flour characteris-
tics and maximum flour extraction is, in the long run, more significant than
low price for economical operation of the commercial mill. Kernel hardness
and protein quantity and quality are among the most important parameters
affecting wheat usage. Figure 1-13 shows a schematic description of the
relationship between wheat kind, protein percentage, kernel hardness, and
end product utilization.
Protein
Though not a grading factor in all wheat-growing countries, most ten-
ders and buying contracts specify wheat protein content. In the United
States, wheat protein in the trade is corrected to 12% moisture basis.
Correction of the protein content from one moisture basis to another can be
calculated using the following equation:
100 DMB (%)
Protein (mb) = DPPC
100 DM (%)
Fig. 1-13. Schematic description of relationship between wheat kind, protein

percentage, kernel hardness, and end-product utilization.
where DPPC = determined percent of protein content in the lab, DMB =

desired moisture basis, and DM = determined moisture.
Protein quality and quantity are two parameters that the miller considers
in the preparation of a wheat blend for milling. Those two values are
adjusted by wheat mixing to reach the flour end users specifications. How-
ever, the milling process affects both the quantity of protein recovered in
the wheat flour and the proteins quality.
Protein quantity is determined through assessing the nitrogen in wheat
or flours. The standard Kjeldahl method for nitrogen determination is based
on a process of digesting the sample and distilling off the nitrogen, which is
then measured. Because of the high nitrogen content caused by the high
level of glutamine in wheat, the nitrogen level is multiplied by a factor of
5.7 to approximate the protein content in wheat and flour. The 5.7 factor is
used also for rice, while the protein content of other cereals is estimated as
the nitrogen content times 6.25. Protein determination of HRS wheat
according to the AACC method gave a correlation coefficient with loaf vol-
ume of 0.67, whereas a sedimentation test by itself could not give a decisive
indication, having a correlation coefficient of only 0.51 (Gilles and Sibbitt,
1963). For HRW wheat, the correlation between wheat protein and loaf vol-
ume was 0.71 and between sedimentation and loaf volume, 0.57. New
developments for fast protein determination using the Kjeldahl method can
32 CHAPTER 1
supply important information to the miller for segregating received wheat to

storage bins and later for blending of mill mixes. Currently, near-infrared
transmittance (NIRT) instruments are used by GIPSA to determine protein
content in wheat samples. The NIRT instrument analyzes a whole-wheat
sample without the need for grinding. The Dumas method, a combustion
procedure for determining crude protein, is used by GIPSA as a chemical
reference for calibrating the NIRT instruments (Bicsak, 1995). In this method,
nitrogen is freed by pyrolysis at high temperature in pure oxygen and is
quantified by a thermal conductivity detector. Equivalent protein is then
calculated from the nitrogen value by a microprocessor (Diesting, 1999).
If a sample of wheat meets the standard for protein quality and can be fit
into the scheme of mill mixes, then acceptability of the milling properties
must be determined. Scientists are continuously trying to accommodate plant
breeders by developing a standard test with which to select promising samples
from several thousand lines that may vary widely in protein and quality char-
acteristics. Such tests sometimes do not have the standards of acceptability of
a test used in commerce. Appropriate protein testing and evaluation of
promising wheats during the breeding program and of wheats entering the
trade system are of prime importance to those developing new varieties.
Falling Number Value

The falling number (FN) value represents the time in seconds required
to stir a hot aqueous flour gel undergoing liquefaction in a viscometer and
then to allow the viscometer stirrer to fall a measured distance through the
gel (Method 56-81B, AACC, 2000). The stirring takes 60 sec, so the abso-
lute minimum FN value is 60 sec (Fig. 1-14). Wheat that starts to germinate
(i.e., has sprout damage) undergoes morphological and chemical changes in
which enzymatic activity converts the carbohydrates into complex sugar
compounds. This activity of -amylase is measured by the FN value.
A water suspension of the ground wheat meal sample is heated,
gelatinizing the starch. -Amylase hydrolyzes the starch, reducing the
viscosity of the suspension and increasing the falling rate of the stirrer. In
general, an FN value of 250 sec indicates flour with normal -amylase
activity and good baking quality. A value of 65 sec indicates high -
amylase activity and the likely production of sticky breads. High FN values,
in the range of 400 sec, indicate too little -amylase activity for bread bak-
ing. However, low values obtained for waxy and partially waxy wheat are
reported as an inherent trait of waxy wheat that do not necessarily indicate
sprout damage (Graybosh et al, 2000; Grant et al, 2001).
Skerritt et al (2001) described the use of a newly developed rapid testing
method for sprout damage in the field. Using a kit of materials, quick field-
testing can be performed outside the laboratory to determine harvesting
Fig. 1-14. Falling number. (Courtesy of the Perten Co.)
strategy or to direct incoming wheat to storage facilities. Although highly

