Hide

WLE Austria Logo (no text).svg

Wiki Loves Earth photo contest: Upload photos of natural heritage sites in China
to help Wikipedia and win fantastic prizes!
Firefighting
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Not to be confused with a firefight, which is a battle with firearms.
This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues
on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages)
This article needs additional citations for verification. (April 2011)
This article is in a list format that may be better presented using prose. (Octo
ber 2009)
Firefighters at a major fire involving an abandoned convent in Canada, 2006
Firefighting in Jyvskyl, Finland
Firefighting is the act of attempting to prevent the spread of and extinguish si
gnificant unwanted fires in buildings, vehicles, woodland, etc. A firefighter su
ppresses and extinguishes fires to protect lives and to prevent the destruction
of property and of the environment.[1] Firefighters may provide other services t
o their communities.
Firefighters typically undergo a high degree of technical training,[1][2] in bot
h general firefighting techniques and developing specialist expertise in particu
lar fire and rescue operations, such as aircraft/airport rescue, wilderness fire
suppression, and search and rescue.
One of the major hazards associated with firefighting operations could possibly
be the toxic environment created by combustible materials, the four major risks
are smoke, oxygen deficiency, elevated temperatures, and poisonous atmospheres.[
3] Additional hazards include falls and structural collapse that can exacerbate
the problems entailed in a toxic environment. To combat some of these risks, fir
efighters carry self-contained breathing equipment.
The first step in a firefighting operation is reconnaissance to search for the o
rigin of the fire, to identify the specific risks, and to locate possible casual
ties.
Fires can be extinguished by water, fuel or oxidant removal, or chemical flame i
nhibition.
Contents
1 History
1.1 Historic tactics and tools
1.2 Ancient Rome
1.3 United Kingdom
1.4 United States
2 Firefighter duties
2.1 Firefighter skills
2.2 Specialized skills
2.3 Shift hours
2.4 Fire wardens
3 Hazards caused by fire
4 Reconnaissance and "reading" the fire
5 Science of extinguishment
6 Use of water
6.1 Open air fire
6.2 Closed volume fire
 7 Asphyxiating a fire
8 Tactical ventilation or isolation of the fire
9 Categorizing fires in the US
10 Calculating the amount of water required to suppress a fire in a closed v
olume
10.1 Volume computation
11 See also
12 References
13 External links
History
Bulgarian firefighters in action, 1930s
Ottawa Fire Department motor pump, Ottawa, Ontario, taken by the Topley Studio,
May 1915.
The earliest known firefighters were in the city of Rome. In 60 A.D., emperor Ne
ro established a Corps of Vigils (Vigiles) to protect Rome after a disastrous fi
re. It consisted of 7,000 people equipped with buckets and axes, and they fought
fires and served as police.[4]
Historic tactics and tools
In the 4th century B.C., an Alexandrian Greek named Ctesibius made a double forc
e pump called a siphona. As water rose in the chamber, it compressed the air ins
ide, which forced the water to eject in a steady stream through a pipe and nozzl
e.[4]
In the 16th century, syringes were also used as firefighting tools, the larger o
nes being mounted on wheels.[4] Another traditional method that survived was the
bucket brigade, involving two lines of people formed between the water source a
nd the fire. Typically, men in one of the lines would pass along the full bucket
s of water toward the fire while in the other line women and children would pass
back the empty buckets to be refilled.[4]
In the 17th century, 'fire engines' were made, notably in Amsterdam.[4] In 1721,
the English inventor Richard Newsham made a popular fire engine that was essent
ially a rectangular box on wheels filled using a bucket brigade to provide a res
ervoir while hand-powered pumps supplied sufficient water pressure to douse fire
s at a distance.[4]
Ancient Rome
Ancient Rome did not have municipal firefighters. Instead, private individuals r
elied on their slaves or supporters to take action. They would not only form buc
ket brigades or attempt to smother smaller fires, but would also demolish or raz
e nearby buildings to slow the spread of the fire. However, there is no mention
of fires being extinguished, rather they were contained and burned themselves ou
t. Ancient Rome did not have an organized firefighting force until the Vigiles w
ere formed in the reign of Augustus.[5]
United Kingdom
Prior to the Great Fire of London in 1666, some parishes in the UK had begun to
organize rudimentary firefighting. After the Great Fire, Nicholas Barbon introdu
ced the first fire insurance. In order to reduce insurance costs, Barbon also fo
rmed his own fire brigade, and other companies followed suit.
