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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Environmental Science & Policy


journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/envsci

Ecosystem services provided by urban gardens in Barcelona, Spain:


Insights for policy and planning
Marta Camps-Calveta , Johannes Langemeyera,b,* , Laura Calvet-Mira,c ,
Erik Gmez-Baggethund,e
a
Institute of Environmental and Technology (ICTA), Universitat Autnoma de Barcelona, Spain
b
Stockholm Resilience Centre, Stockholm University, Sweden
c
Internet Interdisciplinary Institute (IN3), Universitat Oberta de Catalunya, Spain
d
Norwegian Institute for Nature Research (NINA), Norway
e
Department of International Environment and Development Studies, Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU), Norway

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: In many European cities, urban gardens are seen as increasingly important components of urban green
Received 10 February 2015 space networks. We adopt an ecosystem services framework to assess contributions of urban gardens to
Received in revised form 18 October 2015 the quality of of their users. First, we identify and characterize ecosystem services provided by urban
Accepted 12 January 2016
gardens. Secondly, we assess the demographic and socioeconomic prole of its beneciaries and the
relative importance they attribute to different ecosystem services. Next we discuss the relevance of our
Keywords: results in relation to critical policy challenges, such as the promotion of societal cohesion and healthy
Barcelona
lifestyles. Data were collected through 44 semi-structured interviews and a survey among 201 users of 27
Ecosystem services
Green infrastructure
urban gardens in Barcelona, Spain, as well as from consultation meetings with local planners. We
Nature-based solutions identied 20 ecosystem services, ranging from food production over pollination to social cohesion and
Urbanism environmental learning. Among them, cultural ecosystem services (non-material benets people derive
Urban agriculture from their interaction with nature) stand out as the most widely perceived and as the most highly valued.
The main beneciaries of ecosystem services from urban gardens are elder, low-middle income, and
migrant people. Our results about the societal importance of urban gardens were deemed highly relevant
by the interviewed green space planners in Barcelona, who noted that our data can provide basis to
support or expand existing gardening programs in the city. Our research further suggests that ecosystem
services from urban gardens can play an important role in addressing several urban policy challenges in
cities, such as promoting stewardship of urban ecosystems, providing opportunities for recreation and
healthy lifestyles, and promoting social cohesion. We conclude that urban gardens and associated
ecosystem services can play an important in urban policies aimed at enhancing quality of life in cities,
particularly if access to their benets is expanded to larger segments of the population.
2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction address complex and interrelated economic, social and environ-


mental challenges (EC, 2014). A move in this direction is the
With more than half of the worlds population living in cities growing attention paid to urban ecosystems for their potential to
and a projected urban population of 60% by 2030, achieving more offer nature-based solutions, i.e. solutions supported by nature
sustainable, livable and resilient cities stands among the greatest that simultaneously provide economic, social and environmental
challenges for urban policy and planning in the 21st century (UN, benets to address societal challenges, ideally in a resource-
2013). Recent policy developments call for novel approaches to efcient and adaptable manner (EC, 2015).
In public policy discourse, urban ecosystems such as parks,
cemeteries, green roofs, forests and gardens are increasingly
portrayed as green infrastructure (EEA European Environmental
* Corresponding author at: Institute for Environmental Science and Technology,
ICTA-ICP, Edici Z, Carrer de les columnes, Universitat Autnoma de Barcelona, Agency, 2011; DG Environment, 2013), a metaphor that empha-
08193 Bellaterra-Cerdanyola del Valls, Spain. Fax: +34 935863331. sizes the role that green spaces in or near the built environment as
E-mail addresses: martacampsc@gmail.com (M. Camps-Calvet), sources of ecosystem services (ES) (Bolund and Hunhammar, 1999;
johannes.langemeyer@uab.cat (J. Langemeyer), lcalvetmir@gmail.com Gmez-Baggethun et al., 2013). Urban ES are direct or indirect
(L. Calvet-Mir), erik.gomez@nina.no (E. Gmez-Baggethun).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2016.01.007
1462-9011/ 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article in press as: M. Camps-Calvet, et al., Ecosystem services provided by urban gardens in Barcelona, Spain: Insights for policy
and planning, Environ. Sci. Policy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2016.01.007
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contributions of urban ecosystems to human well-being (MEA, One element of urban green infrastructure that has attracted
2005; TEEB, 2010). They include most prominently supporting growing attention in the literature in recent years are urban
services such as the provision of habitats for species (Gmez- gardens (Breuste, 2010). Urban gardens are urban areas where
Baggethun and Barton, 2013), regulating services like air purica- horticultural activities take place. They may cover a broad range of
tion, run-off mitigation, and protection against climate extremes typologies, including school gardens, therapeutic gardens, allot-
(Bar et al., 2014; Costanza et al., 2006), and cultural services ment gardens, home gardens, and community gardens (Lawson,
(immaterial benets) such as opportunities for recreation, 2005). The importance of urban gardens has been emphasized on
environmental education, and spiritual enrichment (Chiesura, the basis of their social functionality and high intensity of use
2004; Langemeyer et al., 2014). So-called green infrastructure (Breuste, 2010:464), their role in building resilience (Barthel et al.,
strategies to promote ES are gaining leverage in policy and 2013), and their contributions to human well-being through the
planning (EC, 2013). For example, the European Commission has delivery of ES (Breuste and Artmann, 2014; Langemeyer et al.,
recently approved a Green Infrastructure Strategy that promotes 2016b).
green infrastructure in urban and rural areas and states that Despite growing attention to urban gardens in the scientic
maintaining multi-functional green spaces is a key step for literature, their policy appreciation remains generally poor and the
implementing the EU 2020 Biodiversity Strategy (EC, 2011a). case has been made that gardens are often, disadvantaged by