correlated with the FN method results, the kit detects only the presence of
-amylase, not its activity.
Sizing Production
Sizing production, which is the weight of sizings produced on the first
three breaks in an experimentally milled sample, gives a very good esti-
mate of the distribution of intermediate streams in the mill, change in the
mill balance, and yield of flour that can be expected. A comparison of four
wheats milled through the first three breaks, depicting the differences in
sizing production, is shown in Table 1-10. Wheat was milled on rolls with
the same configuration and grinding gap.
Flour Yield
Flour yield is the most important technical and economic factor of mill-
ing and should play a major part in wheat buying decisions. In some cases,
a lower price is paid to offset potential lower extraction levels. At the going
price, if a sample of wheat fails to produce a satisfactory yield, it should be
34 CHAPTER 1
TABLE 1-10
Typical Intermediate Stock Production (%) of Different Classes of Wheata
Hard Red Soft Red
Winter Winter Club Durum
Sizing (%) 49.8 44.7 38.6 77.4
Break flour yield (%) 5.7 10.5 10.2 2.0
a
Source: E. S. Posner, unpublished data, 1990.
rejected regardless of its other virtues. Even in early civilizations, those

grain kernels from which the outer coat was more easily removed, provid-
ing higher flour extraction, were selected for further planting. The percent-
age volume of starchy endosperm (which is affected by size and shape of
grain, thickness of bran, and size of germ) has been thought to influence the
flour extraction. However, in studies on the relationship between bran thick-
ness and flour yield of four varieties of HRW wheat, no correlation could be
determined (Shellenberger and Morgenson, 1950). On the other hand, TW
and TKW were correlated with flour extraction. The batch-type experimen-
tal milling unit, which should be used in each mill, is the most important
means of providing information on flour yield.
Changes in Milling Properties of Newly Harvested