By the start of the 1800s, insured buildings were identified with a badge or mar
k, indicating that they were eligible for firefighting services. (Buildings with
no coverage, or insurance with a different company, were left to burn,[6] unles
s they happened to be adjacent to an insured building, in which case it was ofte
n in the insurance company's interest to prevent the fire from spreading.) In 18
33, these companies in London merged to form The London Fire Company Establishme
nt.
Steam powered apparatuses were first introduced in the 1850s, allowing a greater
quantity of water to be directed onto a fire, and in the early 1930s, they were
superseded by versions powered by an internal combustion engine.
In World War II, the Auxiliary Fire Service and later the National Fire Service
were established to supplement local fire services. At that time, there was no c
ountrywide standard for firefighting terms, procedures, ranks, or equipment (suc
h as hose couplings). These were standardized after World War II.
United States
In January 1608, a fire destroyed many of the colonists' provisions and lodgings
in Jamestown, Virginia. Boston, New York City, and Philadelphia were all plague
d by fires, and volunteer fire brigades formed soon after such disasters.[7]
In 1736, Benjamin Franklin founded the Union Fire Company in Philadelphia, which
became the standard for volunteer fire organizations. These firefighters had tw
o critical tools: salvage bags and so-called bed keys. Salvage bags were used to
quickly collect and save valuables, and bed keys were used to separate the wood
en frame of a bed into pieces for safe and rapid removal from the fire.[7]
The first American attempt at fire insurance failed after a large fire in Charle
stown, Massachusetts in 1736. Later in 1740, Benjamin Franklin organized the Phi
ladelphia Contributionship to provide fire insurance, which was more successful.
The Contributionship adopted "fire marks" to easily identify insured buildings.
Firefighting started to become formalized with rules for providing buckets, lad
ders, and hooks, and with the formation of volunteer companies. A chain of comma
nd was also established.[7]
Firefighter duties
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help im
prove this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material m
ay be challenged and removed. (May 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this temp
late message)
A firefighter's goals are to save lives, property, and the environment.
A fire can rapidly spread and endanger many lives, but with modern firefighting
techniques, catastrophe can often be avoided.
To prevent fires from starting, a firefighter's duties may include public educat
ion about fire safety and conducting fire inspections of locations to verify the
ir adherence to local fire codes.
File:Aerial video of Firefighting.webmPlay media
Aerial video of Firefighting
Firefighter skills
A firefighter doing a ladder slide, which is used to quickly escape from a windo
w
Firefighting requires skills in combating, extinguishing, and preventing fires,
answering emergency calls, operating and maintaining fire department equipment a
nd quarters, and extensive training in performing firefighting and rescue activi
ties. Firefighters must also have (or be able to acquire) knowledge of departmen
t organizations, operations, and procedures,[4] and the district or city street
system[4] they will have to negotiate in order to perform their duties.
They must meet minimum physical fitness standards and learn various firefighting
and rescue duties within a reasonable period,[4] including how to assist people
in critical condition as a first responder, and provide other community service
s in addition to firefighting, such as:
 Emergency medical services, as technicians or as licensed paramedics staffin
g ambulances;
Vehicle rescue/extrication;
Defensive hazardous materials mitigation (HAZMAT);
Community disaster support;
Fire risk assessment.
Specialized skills
Specialized areas of fire and rescue operations may require subject-specific tra
ining.[8][9]
A hose team training to fight an aircraft fire aboard a US aircraft carrier, 200
6
Examples are:
Aircraft/airport rescue
Building collapse
Emergency Medical Services
Cold-water rescue
Confined space rescue
High-angle rope rescue
Offensive hazardous materials technician services (HAZMAT)
Search and rescue
Shipboard and military fire and rescue
Swift water rescue
Tactical paramedic support ("SWAT medics")
Tool hoisting
Trench rescue
Wildland fire suppression
Shift hours
Firefighters typically follow a 24-hour shift schedule, although some fire depar
tments work eight or 12 hour shifts.[10] Australian firefighters work a 10/14 sh
ift, in which the day shift works ten hours and the night shift works 14 hours.[
11] Firefighting personnel are split up into alternating shifts. Usually, the 24
hour shifts are followed by two days off.[4] The shift personnel arrive for rol
l call at a specified time, ready to complete a regular tour of duty.[4] While o
n shift, the firefighter remains at the fire station unless relieved or assigned
other duties.[4]
Fire wardens
A fire warden poster, circa 1940s.