Fig. 1. The case study area: Urban gardens in Barcelona.


Source: own elaboration based on Natural Earth data (www.naturalearthdata.com) & EEA (European Environment Agency) (2010). GMES Urban Atlas. http://www.eea.
europa.eu/data-and-maps/data/urban-atlas).

Please cite this article in press as: M. Camps-Calvet, et al., Ecosystem services provided by urban gardens in Barcelona, Spain: Insights for policy
and planning, Environ. Sci. Policy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2016.01.007
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planning in comparison to other green spaces (Breuste, 2.1. Background


2010:464). Limited policy appreciation renders urban gardens
vulnerable to land-use changes from urban development. For Urban gardens, which have a long tradition in Barcelona until
example, Kronenberg et al. (2013) document growing pressure on the 1980s (Mubvami et al., 2006), decreased strongly with fast
urban gardens in Poland. Voigt (2014) describes a creeping loss of urban renewal and had been almost disappeared from the core city
urban gardens in Vienna, Austria, from policies that favor private area by the time that Barcelona hosted the Olympic Games in 1992
residential constructions over allotment garden uses. In Southern (Roca, 2000). Since the beginning of the global nancial crises in
European countries, where national and regional policy frame- 2008, however, urban community gardens have multiplied in
works to regulate urban gardens remain poorly developed (Drilling many Southern European cities (Keshavarz, 2016). Barcelona has
et al., 2016), urban gardens have also been documented to be not been an exception to this trend and, in recent years, the
highly vulnerable and lacking appreciation among policy-makers number of urban gardens has almost doubled between 2008 and
and large parts of the society (Domene and Saur, 2007). 2013. Since the beginning of the economic crises in Spain during
Loss of urban gardens also involves the loss of the many ES 20072008, bottom-up gardening initiatives, self-governed by
they provide. For example, previous research has noted the neighborhood associations and political activists have multiplied
importance of urban gardens for the provision of food and in the city, often in connection to the social protests that shook
medicinal plants (Buchmann, 2009), local climate regulation Spain in spring 2011, known as indignados or 15-M movement
(Henn, 2000), pollination (Kearns et al., 1998), pest control (Camps-Calvet et al., 2015). The Barcelona City Council, which
(Barthel et al., 2010), seed dispersal (Andersson et al., 2007), creates public gardens since 1997, recently presented the
and provision of habitat for species (Breuste, 2010). Further- Barcelonas Green Infrastructure and Biodiversity Plan, a strategic
more, urban gardens have been acknowledged for promoting plan that recognizes urban gardens as important components of
increased social cohesion (Anguelovski, 2013), active and urban green infrastructure, for example on roof-tops or urban
healthy lifestyles (Van den Berg et al., 2010), opportunities squares (Barcelona City Council, 2013:71 and 80). In 2013, the
for relaxation and recreation (Breuste and Artmann, 2014), and Barcelona City Council also put in place the initiative Pla Buits
environmental education (Shava et al., 2010). Rendering visible (Empty-Spaces Plan) to promote gardening on vacant public lots
the contributions of urban ecosystems to human well-being (Barcelona City Council, 2015).
through the ES they provide can be a powerful tool to raise
awareness of their importance and to promote their recognition 2.2. Urban gardens in Barcelona
in policy (Gmez-Baggethun and Barton 2013; Pauleit et al.,
2011). However, embracement of the ES approach by urban Two main types of urban gardens exist in Barcelona. The rst
policy-makers is still weak (Kabisch, 2015; Primmer and main type consists of gardens that are formally regulated by the
