L.

Modder Name:___________________
Biology 12

Date:____________________

Nervous System 12

Order of Subtopics Covered:

1. What is the Nervous System
a. Divisions of the Nervous system
2. Neurons
a. Parts of the Neuron c. Nerve Impulses
b. Types of Neurons
3. Generation and Transmission of Nerve Impulses
a. Resting Potential b. Action Potential
4. Movement of an nerve impulse along an axon
a. Refractory period c. All or nothing
b. Unidirectional propagation
5. Saltatory Conduction.

6. Transmission Across a Synapse

a. Synapse c. Neurotransmitters
b. Neurotransmitter Release
7. Reflex Arc
a. Parts & Structure b. Steps in a Reflex Arc
8. Parts of the Nervous System
a. CNS c. Conscious Brain
b. Unconscious Brain d. Autonomic Nervous system

Nervous System:
The nervous system is our processing system, and the system that keeps us in contact with the
outside world. It tells us that we exist, and along with the muscles allows us to move and react to
stimuli. Our consciousness resides in our nervous systems, as do our thoughts and emotions.
In short, the roles of the nervous system are: responsible for coordination of movement, response
to environmental stimuli, intelligence, self-awareness, thought, emotion. Raycroft
It is a NETWORK of interacting neurons.
The NEURON is the functional unit of the nervous system.
o It is capable of transient, RAPID message CONDUCTION done through creating
changes in the membrane POTENTIAL.
o These changes take the form of ELECTRICAL signals resulting from the changes in
movement of IONS across the membrane.
The Nervous system is divided into 2 major systems that WORK TOGETHER and
are CONNECTED to each other. Major divisions in the nervous system
 NERVOUS SYSTEM
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)
brain & spinal cord
in invertebrates, most of NS is
located in the CNS
site when sensory information
is received and motor control
is initiated
Protected by bone (skull, vertebrae)
Wrapped in protective layers called
Menigies.
Cushioned and by cerebrospinal
fluid
AUTONOMIC SYSTEM
made of motor neurons that
control muscles of the internal
organs AUTOMATICALLY -
usually UNCONCIOUSLY
Connects to smooth muscle
SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM
Emergency situation - fight or flight
Heart Rate
Digestive Rate
Pupils & vessel dilation
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)
rest of N.S.
Parts or entire Neurons that lie
outside the CNS
sensory neurons that bring sensory
information to the CNS using
LONG dendrites.
motor neurons bring instructions from
CNS to muscles using LONG axons.
mixed neutrons with both senory and
motor functions.
SOMATIC SYSTEM
all the nerves in the MUSCULOSKELETAL
system and the EXTERIOR SENSE
organs.
Musculoskeletal system allows us to move
it causes and EFFECT EFFECTORS
Sensory system receive information they
serve as RECEPTORS.
PARASYMPATHETIC SYSTEM
Normal state situation
Heart Rate
Digestive Rate
Pupil & vessel constriction
 Neurons:

Functional UNITS of the Nervous System (N.S.).

Charges on either side of the plasma MEMBRANE can generate electrical signals
(called nerve IMPULSES or action POTENTIAL).
Parts of a Neuron:
1. Dendrite: PROJECTIONS of cell body, carry messages TOWARD cell body
2. Cell body: contains NUCLEUS and organelles.
3. Axon: PROCESSES that conducts nerve impulses AWAY from the cell body.
May be very LONG (eg. From spinal cord to TOE) and may branch.
- Axon terminal: END of axon, divided into a SPRAY of fine nerve endings,
very close to TARGET cell.
o Dendrites and axons are sometimes called FIBRES
o Most long fibers are coated with a MYELIN sheath that INSULATES them.
Spaces in the sheath expose the axon at NODES of Ranvier. Sheath is secreted
by SCHWANN cells, each of which has a nucleus.
o
Nucleus
Axon