Hard Wheat During Storage
The term in the sweat is used to describe the occurrence of free mois-
ture or sweat on the grain after cutting and binding, when the wheat is
stacked before threshing. In a broader sense, grain elevator operators and
millers use sweating to define the moisture changes that occur during the
undefined period between the time wheat is threshed or combined and the
time it reaches the mill.
One question that arises for operative millers each year is when to start
milling the newly harvested wheat. Many technical, logistic, and economic
factors influence the millers decision at the time new wheat arrives at the
mill. Millers incorporate the newly harvested wheat into the mill grist in
several ways. Some store the wheat for two to three months, the time
needed to complete the sweating, and then use it at a gradual percentage
increase. Another approach is a fixed date, agreed upon with the baker, on
which the mill switches over to 100% new wheat. In this case, it is recom-
mended that the period of old wheat usage be extended to about three
months after harvest. Some bakers favor this approach, because they have to
go through only one major adjustment in flour quality. Other millers start to
incorporate newly harvested wheat immediately upon its arrival at the mill.
It is accepted in the industry that 515% new wheat may be added to the old
wheat mix. Gradually increasing the proportion of the new wheat in the
blend reduces major changes in flour milling. The practical miller tends to
ameliorate changes in wheat quality by blending new wheat with wheat
from the previous crop.
During the first few weeks or months after harvest, the milling and bak-
ing qualities of new-crop wheat improve with time. Thereafter, the changes
are very small, and the wheat maintains its quality for a long period. Low
moisture and temperature during wheat sweating cause a slower rate of
change in wheat characteristics.
Before harvest, immature wheat grains are vitreous; as maturation pro-
ceeds, some grains remain vitreous while others become mealy. During
roller milling, the endosperm cells of vitreous hard wheat kernels tend to
shatter rather than powder, and breakage of both starch granules and the
protein matrix occurs. The miller is interested in total and patent flour
extraction, flour particle size, and sizing characteristics during milling.
There is a close correlation (r = 0.96) between sizing characteristics and
grain structure.
The milling quality of newly harvested wheat is of interest to the miller
because changes in flour quality and milling characteristics often occur dur-
ing wheat storage. Small-scale milling experiments with HRW wheat were
used to define the changes that occur in milling and baking performance
during the sweating period (Posner and Deyoe, 1986). Experimentally mill-
ing freshly harvested HRW wheat (1983 crop) and HRW and HRS wheat
(1982 crop), individually or in blends, allowed examination of these
changes. Wide fluctuations in milling characteristics were observed, result-
ing from storage of freshly harvested wheat. Figure 1-15 shows the cumula-
tive ash curves of the three wheats. The highest ash curve was obtained
from the HRS wheat and the lowest from the 1982 HRW wheat.
Characteristics of wheat and straight-grade flour milled after the harvest of
the 1983 wheat are shown in Table 1-11.
Flour granulation was finer after harvest and increased in size as sweat-
ing proceeded (Table 1-12). This might explain why the use of open sifter
cloths and reduction of mill loads helps to overcome the difficulties in siev-
ing and in obtaining proper particle size distribution that are encountered in
the bolting of flours from newly harvested wheat in commercial mills.
Apparently, during sweating there is an agglomeration of starch granules
and interstitial protein in the wheat kernel endosperm. Immediately after
harvest, adhesiveness between the flour components is weak, but it
increases with time, which results in larger chunks of endosperm being
milled as sweating proceeds. This might also be the cause of the increase of
23% in sizing production from wheat stored after harvest. The decrease in
flour particle size after 19 weeks can be attributed to an increase in the
36 CHAPTER 1
extent of reduction during milling, as the chunks of endosperm continue to

increase in size. The results of this trend could be increased starch damage
but improved loaf characteristics as sweating proceeds.
Figure 1-16 shows total flour extraction, sizing production, patent flour
extraction, and farinograph water absorption for wheat and for 50%
wheat blends milled during 1982 and 1983 (Posner and Deyoe, 1986). First-
week values are also shown for 100% HRW 1982 and 100% HRS 1982. For
the freshly harvested wheat and both blends, fluctuations occurred in
Fig. 1-15. Cumulative ash curves for three wheats. HRS = hard red spring, HRW
= hard red winter. (Source: Posner and Deyoe, 1986)
TABLE 1-11
Wheat and Flour Characteristics of Newly Harvested and Stored Wheata
Hard Red Winter Hard Red

Spring
Characteristic 1983 1982 1982
Wheat
Moisture, % 10.2 9.9 11.1
Protein, % (14% mb) 10.3 12.1 13.6
Ash, % (14% mb) 1.63 1.53 1.64
Patent flour
Ash, % (14% mb) 0.31 0.31 0.38
Farinograph water absorption, % 52 56 58
MTI,b BU 20 20 20
Valorimeter 92 88 94
Loaf volume, cm3 790 740 918
a
Source: Posner and Deyoe (1986).
b
Mixing tolerance index, in Brabender units.
milling parameters at the beginning of the sweating period, followed by