Furman, 2012). Furthermore, most research addressing ES in Barcelona City Council. These gardens are generally divided in
cities have focused on limited sets of benets from sectorial parcels that are individually managed by single gardeners or their
perspectives and few studies have conducted systematic and families. In what follows, this type of gardens will be referred to as
interdisciplinary assessments of ES that cover the whole range allotment gardens. The second main type consists of self-governed
of ecological, sociocultural and economic benets from urban gardening initiatives where land is generally managed collectively.
gardens (cf. Dunnett and Qasim, 2000; Breuste and Artmann, In what follows, this type of gardens will be referred to as
2014). In addition, the role that urban gardens and associated community gardens. For a detailed description of urban gardens in
ES can play as nature-based solutions to address urban policy Barcelona and their main characteristics, see Langemeyer et al.
challenges ranging from social inclusion to environmental (forthcoming).
awareness (Barcelona City Council, 2013:85; EC, 2015) remains Our research covers a sample of 27 urban gardens that
largely unexplored. altogether cover a total surface of about 30 ha, accounting for
Drawing on data from urban gardens in Barcelona, Spain, this about 1% of all public green areas and not more than 0.3% of the
research aims conducting a systematic assessment of the ES citys total surface (Barcelona City Council, 2013). This sample
provided by urban gardens, discussing our results in the context of includes both formally regulated allotment gardens (n = 13) and
urban policy challenges. Our specic objectives are to (1) identify self-governed community gardens (n = 13). In addition, our sample
and characterize ES provided by urban gardens, (2) assess the includes one collective garden managed by the Cultural Institute of
demographic and socioeconomic prole of the gardeners and the Barcelona devoted to the maintenance of landraces (Institut de la
importance they attribute to different ES, and (3) to explore the Cultura de Barcelona). Our sample covers all allotment and
role that ES from urban gardens can play as solutions for urban community gardens existing within the boundaries of Barcelona
policy challenges. municipality by the time our eldwork was conducted. Gardens
established under the Pla Buits (Empty-Spaces Plan) where not yet
2. Case study: urban gardens in Barcelona, Spain consolidated when our eld work was conducted and could thus
not be considered in our study. In addition, kitchen gardens in
Our research is based on data collected in 27 urban gardens private properties were also excluded from the study due to the
distributed across the city of Barcelona, Spains second largest city difculty of getting access to data.
(Fig. 1). With a population of about 1.62 million people living in the
city core and over 4 million in the larger metropolitan area, 3. Methods
Barcelona stands amongst the largest and most densely populated
(16,000 inhabitants per km2) urban areas in Europe (ESPON Data were collected between April and October 2013. First,
Project, 2007; IDESCAT, 2013). Access to green spaces is barely background information was collected to gain general understand-
6.82 m2 per capita (Barcelona City Council, 2013), well below the ing on urban gardens and policy processes at the study area. An
levels recommended by the United Nations (30 m2 per capita), the initial screening of policy documents and grey literature, including
European Union (26 m2 per capita) and the World Health newspaper articles and web-pages, was conducted to compile
Organization (9 m2 per capita) (Khalil, 2014). In this context, even background information on urban gardens in Barcelona, including
small improvements in green spaces can be assumed to be highly their geographical locations, main characteristics and number of
benecial for the citizens. users. We used non-participant and participant observation