Dendrites Schwann Cell Myelin Sheath Axon

Terminal
Cell Body Node of Ranvier
Body
Types of Neurons:
1. Sensory Neurons: (AFFERENT NEURON)
o Transmit messages from SENSORY ORGANS to CENTRAL NERVOUS
SYSTEM
o LONG DENDRITES (from sense organ to cell body within vertebral
column) & SHORT AXONS (from cell body in vertebral column to spinal
cord)
 Axon Cell Body

Sensory Organ
Dendrite

2. Motor Neurons: (EFFERENT NEURON)

o Transmit messages from CNS to MUSCLE FIBRES OR GLANDS
(EFFECTORS)
o SHORT DENDRITES (from CNS to cell body within the spinal cord) &
LONG AXONS (from cell body within spinal cord to effector).

Axon
Dendrites
Effector

Cell Body

3. Interneurons: (ASSOCIATION OR CONNECTOR NEURONS)

o Completely contained in CNS.
o Convey messages between PARTS OF CNS and between the AFFERENT
& EFFERENT neurons in a reflex arc.
o Dendrites and Axons may be LONG OR SHORT.
Nerve Impulses:
o Scientists study the axon of the GIANT SQUID to understand how nerve
impulses work.
 o Nerve CONDUCTION results because of an electrochemical change that moves
in ONE DIRECTION along the length of a nerve fiber.
- It is electrochemical because it involves changes in VOLTAGE as well as in
the concentrations of certain IONS.
o Since it is electric, we use OSCILLOSCOPES to measure potential differences.
o There are 3 distinct phases in the GENERATION of a nerve impulse along an
axon:
1. RESTING phase (-65 mV)
2. ACTION phase (up to +40mV)
3. RECOVERY phase (down to -80 mV then -65 mV)

Generation and Transmission of Nerve Impulses:

A SEPARATION of OPPOSITE charges exists across a membrane. This is actually

a difference in the relative NUMBERS of (+) or (-) ions in the INTRACELLULAR
fluid (ICF) and the extracellular fluid ( ECF ).
o Recall that opposite charges ATTRACT and like charges REPEL one another, so
ENERGY must be expended in order to SEPARATE opposite charges, and the
FORCE of attraction between them can be used to do WORK.
RESTING POTENTIAL: The difference across the membrane of the axon when it is
NOT conducting an impulse equals - 65 mV. This is called the RESTING PHASE.

o During the resting potential, Na+ ions are more concentrated on the OUTSIDE of
the membrane than the inside.

o K+ ions are more concentrated on the INSIDE of the axon.

o This uneven distribution of K and Na ions is maintained by ACTIVE
TRANSPORT across Na+/K+ PUMPS which operate whenever the neuron is not
conducting an impulse.
o This negative polarity is caused by the presence of LARGE ORGANIC
NEGATIVE IONS in the AXOPLASM (the cytoplasm inside an axon) they are too
big to move across cell membrane.

INSIDE or
Intracellular OUTSIDE or
extracellular
o The membrane is said to be POLARIZED (more negative) as it has a difference
of charges on the inside versus the outside.
o Protein LEAK CHANNELS allow NA+ and K+ to constantly move down their
CONTRATION gradients passively, opposing the action of the pumps.
- The movement of LEAKINGcharges is NEGLIGABLE.
- No electric SIGNALS are produced during resting potential, the membrane
POTENTIAL is constant when the cell is at rest. (there is no NET movement
of ions due to the action of the Na+/K+ pump, which maintains the potential
difference.

Ion ECF ICF Relative Movement

[in moles/L] [in moles/L] permeability
150 15 1 Down gradient
few channels
NA+
5 150 50-75 Down gradient
many channels
K+
0 65 0 Too large to
move across
A-
membrane
ACTION POTENTIAL: A nerve impulse is called an ACTION POTENTIAL and is made
up of an ACTION PHASE & RECOVERY PHASE.
o If a nerve is stimulated by a SHOCK, pH change, MECHANICAL
STIMULATION, a nerve impulse is generated, and a change in POTENTIAL can
be seen on the oscilloscope.
1. Action Phase: is caused by a DEPOLARIZATION (inside the axon becomes
positive) & REPOLARIZATION (inside the axon becomes negative again)
- when looking at oscilloscope is called the UPSWING & DOWNSWING

WHAT HAPPENS WHAT IT LOOKS LIKE

The stimulation causes a change in

membrane potential on the dendrite.
This causes VOLTAGE - GATED
SODIUM channels to open up & Na+
diffuses INTO AXON.