In fire fighting, there are also people designated as fire wardens, also known a
s the chief officer. Their duties vary, some may ensure evacuation of that part
of the building for which they are responsible; others may be responsible for fi
re control in a particular area, direct a crew in the suppression of forest fire
s, or function as fire patrolmen in a logging area.[12]
The chief officer is in charge of his firefighters during fires or emergencies,
and he is expected to command and control the overall situation while effectivel
y combating a fire or other emergency.[4] Chief officers must be able to evaluat
e their firefighters, use sound judgement when deciding when it is time to withd
raw firefighters from a fire, and react calmly in emergency situations.[4] The c
hief officer must direct the activities of a fire department and supervise all f
irefighting and rescue activities. In addition, he must have extensive knowledge
of the city, the location of streets, fire hydrants and fire alarm boxes, and t
he principal buildings.[4] Also he must have knowledge of explosives, hazardous
chemicals, and the combustion qualities of materials in buildings, homes, and in
dustrial plants.[4]
In certain jurisdictions, civilians can get certified to be a Fire Warden, and s
ome cities require certain types of buildings, such as high rises, to have a cer
tain number of Fire Wardens. For example, the City of Houston, Texas, requires e
very tenant in a high-rise to have at least one Fire Warden for every 7500 sq. f
t. occupied, and a minimum of two Fire Wardens per floor.[13] In this example, t
heir duties include investigating any fire alarms (see if there really is a fire
and if so, its nature), ensuring the fire department is contacted, directing th
e evacuation of the facility, activating or delaying activation of fire suppress
ion equipment such as halon and sprinklers (delayed in case of a false alarm), m
eeting the fire department and taking them to the location of the alarm or to th
e fire past any security or locked doors, and, if necessary, fighting the fire u
ntil the fire department arrives.
Hazards caused by fire
Structure fire in Grand Rapids, Michigan, US
One of the major hazards associated with firefighting operations is the toxic en
vironment created by combusting materials. The four major hazards are:[14]
Smoke, which is becoming increasingly dangerous due to the increased variety
and amount of synthetic household materials.
Oxygen deficient atmosphere, 21% O2 is normal, 19.5% O2 is considered oxygen
deficient.
Elevated temperatures
Toxic atmospheres
To deal with such hazards, firefighters carry a self-contained breathing apparat
us (SCBA; an open-circuit positive pressure system) to prevent smoke inhalation.
These are not oxygen tanks (oxygen as a powerful fire accelerant would represen
t a grave risk when combined with virtually anything combustible in the presence
of fire) but use compressed air in a similar manner to SCUBA diving gear. A fir
efighter's SCBA usually hold 30 to 45 minutes of air, depending on the size of t
he tank and the rate of consumption during strenuous activities. While this gear
helps to eliminate the risks, firefighters are still exposed to smoke, toxic du
st and fumes that have contributed to firefighters being 14% more likely to deve
lop cancer.
Obvious risks associated with the immense heat generated by a fire, even without
direct contact with the flames (direct flame impingement), such as conductive h
eat and radiant heat, can cause serious burns even from great distances. There a
re a number of comparably serious heat-related risks, such as burns from hot gas
es (e.g., air), steam, and hot and/or toxic smoke. Accordingly, firefighters are
equipped with personal protective equipment (PPE) that includes fire-resistant
clothing such as Nomex or polybenzimidazole fiber (PBI) and helmets that limit t
he transmission of heat towards the body. No PPE, however, can completely protec
t the user from the effects of all possible fire conditions.[15]
Heat can cause flammable liquid contained in tanks to explode violently, produci
ng what is called a BLEVE (boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion).[16] Some c
hemical products such as ammonium nitrate fertilizers can also explode, potentia
lly causing physical trauma from blast or shrapnel injuries. Sufficient heat cau
ses human flesh to burn as fuel, or the water within to boil, leading to potenti
ally severe medical problems.
Depending on the heat of the fire, burns can occur in a fraction of a second.