Please cite this article in press as: M. Camps-Calvet, et al., Ecosystem services provided by urban gardens in Barcelona, Spain: Insights for policy
and planning, Environ. Sci. Policy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2016.01.007
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techniques (Bessette, 2004) spending time in the gardens and whereby interviewed informants were asked to provide contact
when possible engaging actively in gardening tasks, such as to new informants. ES were identied using a free listing
irrigation or manuring. We held semi-structured interviews with technique (Bernard, 1999; Bieling et al., 2014), whereby inter-
gardeners and members of Xarxa dhorts urbans comunitaris de viewees were asked to list benets and contributions of urban
Barcelona (Network of Community Gardens of Barcelona), the gardens to human well-being. Since we expected that benets
association that coordinates self-governed urban gardening from ES delivered by urban gardens accrued to multiple scales
initiatives, to gain understanding on the gardens functioning (Hein et al., 2006), we asked gardeners to identify benets
and to identify key informants, dened here as gardeners holding provided at individual (Why is this garden important for you?),
recognized positions of leadership among other gardeners or neighborhood (Why is this garden important for the neighbor-
having long-term experience in gardening activity, and main hood?), and city scale (Why is this garden important for the city?).
beneciaries of ES from urban gardens. Finally, in order to gain We further asked informants to provide detailed explanation on
broader understanding on the embedment of urban gardens the identied benets. Interview guides were used to structure the
within green space policies and Barcelonas strategic green interviews (see Annex 4 in Supplementary material). Interviews
infrastructure plan and to transfer knowledge and data from our were audio recorded when interviewees gave their permission
study to practitioners, we organized two meetings. (n = 31) and otherwise eld notes were used to record the answers
for their subsequent coding. We followed Charmaz (2006) and
3.1. Semi-structured interviews coded relevant text passages from the voice records and the eld
notes to obtain a list of the benets provided by urban gardens. We
Semi-structured face-to-face interviews with 44 key inform- matched stated benets with ES types pertaining to the four major
ants were conducted between April and June 2013 to identify and categories covered in established ES classications: provisioning,
characterize ES provided by urban gardens (rst specic regulating, habitat/supporting and cultural services (MEA, 2005;
objective) (see Annex 1 in Supplementary material). The 44 TEEB, 2010). When possible, benets perceived by informants
key informants interviewed included 32 male and 12 female were matched with ES types that had been already described in
gardeners. Interviews were conducted in all 27 gardens and lasted previous ES classications for urban areas (e.g. Bolund and
between 15 and 70 min. An initial list of key informants met in the Hunhammar, 1999; Gmez-Baggethun and Barton, 2013;
gardens was subsequently enlarged using a snowball technique, Gmez-Baggethun et al., 2013).

Fig. 2. Identication of ecosystem services.


Results based on 44 in-depth interviews with urban gardeners in (Barcelona, 2013).

Please cite this article in press as: M. Camps-Calvet, et al., Ecosystem services provided by urban gardens in Barcelona, Spain: Insights for policy
and planning, Environ. Sci. Policy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2016.01.007
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3.2. Valuation survey regarding the sex, age, place of origin, and income of gardeners. We
used this information to dene the socio-economic prole of the
A survey has been designed to assess the perceived importance gardeners by means of descriptive statistics.
(value) of the ES identied from the semi-structured interviews
and to characterize the demographic and socioeconomic prole of 3.3. Communication of results to policy makers
gardeners identied as their main beneciaries (second specic
objective). The survey consisted of closed face-to-face question- The rst meeting to communicate our results to policy makers
naires among 201 gardeners, covering about 30% of the estimated was held in March 2014 with staff from the Barcelona City Councils
694 urban gardeners in Barcelona. The number of questionnaires green space department and the person in charge of the Xarxa
per garden was dened in proportion to the number of gardeners, dHorts Urbans de Barcelona (Network of Urban Gardens of
aiming to cover about 1/3 of the gardeners but adjusting the exact Barcelona). The second meeting was held in April 2014 with city
number depending on the gardeners willingness to participate. planners of Barcelona City Council responsible of civic engagement
Annex 1 in Supplementary materials shows the number of surveys and for the implementation of Pla Buits (Empty-Spaces Plan). The
realized in each of the 27 urban gardens. meetings consisted in a presentation of results from the interviews
The survey consisted of two main sections. The rst main and the survey, followed by an open discussion on the policy
section comprised a socio-cultural valuation (Calvet-Mir et al., relevance of our study (third specic objective). The meetings were
2012; Martn-Lpez et al., 2012) of the ES identied in the previous recorded, minutes were taken, and policy relevant passages were
sampling phase through the semi-structured interviews (second coded following Charmaz (2006).
specic objective). Socio-cultural valuation approaches are in-
creasingly used in ES assessments (Kelemen et al., 2014; TEEB, 4. Results
2010) and had been previously used for the valuation of ES from
home gardens in rural areas (Calvet-Mir et al., 2012). First, we We structure our results in three main sections each
checked whether the respondent recognized value in each ES, by corresponding to one of our specic objectives.
asking: Is this garden important for [e.g.] pollination?. In case of
receiving a negative response, we proceeded to the next ES in the 4.1. Ecosystem services provided by urban gardens
list. In case of a positive response we further asked the respondent
to evaluate the importance he or she attributed to the ES on a Likert Two main results stand out from the interviews among key
scale (Bernard, 1999; Calvet-Mir et al., 2012; Langemeyer et al., informants conducted to identify and describe ES provided by
2014). The Likert scale captured the degree of agreement to an urban gardens: (i) the diversity of ES perceived by gardeners and
afrmative sentence about the importance of the respective ES. For (ii) the overwhelming dominance of cultural services. In terms of
example, we asked: For me, this garden is important because it diversity, we identied a total of 20 ES, including two provisioning
provides [e.g.] medicinal plants. Responses were recorded in a scale services (food supply and medicinal resources & aromatic
from zero to ve, where zero meant total disagreement and ve plants), ve regulating services (air purication, local climate
meant full agreement (see Annex 5 in Supplementary materials). regulation, global climate regulation, maintenance of soil
The second main section of the survey was designed to assess fertility, and pollination), one habitat service (maintenance of
the prole of the gardeners as direct beneciaries of the ES (second biodiversity), as well as twelve cultural ES (learning & education,
specic objective). To this end, the survey included questions social cohesion & integration, entertainment & leisure,