Depolarization - the axon becomes

positive in that particular region
Membrane potential goes from -65mV to
+40 mV

This depolarization causes VOLTAGE -

GATED POTASSIUM channels to open up
& K+ diffuses OUT OF THE AXON.

Repolarization the axon becomes

negative again in that particular region.
Membrane potential goes from +40 mV to
-80 mV. It is actually considered to be
HYPERPOLARIZED.

The depolarization caused by the

movement of Na+ INTO the axon causes
more VOLTAGE-GATED Na+ channels to
open up just ahead of the spot of
depolarization a chain effect.
 2. Recovery Phase: Also known as the REFRACTORY PERIOD.
- Na+ and K+ concentration gradients are RESET by the action of the NA+/K+
PUMPS.
Diagram: Generalized Oscilloscope record of changes in potential.

Movement of an impulse along an axon.

REFRACTORY PERIOD
UNIDIRECTIONAL propagation and limited FREQUENCY of AP is due to the
REFRACTORY period.
o This is the Recovery Phase between IMPULSES, during which K+ and Na+
concentration gradients are restored via ACTIVE TRANSPORT.
o Because resetting the concentration gradients and voltage-gated channels is
required it prevents the action potential from moving BACKWARDS.
o The resting potential is restored by the action of the Na+/K+ PUMPS. The
refractory period is divided into two phases:
1. Absolute refractory period: NA+ channels, once opened, must be
returned to their ready-to-be-opened state before they can be stimulated
to open again, regardless of the MAGNITUDE of the triggering event.
2. Relative refractory period: AP can be generated by a LARGER than
normal triggering event due to still INACTIVE Na+ channels and the
SLOW to close K+ channels. FEW voltage-gated Na+ channels are
READY to be opened again.
UNIDIRECTIONAL PROPAGATION
Movement is like a chain reaction each event triggering another.
Segment of an Axon:

1) Resting potential at a spot on the membrane:

2) Na+ channels open:

3) K+ channels open:

4) Steps repeat in adjacent portion of membrane:

5) Repetition of the above in a step-wise fashion:

**A positive FEEDBACK cycle is responsible for the opening of Na+ channels at
threshold:
TRIGGERING EVENT

DEPOLARIZATION

Na+ INFLUX OPENING OF SOME

FURTHER DEPOLARIZES VOLTAGE-GATED Na+
MEMBRANE CHANNELS

Open if voltage of
membrane is changed
All or Nothing Propagation:
o Once initiated, an action (AP) is conducted along the length of the axon without further
STIMULATION
o ALL-OR-NOTHING event.

Saltatory Conduction:
Speed of nerve impulses is dependant of the structure of the nerves.
1) fiber DIAMETER
2) myelination.
 Myelin is mainly made up of LIPIDS (cell membranes of Schwann cells), serves
to INSULATE the nerve and gives nerves their WHITE appearance.
Nodes of RANVIER are gaps in the myelin, areas where the axon membrane is
EXPOSED to the ECF. These are the only areas where current can FLOW, and
they are the sites of CONCENTRATIONS of voltage-gated channels.

AP at a node causes LOCAL current at nearby node, reducing the potential

(making it less negative) to THRESHOLD and causing an AP.
The result is that the AP is propagated in a JUMPING fashion between
MYELINATED regions, called SALTATORY conduction.