Main article: Burn
Additional risks of fire are the obscuring of vision due to smoke, potentially c
ausing a fall or disorientation; becoming trapped in a fire; and structural coll
apse.[17]
"Three hours of fighting a fire stiffens arteries and impairs cardiac function i
n firefighters" according to a new study by Bo Fernhall, a professor in the depa
rtment of kinesiology and community health in the College of Applied Health Scie
nces, and Gavin Horn, director of research at the Illinois Fire Service Institut
e. The conditions (observed in healthy male firefighters) are "also apparent fou
nd in weightlifters and endurance athletes..."[18]
Reconnaissance and "reading" the fire
The first step in a firefighting operation is reconnaissance to search for the o
rigin of the fire (which may not be obvious for an indoor fire, especially if th
ere are no witnesses), to identify any specific risks, and to detect possible ca
sualties. An outdoor fire may not require reconnaissance, but a fire in a cellar
or an underground car park with only a few centimeters of visibility may requir
e long reconnaissance to identify the source of the fire.
The "reading" of a fire is the analysis by firefighters of indications of therma
l events such as flashover, backdraft or smoke explosion. It is performed during
reconnaissance and fire suppression maneuvers.
The main signs are:
Hot zones, which can be detected with a gloved hand, for example by touching
a door before opening it;
Soot on windows, which usually means that combustion is incomplete, and thus
, a lack of air in the room;
Smoke pulsing in and out around a door frame, as if the fire were breathing,
which usually also means a lack of air to support combustion.
Spraying water on the ceiling in short pulses of a diffused spray (e.g., a cone
with an opening angle of 60) can be undertaken to test the heat of smoke: If the
temperature is moderate, the water falls down in drops with a sound like rain; i
f the temperature is high, the water vaporizes with a hiss the sign of a potential
ly extremely dangerous impending flashover.
Ideally, part of reconnaissance is consulting an existing pre-plan for the build
ing that provides information about existing structures, firefighter hazards, an
d in some cases the most appropriate strategies and tactics for fighting a fire
in that context.
Science of extinguishment
See also: Fire Chemistry and Physical properties of wildfires
A fire helicopter is used to fight a wildfire
There are four elements[19] needed to start and sustain a fire and/or flame. The
se are a reducing agent (fuel), Heat, an oxidizing agent (oxygen), and a chemica
l reaction. A fire can be extinguished by taking away any of the four components
.[19]
The fuel is the substance being oxidized or burned in the combustion process. Th
e most common fuels contain carbon along with combinations of hydrogen and oxyge
n. Heat is the energy component of a fire. When it comes into contact with a fue
l, it provides the energy necessary for ignition, causes the continuous producti
on and ignition of fuel vapors or gases so that the combustion reaction can cont
inue, and causes the vaporization of solid and liquid fuels. The resulting self-
sustained chemical chain reaction is complex and requires fuel, an oxidizer, and
heat energy to come together in a very specific way. An oxidizing agent is a ma
terial or substance that will release gases, including oxygen, when the proper c
onditions exist. It is crucial to the sustainment of a flame or fire.
Using water is one common method to extinguish a fire. Water extinguishes a fire
by cooling, which removes heat because of water s ability to absorb massive amoun
ts of heat as it converts to water vapor. Without heat, the fuel cannot keep the
oxidizer from reducing the fuel in order to sustain the fire. Water also exting
uishes a fire by smothering it. When water is heated to its boiling point, it co
nverts to water vapor. When this conversion takes place, it dilutes the oxygen i
n the air above the fire, thus removing one of the elements that the fire requir
es to burn. This can also be done with foam.
Another way to extinguish a fire is fuel removal. This can be accomplished by st
opping the flow of liquid or gaseous fuel, by removing solid fuel in the path of
a fire, or by allowing the fire to burn until all the fuel is consumed, at whic
h point the fire will self-extinguish.
One final extinguishing method is chemical flame inhibition. This can be accompl
ished by applying dry chemical or halogenated agents that interrupt the chemical
chain reaction and stop flaming. This method is effective on gas and liquid fue
l; because, they must have flame to burn.
Sound waves have been successfully used in a device fabricated by two George Mas
on University senior engineering students, Viet Tran and Seth Robertson, but the
procedure is still awaiting a patent (2015).[20]
Use of water
USMC firefighters neutralize a fire during a training exercise
A firefighting aircraft dumping water on a forest fire in South Africa.