Table 1
Valuation of ecosystem services from urban gardens in Barcelona.

Ecosystem services from urban gardens in Barcelona Perceived as valuable (%) Value (05) Average value
Provisioning services
Food supply 95.52 3.75 3.58
Medicinal resources and aromatic plants 54.23 3.40

Regulating services
Air purication 94.53 4.08 4.12
Local climate regulation 91.04 4.01
Global climate regulation 84.08 3.86
Maintenance of soil fertility 95.52 4.36
Pollination 90.05 4.27

Habitat services
Biodiversity 96.02 4.26 4.26

Cultural services
Social cohesion & Integration 99.00 4.40 4.49
Place-making 91.54 4.62
Political fulllment 38.81 4.14
Biophilia 98.01 4.65
Quality of food 95.52 4.57
Aesthetic information 99.00 4.46
Nature & Spiritual experiences 97.01 4.51
Relax & Stress reduction 99.50 4.62
Entertainment & Leisure 99.00 4.53
Exercise & Physical recreation 95.52 4.35
Learning & Education 100.00 4.51
Maintenance of cultural heritage 98.01 4.55

Based on a survey conducted among 201 urban gardeners in (Barcelona, 2013).

Please cite this article in press as: M. Camps-Calvet, et al., Ecosystem services provided by urban gardens in Barcelona, Spain: Insights for policy
and planning, Environ. Sci. Policy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2016.01.007
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maintenance of cultural heritage, aesthetic information, relax & their efforts to promote urban gardens; rather than informing new
stress reduction, quality of food, place-making, biophilia i.e. models,a planner stated insights from our study provide
satisfaction of plant-growing, exercise & physical recreation, information on how to adapt existing lines of work and to create
nature & spiritual experiences, and political fulllment) (Fig. 2). new modalities. A planner involved in the development of Pla
Perception of the different ES (proxied here as the percentage of Buits (Empty-Spaces Plan) pointed out that our results were
key informants that mentioned each ES in the free listings) ranges important to them as external evaluation of their policies and that
from 11.4% of the informants for the least widely perceived ES information on ES values could provide insights for the develop-
(pollination) to 95.5% of the informants for the most widely ment of Pla Buits through learning from innovative insights from
perceived ES (learning & education). Other widely perceived ES previous experiences and also help to communicate and evaluate
include social cohesion & integration (88.6%), food supply this policy.
(81.8%), entertainment & leisure (77.3%), and maintenance of
cultural heritage (72.7%). Fig. 2 shows the level of perception for all 5. Discussion
identied ES in the 44 semi-structured interviews. Annex 2 in
Supplementary materials provides the complete identication and We start the discussion by acknowledging the limitations of this
characterization of ES. study. A rst important limitation relates to sample selection
biases. Because the sampled population consisted of gardeners
4.2. Valuation of ecosystem services and prole of the beneciaries (that is of the direct beneciaries of the ES provided by urban
gardens) the valuation involves to some extent a structural bias
Two main results can be highlighted with regard to the towards their positive appreciation. Hence, results obtained with
valuation of ES through the survey: (i) the high overall importance regard to the diversity of ES and high level of importance attributed
attributed to ES; and (ii) the prominence of cultural ES among to most ES is not entirely surprising. If the sampled population
those obtaining highest scores. Detailed information on the socio- would have included people that were not involved in gardening
cultural value of each ES is provided in Table 1. Aggregated values activities, it is likely that both the level of perception and value
across the broader ES categories (i.e. provisioning, regulating, obtained for ES would have been lower, and that perception of
habitat and cultural ES) varied on the scale from zero (very low) to some disservices or preference for other land uses would have
ve (very high). Cultural services obtained the highest average been mentioned. While focusing on direct beneciaries is a widely
value with a score of 4.49, followed by habitat services (4.26), used approach in ES assessments, we recognize that results from a
regulating services (4.12), and provisioning services (3.58). The more diversied population sample could provide a more balanced