Myelination CONSERVES energy & time: The only ions moving are
RESTRICTED to the NODES, and thus fewer ions are needed to be returned by
the Na+ /K+ pumps.
 In non-myelinated fiber, the nerve impulse must depolarize and repolarize each
point along the nerve fiber.
Velocity:
1) myelinated fibers conduct impulses approx. 50X times faster than
unmyelinated
2) LARGE DIAMETER , myelinated fibers conduct AP at approx 120 200
m/s (eg. Skeletal muscle)
3) Small diameter, unmyelinated fibers conduct AP at approx. 0.7 m/s (eg.
DIGESTIVE tract).
Transmission Across a Synapse:
SYNAPSE: A synapse is a SPACE between the end of one axon and the DENDRITES
or cell body of a nearby cell.
Synapses allow neurons to COMMUNICATE with one another, or with other cells.
Synaptic ending: bulging or SWOLLEN termini on the ends of axon terminal
BRANCHES.
Presynaptic membrane: membrane of axon synaptic ending SENDING message
to somewhere else.
Postsynaptic membrane: membrane of the neuron or other cell on the other side
of the SYNAPSE RECEIVING message.
Synaptic Cleft: The SPACE between the presynaptic and postsynaptic
membranes.

Synaptic cleft
Vessicle with NT
inside

Presynaptic
mb

Postsynaptic mb
 Neurotransmitter Substances (neurotransmitters): CHEMICALS that transmit the
nerve impulses across a synaptic cleft.
Synaptic Vesicles: contain the neurotransmitters. Contained near surface of
SYNAPTIC ENDINGS.
o Acetylcholine (Ach), Noradrenalin (NA), Serotonin, Adrenalin (epinephrine)
are some important neurotransmitters.
Transmission across a synapse is ONE-WAY because only the ENDS OF AXONS
have synaptic vesicles that are able to release neurotransmitters to affect the
potential of the next neurons.
Stimulation or INHIBITION of the postsynaptic membrane can occur.
o A neuron is on the receiving end of MANY synapses, and some of the
neighboring presynapatic neurons may be sending INHIBITORY impulses, and
some may be sending STIMULATORY impulses.
o If the amount of EXCITATORY neurotransmitter received is sufficient enough to
OVERCOME the amount of inhibitory neurotransmitter (n.t.) received, the neuron
FIRES AP. If not, only LOCAL excitation occurs and the message doesnt
travel far.
NEUROTRANSMITTER RELEASE
WHAT HAPPENS WHAT IT LOOKS LIKE
1. Nerve impulse travel along axon, reach a
synaptic ending.

2. Arrival of nerve impulse at synaptic ending

causes VOLTAGE-GATED CALCIUM
CHANNELS to open ----> Ca++ flows into
ending
3. Ca++ ions cause CONTRACTILE proteins to
pull synaptic vesicles to the PRESYNAPTIC
membrane.

4. Vesicles FUSE with presynaptic membrane,

releasing neurotransmitters into SYNPATIC
CLEFT.

5. Neurotransmitters diffuse across synaptic cleft to

receptors on postsynaptic membrane.

The receptors control selective ion channels;

LIGAND-GATED SODIUM CHANNELS open
when a neurotransmitter binds to its specific
receptors Na+ flows INTO POSTSYNAPTIC
axon.

6. The resulting ion flux (not shown on diagram)

changes the voltage of the postsynaptic
membrane. This either moves the membrane
voltage closer to the THRESHOLD VOLTAGE
required for an action potential (an excitatory
synapse), or hyperpolarizes the membrane (an
inhibitory synapse).

In this diagram, the neurotransmitters binding to

receptors on the dendrite causes the nerve
impulse to be transmitted down the dendrite of
the second neuron. The nerve impulse has now
been TRANSMITTED from the first neuron to the
second neuron.
7. Neurotransmitters are quickly DEACTIVATED to
prevent them from continually acting on
postsynaptic membrane. This can occur by:
a) neurotransmitter is DEGRADED by ENZYMES
(e.g., acetylcholinesterase (= cholinesterase)
breaks down acetycholine).
b) synaptic ending REABSORBS the
neurotransmitter. e.g. this is what happens to
SEROTONIN.
e.g. Monoamine oxidase breaks down
noradrenalin after it is absorbed.