well-defined trends as time of storage increased.
Regression analysis was used to determine variations of the different
milling technology parameters with time of storage (Posner and Deyoe,
TABLE 1-12
Patent Flour Analysis as Affected by Time after Harvesta
Time Ash Protein
After Fisher (14% (14% Wet
Harvest Moisture Sub- MSAb Agtron mb) mb) Gluten
(weeks) (%) Sieve Values Color (%) (%) (%)
1 14.5 15.3 43.5 79.0 0.33 10.9 27.4
4 14.1 16.2 44.5 78.5 0.34 11.0 28.6
7 15.3 15.6 42.0 78.5 0.36 11.2 28.7
10 13.6 14.4 47.0 77.0 0.37 11.0 27.0
13 14.7 21.8 55.5 71.0 0.34 11.0 28.9
16 14.2 20.5 49.5 75.0 0.36 11.2 29.1
19 13.7 18.8 53.0 73.5 0.39 11.2 28.0
22 13.2 14.3 42.5 72.5 0.41 11.1 24.8
a
b
Mine Safety Appliance (Method 50-10; AACC 1983)
Fig. 1-16. Changes in milling and flour characteristics during wheat sweating. A,
total flour extraction; B, sizing production; C, patent flour production; D, water
absorption. , 100% hard red winter (HRW) wheat, 1983 crop; << , 50%
HRW 1982 and 50% HRW 1983; oo, 50% hard red spring (HRS) and 50%
HRW 1983. (Source: Posner and Deyoe, 1986)
38 CHAPTER 1
1986). Values for total flour, patent flour, sizings, and all five breaks of
flour production were used in the analysis. The best fit for the data was a
cubic model. The calculated r2 values are shown in Table 1-13. However,
analysis of variance indicated some storage-time-dependent variations that
could not be explained by the regression model. Some variables in experi-
mental milling technology remain to be determined; they formed about 25%
of the variability.
Correlation coefficients were determined for the experimental data
(Posner and Deyoe, 1986). Correlation coefficients of milling results
showed significance at the 1 and 5% levels. A significant correlation
between break flour and wet gluten values indicates that, with increased
time after harvest, an increased amount of gluten-containing protein is
extracted in the breaking system. It also suggests that, with time, flour pro-
teins making up the gluten undergo a maturation process.
A significant, positive correlation was found between sizing production
and patent flour ash (Posner and Deyoe, 1986). Total flour extraction exhib-
ited significant positive relationships with patent flour ash and patent flour
protein.
Changes in levels of sizing production from the newly harvested wheat
during storage suggest that millers should exercise caution in milling
freshly harvested wheat. To balance the mill, break rolls should be adjusted
for maximum sizing production when milling such wheat. Newly corru-
gated rolls could produce more sizings. However, this may increase the
amount of bran-contaminated sizings. Ample amounts of airflow and finer
reclothing of the purifiers would help remove bran from the sizings. Sizing
rolls should be adjusted during this period for a light grind with minimal
reduction for careful separation of endosperm from the attached bran.
Milling value is an estimate of the monetary value of the products
derived from milling. The percentages of patent and clear flours were deter-
TABLE 1-13
r2 Values of Milling Characteristics as a Function of Time After Harvesta
Mean Yield Standard
Milling Product r2 Values (%) Deviation F Valuesb
Total flour production 0.510 72.0 0.65 7.06
Sizing production 0.614 48.9 0.76 20.19
Total break flour
production 0.624 11.3 0.70 7.30
Three break flour
production 0.766 8.7 2.21 15.98
Four break flour
production 0.756 10.5 0.44 14.27
a
b
F values are all significant at the 1% level.
mined by using the ash curves and the assigned maximum ash content for
the patent flour (Posner and Deyoe, 1986). Factors affecting milling value
are related to the milling performance of the wheat. On the same milling
unit, for which variables such as mill setting and environmental conditions
are held constant, milling different wheats results in corresponding changes
in percent of products produced, distribution of ash in flour streams, and
economic value of those wheats. The cut-off point on the ash curves for
patent flour produced was 0.35% ash; this was assigned a value of
U.S.$220.46 per tonne (t) ($10/cwt). Flours on the ash curves above 0.35%
ash were considered clear flours and were assigned a value of $176.37/t
($8/cwt). The feed was assigned a value of $110.23/t ($5/cwt).
The farmer and the miller must also consider the cost of storage after
harvest. In some cases, economic factors require rapid change to a new
wheat mix in todays market. An attempt was made in this study (Posner
and Deyoe, 1986) to develop an economic model for storage that would
combine parameters relating to milling quality during sweating. The
milling value (hundredweight basis) was converted to a 60-lb bushel
milling value. A storage cost of US$1.84/t ($0.05/bu) per week was sub-
tracted from the calculated milling value to determine the net milling
value, which was expressed in dollars per bushel. Using the Statistical
Analysis Service regression procedure (SAS, 1982), intercepts and param-
eters were determined for a cubic model of net milling value versus time
after harvest.
The equation relating length of storage in three-week intervals (X) to net
milling value (Y) was:
Y = 5.01357 + 0.00346X 3 0.04438X 2 + 0.14478X + U ,
where U is a constant and r2 = 0.83. The minimum and maximum times that
wheat should be stored, with respect to storage cost, were determined by
finding the derivative of the model equation, equating it to zero, and solving
for X1 and X2. A minimum of six weeks and a maximum of 22 weeks of
storage were allowed for sweating for the two wheats studied.
The economic factor of wheat cost also has a decisive role in the
determination of storage time of the newly harvested wheat and its usage
time. The optimum storage time was determined from the second
derivative of the model equation. After about 14 weeks, the increase in
storage cost overrides benefits gained by further improvements in milling
values.
Shelke et al (1992a,b) reported changes in the performance of freshly
harvested soft wheat flour. Although no change in milling performance of
the soft wheat was documented, the soft wheat flours were evaluated for
two crop years for usage in cake baking. Flour particle size analysis indi-
cated that the kernels did not become harder with time after harvest.
40 CHAPTER 1
Regardless of chlorination, freshly milled flours produced batters with