most valued ES in each category were: biophilia (4.65), place- picture of the overall importance that citizens attribute to gardens
making (4.62), and relax & stress reduction (4.62) amongst and the services they provide. A second limitation derives from the
cultural services; biodiversity (4.26) amongst habitat services; fact that by providing a pre-written positive statement to the
maintenance of soil fertility (4.36) and pollination (4.27) gardeners, the score attributed to each ES might have been be
amongst regulating services; as well as food supply (3.75) and overvalued (Calvet-Mir et al., 2012).
medicinal resources & aromatic plants (3.40) amongst provision- A third limitation worth discussing concerns a potential
ing services. methodological bias towards the appreciation of cultural services.
Regarding the prole of the direct beneciaries of the ES (the While we believe that the overwhelming importance of cultural
gardeners), our sample included 76.6% male and 23.4% female services vis-a-vis other ES categories is an important result from
informants. Their ages ranged between 16 and 87 years and are our study, it should be noted that the two main techniques we used
distributed as follows: 1629 years (4.5%), 3049 years (12.9%), 50 to collect data (in-depth interviews and a valuation survey) may
69 years (36.3%) and more than 69 years (45.3%). Four out of ten involve a bias towards this ES category. Valuation methods are not
gardeners had received formal education above secondary school, neutral tools that simply reveal pre-existing perceptions about
whereas 58% had an equivalent or lower level of studies. ES and associated values as they also have frame effects that shape
Approximately 36% of the gardeners lived on a household income these perceptions and values. Hence, just as monetary valuation
below 1000 s per month with an average number of 2.5 can act as an obstacle the perception of cultural phenomena and
individuals per household. Informants origin dened here as non-economic values (Gmez-Baggethun and Ruiz-Prez, 2011;
the place where people spent their childhood was distributed as Chan et al., 2012), socio-cultural valuation methods based on
follows: 31% were locals from Barcelona, 8% had migrated from stated preferences are likely to favor the identication of ES
other parts of Catalonia, 54% migrated from other parts of Spain emerging from peoples interactions with nature over ES that are
(mainly from Andalusia), 4% came from other European countries, more directly associated to biodiversity and ecosystem functions
and 2% from Non-European countries. Most migrant gardeners (Calvet-Mir et al., 2012; Gmez-Baggethun and Martin-Lopez,
arrived to Barcelona in the 1960s. 2015). As such, cultural ES are likely to receive stronger
appreciation whereas in the absence of biophysical approaches
4.3. Ecosystem services and local policies and profound ecological knowledge of the urban gardens the
perception of regulating and habitat ES may be more difcult
In the two meetings that were held to communicate (Elmqvist et al., 2013).
knowledge and data from our research, urban planners showed In the remaining of this section we discuss our results in
strong interest in the results of our study. Planners from the Xarxa connection to urban garden policies in Barcelona, including the
dHorts Urbans de Barcelona (Network of Urban Gardens of role that gardens can play in rising awareness about societal
Barcelona) noted that results about ES provided by gardens create importance of urban ecosystems, promoting engagement in
an information basis that could be used to raise awareness about environmental stewardship, creating opportunities for recreation,
the importance of urban gardens in higher policy levels and in the and enhancing social inclusion (Barcelona City Council, 2013:85).
face of other departments of the city council. The strategic green Results might also provide insights in relation to nature-based
space planner remarked that our study is relevant because it solutions to address policy challenges for European cities more
provides objective data [ . . . ] and therefore can help to decision- broadly, including land-use changes, restoration of neglected and
making and indicate possible policy directions. The planners also abandoned areas, environmental justice, and problems of social
noted that our results on ES values could be used to justify for exclusion (EC, 2015).