One common way to extinguish a fire is to spray it with water. The water has two
roles: It vaporizes when it comes in contact with fire, and this vapor displace
s the oxygen (the volume of water vapor is 1,700 times greater than liquid water
, at 1,000 F (538 C) it expands over 4,000 times). This leaves the fire without en
ough of the combustive agent, and it dies out.[16] The vaporization of water als
o absorbs heat; it thereby cools the smoke, air, walls, and objects that could a
ct as further fuel, and thus prevents one of the means by which fires grow, whic
h is by "jumping" to nearby heat/fuel sources to start new fires, which then com
bine. Water extinguishment is thus a combination of "asphyxia" (cutting off the
oxygen supply) and cooling. The flame itself is suppressed by asphyxia, but the
cooling is the most important element in mastering a fire in a closed area.
Water may be accessed from a pressurized fire hydrant, pumped from water sources
such as lakes or rivers, delivered by tanker truck, or dropped from water bombe
rs, which are aircraft adapted as tankers for fighting forest fires. An armored
vehicle (firefighting tank) may be used where access to the area is difficult.
Open air fire
For outdoor fires, the seat of the fire is sprayed with a straight spray: the co
oling effect immediately follows the "asphyxia" caused by vaporization[citation
needed] and reduces the further amount of water required. A straight spray is us
ed so the water arrives massively to the seat of the fire before it vaporizes. A
strong spray may also have a mechanical effect; it can disperse the combustible
product and thus prevent the fire from starting again. Spray is always aimed at
a surface or an object. For this reason, the strategy is sometimes called a two
-dimensional or 2D attack.
An outdoor fire is always fed with air, and the risk to people is limited as the
y can move away from it, except in the case of wildfires or bushfires where they
risk being easily surrounded by the flames. It might, however, be necessary to
protect specific objects like houses or gas tanks against infrared radiation, an
d thus to use a diffused spray between the fire and the object. Breathing appara
tus is often required as there is still the risk of inhaling smoke or poisonous
gases.
Closed volume fire
Iranian firefighters had to extinguish the fire at Bistoon Petrochemicals Powerh
ouse
Until the 1970s, fires were usually attacked while they declined, using the same
strategy as for open air fires. Now fires are attacked in their development pha
se because firefighters arrive sooner at the site of a fire and because of chang
es in building construction. The increasing use of thermal insulation confines t
he heat, and modern materials, especially polymers, produce much more heat than
do traditional materials like wood, plaster, stone, and bricks. Under these cond
itions, there is a greater risk of backdraft and flashover.
Directly spraying the seat of the fire in enclosed areas can have unfortunate co
nsequences: the force of water pushes air in front of it, which supplies the fir
e with extra oxygen before the water. The most important issue is not combating
the flames, but controlling the fire; for example, cooling the smoke so that it
cannot spread and start fires further away, and endanger the lives of people, in
cluding the firefighters.
When a fire spreads beyond the building of its origin and spreads throughout the
neighborhood, it is called a conflagration. Today, a conflagration is a large fir
e that is beyond the capability of the fire service to contain.[21]
The volume of the fire must be cooled before its seat is attacked. This strategy
, originally of Swedish origin (Mats Rosander & Krister Giselsson), was adapted
by London Fire Officer Paul Grimwood following a decade of operational use in th
e busy West End of London between 1984 and 1994[22] and termed the three-dimensi
onal or 3D attack.
Use of a diffuse spray was first proposed by Chief Lloyd Layman of the Parkersbu
rg Fire Department, at the 1950 Fire Department Instructors Conference (FDIC) he
ld in Memphis. Using Grimwood's modified 3D attack strategy, the ceiling is firs
t sprayed with short pulses of a diffuse spray. This cools the smoke which is th
en less likely to start a fire when it moves away. As gas cools it becomes dense
r (Charles's law); thus, it also reduces the mobility of the smoke and avoids a
"backfire" of water vapor. Also, the diffuse spray creates an inert "water vapor
sky", which prevents "roll-over" (rolls of flames on the ceiling created by hot
burning gases).
Only short pulses of water need to be sprayed, otherwise the spraying modifies t
he equilibrium, and the gases mix instead of remaining stratified: the hot gases
(initially at the ceiling) move around the room, and the temperature rises at t
he ground, which is dangerous for firefighters.
An alternative is to cool all the atmosphere by spraying the whole atmosphere as
if drawing letters in the air ("penciling").