NEUROTRAMSITTERS:
Neurotransmitters take nerve impulses ACROSS SYNPASES.
Neurotransmiters are small molecules. They can be single amino acids, short
chains of amino acids, or derivatives of protein.
Proper brain and nervous system function depends on the proper BALANCE of
excitatory and inhibitory synaptic transmitters.
Excitatory transmitters: include
o ACETYLCHOLINE (ACh)
o ADRENALIN (epinephrine)
o NORADRENALIN (norepinephrine)
o SEROTONIN (derived from the amino acid tryptophan)
o DOPAMINE
Inhibitory transmitters: include
o GABA (gamma aminobutyric acid - a type of amino acid)
o GLYCINE (an amino acid)
o SEROTONIN can also act as an inhibitory neurotransmitter.
Neurotransmitters include ENDORPHINS and ENKEPHALINS (a 5 amino-acid
chain that functions as a natural pain reliever in brain). OPIUM and HEROIN mimic
the action of natural endorphins and enkephalins.
A single neuron may receive information from THOUSANDS of neighbouring neuron
through thousands of synapse. Some of the messages are EXCITATORY (i.e. they
 tell the neuron to fire) while others may be INHIBITORY (i.e. they tell the neuron
NOT to fire).
Whether or not a neuron fires off an
action potential at any particular instant
depends on its ability to
integrate these multiple positive and
negative inputs.

Reflex Arc
REFLEXES are automatic, INVOLUNTARY responses to changes occurring inside
or outside the body.
The reflex Arc is the main form of communication in the SOMATIC system.
It allows us to react to INTERNAL and EXTERNAL stimuli & can involve the brain
(e.g. blinking) or not involve brain (e.g. withdraw hand from hot stove).
Sensory impulse results in a message being sent to the brain at the same time a
muscle reacts to the stimulus.
PARTS & STRUCTURE:
Dorsal Root
o Spinal Cord: the DORSAL ROOT Dorsal Root Ganglion
can be identified by the presence of
an enlargement called the DORSAL
ROOT GANGLION, which contains
Interneuron
the cell bodies of the SENSORY
neurons whose dendrites conduct
impulses toward the cord. The
VENTRAL ROOT of each spinal Ventral Root
nerve contains axons of MOTOR
neurons that conduct impulses away
from the cord.
o The two roots join just before the spinal nerve leaves the vertebral column.
 STEPS IN A REFLEX ARC:
1. Sensory organ or RECEPTOR: detects a
STIMULUS/change in environment. (X)
2. NA+ gates open in SENSORY neuron
message travels towards dorsal root
ganglion. (W)
3. INTERNEURON communicates message
to MOTOR neuron, as well as to the
BRAIN at the same time.
4. Motor neuron communicates message (Z) to the MUSCLE or GLAND (efferent)
(Y).
5. Effector (muscle or gland ) RESPONDS.