Please cite this article in press as: M. Camps-Calvet, et al., Ecosystem services provided by urban gardens in Barcelona, Spain: Insights for policy
and planning, Environ. Sci. Policy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2016.01.007
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5.1. Rising environmental awareness study (scoring equal with place-making). Informants expressed
that gardens were places where they forgot about their problems,
Rising awareness of the links between ecosystems and human and where they had a chance to relax from the stressful lifestyle of
wellbeing has been proposed as an possible antidote to what has the city and get away from the feeling of chronic scarcity of time.
been referred as the extinction-of-experience (Pyle, 1978) or the In addition, gardeners in Barcelona pointed to multiple
global generational amnesia (Miller, 2005) of urban populations, opportunities for entertainment & leisure as another important
in terms of lacking food growing abilities and basic knowledge value of urban gardens. In an economic crises-ridden country like
about human dependence on essential ecological processes Spain, with high rates of unemployment and povertythe rate of
(Colding and Barthel, 2013). Barthel et al. (2010) contend that unemployment in Spain in 2014 reached 26% and 55% among
restoring such ecological knowledge can be a necessary condition persons below 30 (INE, 2014a)urban gardens play an important
for stronger stewardship of life-sustaining ecosystems. It is telling role as non-consumptive spaces of leisure. In this regard,
that the ES from urban gardens that was most widely perceived in collectively managed gardens created through bottom-up initia-
our study was learning & education. The strong educational value tives can be interpreted as emerging forms of urban commons (i.e.
of urban gardens gives basis to think that they could potentially spaces in cities that are collectively organized and managed by the
play a stronger role in the Barcelona Green Infrastructure and residents themselves) (De Angelis, 2005; Colding and Barthel
Biodiversity Plan, which refer to making citizens aware of natural 2013; Camps-Calvet et al., 2015). For example, some gardeners
heritage and biodiversity-related concepts as one of its main noted that the leisure time they spend in the gardens replaces the
challenges (Barcelona City Council, 2013). One result that is spare time they otherwise would spent in a bar, consuming health
relevant in terms of the role that gardens may play in promoting and money. The role of gardens as non-consumptive spaces of
environmental stewardship is that the highest valued ES in our leisure can be especially important for cities ridden by gentrica-
study was biophilia, the term we have used here to refer to a tion and privatization of public space where access to leisure
feeling expressed by the gardeners related to the joy to grow plants activities is increasingly commodied and restricted to those
and the satisfaction stemming with the very fact to see the lacking sufcient purchase power, a phenomenon that has been
blooming of life in their gardens (see Wilson, 1984). Breuste documented for Barcelona (Anguelovski, 2013). We believe that
(2010) suggests that the demand for an active relation of people this is again a relevant policy result. Barcelonas green infrastruc-
with nature has been an important driver of urban gardening over ture plan aims to foster green spaces for purposes of enjoyment in
the last 150 years in Central Europe. In summary, urban gardens less favored areas of the city, with actions such as opening green
offer citizens options for restoring a physical and cognitive spaces belonging to public and private institutions (Barcelona City
connection with ecosystems and opportunities for caring and Council, 2013).
nurturing life.
5.4. Promoting environmental justice
5.2. Promoting civic engagement in urban green spaces
The notion of environmental justice reects the ethical and
The European Commission states: Cities need to be designed for political case for both a balanced exposure to nature's burdens
all citizens and not just for the elite, for the tourists, or for the (risks and pollution) and a balanced access to natures benets (e.g.
investors. People should be regarded as the key city asset and not ES) (Hofrichter, 1993). While the bulk of the literature has focused
as a demographic or social problem (EC, 2011b:46). The strategic on unequal exposure to pollution, unequal access to the benets of
green infrastructure plan developed by the Barcelona City Council ecosystem services is an emerging eld of research (Ernstson,
aims at promoting participation and civic engagement in the 2013; Gmez-Baggethun et al., 2013). Our results regarding the
design and management of urban green spaces. That place- socioeconomic prole of the gardeners suggest that the benets
making expressing the importance gardeners attributed to provided by gardens can be particularly important for low-income
engaging in the recovery of degraded and abandoned urban land people. People with higher incomes often have more access to
was the second most valued ES, indicates that gardens can play an recreational uses of nature, for example through tourism or
important role also in relation to this policy objective. Friedmann privately owned gardens. In a comparative analysis of cities in
(2010) denes place-making as the adverse of the processes by Germany, Chile and Spain, Priego et al. (2008) report that higher
which places are degraded, that is, the creation and shaping of social status correlates with larger amount of private urban green
urban gardens through gardeners practices, in combination with area, while lower-income classes make more use of publicly
the social creation of meaning and sense of place (Noori and accessible green areas. In cities where access to urban green areas
Benson, 2016). Healey (2007) describes place-making as an is increasingly privatized or commodied (Harvey, 1996) (a
increase in the quality of places and in quality of life through prominent example in Barcelona is the recent imposition of
the cooperation of different stakeholders for a common good. In entrance fees to visit the emblematic Park Gell), access to urban
this respect, our results are consistent with Crouchs (1989) green areas and associated ES can often become positional goods
ndings in the United Kingdom, indicating that urban gardens offer (Hirsch, 1976; Pars et al., 2013) which access is limited to those
opportunities to ordinary citizens to decide how to shape the with ability to pay. That the majority of beneciaries of urban
urban landscape in accordance with their needs, and to give gardens reported medium to low levels of income suggests that
meaning to the places they use. urban gardens can offer an important alternative of access to ES
among lower income groups in cities.
5.3. Creating opportunities for recreation
5.5. Enhancing social inclusion
Next to food supply, recreational purposes have historically
shown to be the most important reason for urban policy-makers A recent report by the European Commissions expert group on
and practitioners to promote urban gardening (Breuste and nature-based solutions and re-naturing cities refers to social
Artman 2014; Keshavarz, 2016). Urban gardens offer a locus inclusion and reduction of economic inequalities as a European-
amoenus, i.e. a place to escape. The importance attributed to urban wide challenge in urban policy-making consisting in social
gardens recreational function is consistent with the result that (EC, 2015). Social isolation has been referred to as a new form
relax & stress reduction was the second most valued ES in our of social inequality, where people have fewer opportunities to