Modern methods for extinguishing an urban fire dictate the use of a massive init
ial water flow, e.g. 500 L/min for each fire hose. The aim is to absorb as much
heat as possible at the beginning to stop the expansion of the fire and to reduc
e the smoke. If the flow is too low, the cooling is insufficient, and the steam
that is produced can burn firefighters (the drop of pressure is too small and th
e vapor is pushed back in their direction).
Although it may seem paradoxical, the use of a strong flow with an efficient fir
e hose and an efficient strategy (diffuse spray, small droplets) requires a smal
ler amount of water. This is because once the temperature is lowered, only a lim
ited amount of water is necessary to suppress the fire seat with a straight spra
y. For a living room of 50 m2 (60 sq yd), the required amount of water is estima
ted as 60 L (15 gal).
French firefighters used an alternative method in the 1970s: spraying water on t
he hot walls to create a water vapor atmosphere and asphyxiate the fire. This me
thod is no longer used because it turned out to be risky; the pressure created p
ushed the hot gases and vapor towards the firefighters, causing severe burns, an
d pushed the hot gases into other rooms where they could start other fires.
Asphyxiating a fire
In some cases, the use of water is undesirable. This is because some chemical pr
oducts react with water to produce poisonous gases, or they may even burn when t
hey come into contact with water (e.g., sodium). Another problem is that some pr
oducts float on water, such as hydrocarbons (gasoline, oil, and alcohol, etc.);
a burning layer can then be spread by the fire. If a pressurized fuel tank is en
dangered by fire it is necessary to avoid heat shocks that may damage the tank i
f it is sprayed with cooling water; the resulting decompression might produce a
BLEVE. Electrical fires cannot be extinguished with water since the water could
act as a conductor.
In such cases, it is necessary to asphyxiate the fire. This can be done in a var
iety of ways. Chemical products which react with the fuel can be used to stop th
e combustion. A layer of water-based fire retardant foam can be applied by the f
ire hose in order to separate the oxygen in the air from the fuel. carbon dioxid
e, halon, or sodium bicarbonate can be used. In the case of very small fires and
in the absence of other extinguishing agents, literally blanketing the flames c
an eliminate oxygen flow to the fire. A simple and usually effective way to put
out a fire in a stove-top pan is to put a lid on the pan and leave it there.
Tactical ventilation or isolation of the fire
One of the main risks of a fire is the smoke; because, it carries heat and poiso
nous gases, and obscures vision. In the case of a fire in a closed location (bui
lding), the following two different strategies may be used: isolation of the fir
e or ventilation.
Paul Grimwood introduced the concept of tactical ventilation in the 1980s to enc
ourage a better thought-out approach to this aspect of firefighting. Following w
ork with Warrington Fire Research Consultants (FRDG 6/94) his terminology and co
ncepts were adopted officially by the UK fire services, and are now referred to
throughout revised Home Office training manuals (1996 97). Grimwood's original def
inition of his 1991 unified strategy stated that, "tactical ventilation is eithe
r the venting, or containment (isolation) actions by on-scene firefighters, used
to take control from the outset of a fire's burning regime, in an effort to gai
n tactical advantage during interior structural firefighting operations."
When properly used, ventilation improves life safety, fire extinguishment, and p
roperty conservation by 'pulling' fire away from trapped occupants and objects.
In most cases of structural firefighting, a 4x4 foot opening is cut into the roo
f directly over the fire room. This allows hot smoke and gases to escape through
the opening, returning the conditions inside the room to normal. It is importan
t to coordinate the ventilation with an interior fire attack since the opening o
f a ventilation hole supplies more air, and thus oxygen, to the fire. Ventilatio
n may also "limit fire spread by channeling fire toward nearby openings and allo
ws fire fighters to safely attack the fire" as well as limit smoke, heat, and wa
ter damage.[23]
Positive pressure ventilation (PPV) consists of using a fan to create excess pre
ssure in a part of the building. This pressure pushes the smoke and heat out of
the building, and thus facilitates rescue and fire fighting operations. It is ne
cessary to have an exit for the smoke, to know the building layout well to predi
ct where the smoke will go, and to ensure that the doors ensuring the ventilatio
n remain open by wedging or propping them. The main risk of this method is that
it may accelerate the fire, or even create a flash-over; for example, if the smo
ke and the heat accumulate in a dead end.