Parts of the Nervous System

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM:
Consists of the brain and SPINAL cord that lie along the MIDLINE of the body.
o Spinal Cord:
- Contains GREY matter that is made up of the INNER portion and composed
of the cell bodies of neurons. Cell bodies on the DORSAL side (back) of the
grey matter RECEIVE information. Cell bodies on the VENTRAL side SEND
out information. (TRACTS)
- Contains white matter that is made up of long INTERNEURONS that run in
ascending TRACTS (to the BRAIN ) and descending tracts (from the brain).
The white matter is the OUTER portion of the spinal cord.
o Brain:
- Brain is approximately 900 - 2100 cm3, and weighs about 1.35 Kg.
- Maximum number of neurons AT BIRTH thousands are lost on a DAILY
BASIS & will never be replaced.
- Contains both CONCIOUS and UNCONCIOUS portions.
Protected by bone ( SKULL, vertebrae), and the meninges (cerebrospinal FLUID -
filled layers ).
CNS - UNCONCIOUS BRAIN
Medulla Oblongata (X) : Controls
heart RATE, breathing, blood
PRESSURE, REFLEX actions like
coughing, sneezing and hiccupping.
Thalamus (V) : RECEIVES sensory
iinformation from the body,
TRANSMITS it to the cerebrum.
o It is the last portion of the brain for sensory input before the cerebrum.
o Serves as a CENTRAL RELAY STATION for SENSORY impulses coming up
spinal cord and other parts of brain to the cerebrum. Receives ALL sensory
impulses (except for smell) and sends them to appropriate regions of the cortex
for interpretation.
o Sorts out incoming stimuli, passing on to the cerebrum only those that require
IMMEDIATE ATTENTION. i.e. it lets you ignore input (like your teacher talking)
so you can do other things (yak to your friends about Grad).
Cerebellum (Z): coordinates movement and BALANCE & complex muscular
movement.
o Functions in muscle COORDINATION - skeletal muscles work together
smoothly.
o Responsible for maintaining normal muscle tone, posture, balance. It receives
sensory information from the INNER EAR (which senses balance).
Hypothalamus (W): Involved in HOMEOSTASIS.
o It maintains internal environment, contains centers for HUNGER, sleep, thirst,
body TEMPERATURE, water balance, BLOOD PRESSURE.
o Controls PITUITARY GLAND.
Pituitary Gland (U): is the LINK between the N.S. and the ENDOCRINE system.
Corpus Callosum (Y): CONNECTS the right and left HEMISPHERES (sides of
brain).
 Left Hemisphere LOGICAL SIDE Right Hemisphere INTUITIVE
SIDE
-Controls Right Side of body -Controls Left Side of body
Processes Data Processes senses
Evaluation Symbolizes
Factual Spiritual
Structured Spontaneous
Detecting differences Seeks similarieties
Has a sense of time & measures NO time & measures
Speaks but does not know Know but cannot speak Imagining
Talking Feeling
Setting Goals Speculation
Planning Visualization
Empathizing

CNS - CONCIOUS BRAIN

CEREBRUM is the LARGEST, most prominent and highly developed part of the
brain.
It is involved in CONSCIOUSNESS ,sensations, intellect, PERSONALITY , memory,
and it has many FOLDS.
Outer layer is the CORTEX.
Classified as either left/right hemispheres OR 1 of 5 LOBES.
Lobes:
Frontal Parietal Temporal Occipital Insula
personality Sensation Hearing Vision 5th lobe within
(touch, temp, brain
memory Smell Integration
pressure,
of visual & Coordination of
thought pain) Memory of
other senses brain functions
visual scnes
movement Understanding
& music Visceral
problem of speech
(primative)
solving function
PNS SOMATIC NERVOUS SYTEM (P.N.S.)
Somatic N.S. consists of all the nerve fibres that innervate the SKELETAL MUSCLE
and sense organs (have long dendrites)
See ENTIRE SECTION ABOVE ABOUT NEURONS & REFLEX ARCS.
PNS - AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (A.N.S.)
Autonomic N.S. consists of neurons that control INTERNAL ORGANS.
Two opposing systems make up the A.N.S. they connect to the SAME internal
organs but have OPPOSITE effects.
Each system functions UNCONCIOUSLY on internal organs and use 2 MOTOR
neurons 1 to step it up and 1 to take it down.
(1) Sympathetic (2) Parasympathetic
Involved with Involved with
-emergencies -relaxed state
-fight or flight -housekeeping system
-dilating pupils -constricting pupils
-Increasing respiration -decreasing respiration
-Increasing heart rate -decreasing H.R.
-increasing perspiration -decreasing perspiration
-decreasing digestion rate -increase digestion rate
-decreasing salivation -increase salivation

NT = Norepinephrine or NT = Ach
Noradrenalin