high specific gravity. Batter specific gravity decreased greatly during the
first two days after milling and continued to fall thereafter at a lower rate.
Immediately after milling, all flours (regardless of chlorine treatment)
produced collapsed cakes. The time required to reach the maximum
value for distilled water binding capacity (DWBC) of flours decreased as
wheat age increased. Accordingly, the cake-baking quality of flours,
which was strongly correlated with DWBC, improved with both wheat
and flour age.
Waxy Wheat
Wheat varieties that contain new combinations of silent (null) genes
produce kernel starch characteristics that are of interest to processors and
flour users. Normal wheat starch is composed of two polysaccharides, amy-
lopectin and amylose. Wheat starch can vary in amylose content if the
wheat is a waxy or partial waxy mutant. Nakamura et al (1995) and Zeng et
al (1997) revealed that the A, B, and D genomes in wild-type common
wheats each produce an enzyme in wheat associated with the biosynthesis
of amylose. Generally, normal wheat with no silent waxy gene for amylose
synthesis has 2223% apparent amylose in its starch; with one silent waxy
gene, the wheat contains 1920% apparent amylose; and with two silent
waxy genes, the wheat has 18% apparent amylose. When all three genes are
silent, the starch is essentially composed of <1% apparent amylose (>99%
amylopectin), and the grain is referred to as being waxy. Bettge et al (2000)
showed that waxy granules are less resistant to mechanical damage than
normal starch granules. The mechanical characteristics of partially or fully
waxy wheat should be considered by operative millers. The susceptibility of
starch granules to high pressure will require new technological approaches
to the handling and grinding of waxy wheat.
Texture and quality of white salted (udon) noodles is better with partial
waxy wheat flour as compared with normal types (Wang and Seib, 1996;
Batey et al, 1997; Briney et al, 1997). In bread, the rate of starch retrograda-
tion and staling may be manipulated by adjusting the amylose content rela-
tive to amylopectin (Schoch, 1965). Bread with higher amylopectin content
may be more prone to staling and thus should be avoided. Hayakawa et al
(1997) showed that waxy (amylose-free starch) hexaploid wheat generally
had lower gelatinization onset temperature, peak viscosity, and setback than
normal hexaploid wheat. Grant et al (2001) showed some significant differ-
ences in the starch properties of the waxy durum lines compared to the non-
waxy durum lines. The full-waxy starch had four times more swelling
power than the nonwaxy durum starches at 95C and was more soluble at
the three or four temperatures used.
Wheat Quality in the Future