Please cite this article in press as: M. Camps-Calvet, et al., Ecosystem services provided by urban gardens in Barcelona, Spain: Insights for policy
and planning, Environ. Sci. Policy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2016.01.007
G Model
ENVSCI 1708 No. of Pages 10

8 M. Camps-Calvet et al. / Environmental Science & Policy xxx (2015) xxxxxx

participate or to be involved in society (Machielse, 2006). and planners. We hope our research will contribute to a rising
Previous research has shown that decits of social and intimate awareness by science, policy and the civic society regarding the
relationships resulting from isolated lifestyles in cities can lead to importance of urban gardens as critical nodes of cultural values
an experience of loneliness within densely populated areas and ES.
(Hombrados-Mendieta et al., 2012). Urban gardens offer spaces
for socialization and consequently multiple opportunities for Acknowledgements
increased social cohesion & integration (Milligan et al., 2004).
Many beneciaries in our sample reported that they perceived We thank the Xarxa dhorts urbans comunitaris de Barcelona',
urban gardens as spaces for social interaction with other the Xarxa dhorts urbans de Barcelona', the Associaci damics del
gardeners, neighbours and city inhabitants; where relations of Jard Botnic', the Barcelona City Council, and all informants that
solidarity, community cohesion and mutual support are strength- contributed data and information to this research. We thank F. Bar
ened. The importance of this facet of urban gardens has grown in for GIS assistance and the special issue editors and three
the context of the Spanish economic crisis starting in 20072008, anonymous reviewers for comments to a draft of this manuscript.
and solidarity networks have shown especially critical at a time This research received funding from European Commission project
when social inequalities are rising. In Spain, currently about 20% OpenNESS (FP7-Grant agreement: 308428) and from networking
of the population is at risk of poverty due to rising unemployment facilitated by the EU-COST ActionTU1201. Johannes Langemeyer
rates and cuts in social welfare (INE, 2014b). The main received individual funding from the Generalitat de Catalunya
beneciaries of urban gardens in Barcelona are migrants and through a FI DGR scholarship (2012FI_B 00578) and Erik Gmez-
people of advanced age, with relative low income, and a low level Baggethun received support by a grant from the NILS program on
of formal education (among them 69.15% retired and 4.46% Science and Sustainability of the EEA Financial Mechanism (028-
unemployed people). The gardeners socio-economic proles ABEL-IM-2014B).
suggest that urban gardens can play an important role towards
social integration of less privileged social strata and people that
are threatened by social exclusion. This result is broadly Appendix A. Supplementary data
consistent with results obtained in previous studies on urban
gardens in other parts of Europe (e.g. Breuste, 2010). The social Supplementary data associated with this article can be
inclusion of elderly and retired people is an important policy found, in the online version, at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
challenge for aging urban societies in Europe (EC, 2011b). Our envsci.2016.01.007.
study indicates a potential promotion of urban gardens as a
nature-based solution in urban planning to promote social
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