As mentioned previously, present wheat grades do not necessarily pro-
vide useful processing information. Future end-use performance of wheat
will be based on automated measurements and prediction.
Further research is needed to evaluate and define additional parameters
(such as impurity level, infestation, color, protein, and ash) that are signifi-
cant to the wheat end user, namely the miller. Additional new grading fac-
tors should be suggested, and their impact on the technology and economics
of the flour milling process should be identified.
Millability of wheat might be expressed in future grading as an indexed
number that would be a composite of all milling parameters and would
allow the miller to define the raw material by quality characteristics.
Expert systems are likely to be developed based on expanded knowl-
edge of milling principles, whereby the most efficient route can be deter-
mined to produce flour of defined specifications from the range of available
raw materials whose specifications and cost are known.
The wheat currently milled is significantly different from early varieties
grown many years ago. Initially, wheat domestication depended on the
intervention of humans, who carefully collected wild wheat seeds for food
while, at the same time, inadvertently selecting and replanting seeds from the
plants best suited for easy harvesting. Within a few generations, cultivated
wheat plants became dependent on the harvesting process for survival, as wild
self-planting mechanisms disappeared from the traits of cultivated wheats.
The domesticated wheat has lost the physical and genetic characteristics that
would allow it to aggressively reseed and sprout by itselflosses that clearly
distinguish domesticated wheats from their wild relatives (McCorriston,
2000). The late twentieth-century era of wheat domestication was based on
professional breeding of varieties, where many genes were moved at a time.
Future breeding technology based on genetic modification procedures will
improve certain wheat qualities by gene-splicing single genes into the wheat
chromosomes. The current gene modification efforts are related to end-use
characteristics of the wheat flour. New processing methods will probably be
required to guarantee the existence of these characteristics in the final flour.
On the other hand, future genetic modifications will be more rewarding to
humans if breeders concentrate on improving the kernel parameters that affect
the economic and technological aspects of the flour milling industry, which is
the first end-user of wheat.
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WEB SITES FOR ADDITIONAL RELATED INFORMATION
Australian Wheat Board: www.awb.com.au

Canadian Wheat Board:
www.cwb.ca/en/buying/high_quality/export_specifications.jsp
GIPSA, USDA: www.usda.gov/gipsa
International Grain Council: www.igc.org.uk
Russian Grain Grading: www.gost.ru/sls/gost.nsf
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CHAPTER 1

Wheat: The Raw Material

The Wheat Kernel

Fig. 1-1. Development of a wheat head. (Adapted from Smith, 1945)

Minimum Pound Limits of

U.S. Sample grade

where MBD = metric bulk densities, expressed in units of kg/hL, and TW =

by the following conditions: vibrations in the testing lab, various levels of

ing locations and is dependent on harvest and grain-handling methods. The

Canadian Grading System

Australian Grading System

dough properties. Two additional classes, Australian general-purpose wheat

Russian Grading System

strength (W determined with the Chopin alveograph), falling number, and

Other National Grading Systems

Wheat Quality Parameters

Fig. 1-4. Motomco moisture meter. (Courtesy of Seedburo Equipment Co.)

be attributed to environmental and genetic factors and to their interaction.

Fig. 1-5. Count-A-Pak seed counter, used to determine thousand-kernel weight.

is believed to contribute to their greater water absorption. Apparently, small

The farinograph mixing curves of straight-grade flours milled from

Fig. 1-10. Barley pearler, used to determine resistance to abrasion. (Courtesy of

certain wheat on a mill. Different approaches have been described by vari-

Fig. 1-11. Single-kernel characterization systemSKCS 4100. (Courtesy of the

Fig. 1-12. Schematic description of the single-kernel characterization system

Satumbaga et al (1995), Gaines, et al (1996), Osborne et al (1997), and

Fig. 1-13. Schematic description of relationship between wheat kind, protein

where DPPC = determined percent of protein content in the lab, DMB =

supply important information to the miller for segregating received wheat to

Falling Number Value

Fig. 1-14. Falling number. (Courtesy of the Perten Co.)

strategy or to direct incoming wheat to storage facilities. Although highly

rejected regardless of its other virtues. Even in early civilizations, those

Changes in Milling Properties of Newly Harvested

extent of reduction during milling, as the chunks of endosperm continue to

Hard Red Winter Hard Red

milling parameters at the beginning of the sweating period, followed by

Regardless of chlorination, freshly milled flours produced batters with

Wheat Quality in the Future

American Association of Cereal Chemists. 1983. Approved Methods of the AACC,

American Association of Cereal Chemists. 2000. Approved Methods of the AACC,

waxy wheats independent of alpha-amylase activity. Cereal Chem. 77:1-3.

throughout growth and ripening. Cereal Chem. 24:167-178.

mineral element concentration in wheat flour and bran of different cultivars.

WEB SITES FOR ADDITIONAL RELATED INFORMATION

Australian Wheat Board: www.awb.com.au

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