Hydraulic ventilation is the process of directing a stream of water from the ins
ide of a structure out the window using a fog pattern.[16] This will effectively
pull smoke out of room. Smoke ejectors may also be used for this purpose.
Categorizing fires in the US
Main article: Multiple-alarm fire
In the US, fires are sometimes categorized as "one alarm", "all hands", "two ala
rm", "three alarm" (or higher) fires. There is no standard definition for what t
his means quantifiably; though, it always refers to the level of response by the
local authorities. In some cities, the numeric rating refers to the number of f
ire stations that have been summoned to the fire. In others, it reflects the num
ber of "dispatches" requesting additional personnel and equipment.[24][25]
Alarms levels are generally used to define the tiers of the response as to what
resources are to be used. For example, a Structure fire response draws the follo
wing equipment: three engine/pumper companies, one truck/ladder/aerial company,
and heavy rescue equipment. This is referred to as an Initial Alarm or Box Alarm
. A working fire request (for the same incident) would call for air/light units,
other specialized rescue units depending on the situation, and chief officers/f
ireground commanders (if not provided in the original dispatch). This summarizes
the response to a First Alarm fire. Second and subsequent alarms call for two e
ngine companies and one truck company.
The reason behind the "Alarm" designation is so the Incident Commander does not
have to list each apparatus required. He can simply say, "Give me a second alarm
here", instead of "Give me a truck company and two engine companies" along with
requesting where they should come from. Categorization of fires varies among fi
re departments. A single alarm for one department may be a second alarm for anot
her. Response always depends on the size of the fire and the department.
Calculating the amount of water required to suppress a fire in a closed volume
In the case of a closed volume, it is easy to compute the amount of water needed
. The oxygen (O2) in air (21%) is necessary for combustion. Whatever the amount
of fuel available (wood, paper, cloth), combustion will stop when the air become
s "thin", i.e., when it contains less than 15% oxygen. If additional air cannot
enter, it is possible to calculate the amount of water required to make the atmo
sphere inert, i.e., to prevent the pyrolysis gases from burning (this is the "vo
lume computation"), and the amount of water required to cool the smoke and the i
mmediate (this is the "thermal computation").
These computations are only valid when considering a diffused spray that penetra
tes the entire volume. It is not possible in the case of a high ceiling, since t
he spray is too short to reach the upper layers of air. Consequently, such compu
tations are not valid for large volumes such as barns or warehouses. A warehouse
of 1,000 m2 (1,200 sq yd) and 10 m (33 ft) high represents 10,000 m3. In practi
ce, such large volumes are unlikely to be airtight anyway.
Volume computation
Fire needs air; if water vapor pushes all the air away, the fuel can no longer b
urn. But the replacement of all the air by water vapor would harm the firefighte
rs and other people still in the building. Water vapor can carry much more heat
than air at the same temperature (one can be burnt by water vapor at 100 C (212 F)
above a boiling saucepan, whereas it is possible to put an arm in an oven without
touching the metal! at 270 C (518 F) without damage). This amount of water is thus
an "upper limit" that should not be reached.
The optimal and minimal amount of water to use is the amount required to dilute
the amount of oxygen in the air to 15%, since below this concentration the fire
cannot burn. The amount used should be between the optimal value and the upper l
imit. Any additional water would just run on the floor and cause water damage wi
thout contributing to fire suppression.
Let:
Vr be the volume of the room,
Vv be the volume of vapour required,
Vw be the volume of liquid water to create the Vv volume of vapour,
then for an air at 500 C (773 K, 932 F, best case concerning the volume, probable
case at the beginning of the operation), we have[26]
V v = 3571 V w {\displaystyle V_{v}=3571\cdot V_{w}} V_{v}=3571\cdot V_{w}
and for a temperature of 100 C (373 K, 212 F, worst case concerning the volume, pr
obable case when the fire is suppressed and the temperature is lowered):[27]
V v = 1723 V w {\displaystyle V_{v}=1723\cdot V_{w}} V_{v}=1723\cdot V_{w}
For the maximum volume, we have:
V v = V r {\displaystyle V_{v}=V_{r}} V_{v}=V_{r}
considering a temperature of 100 C. To compute the optimal volume (dilution of ox
ygen from 21 to 15%), we have[28]
V v = 0.286 V r {\displaystyle V_{v}=0.286\cdot V_{r}} V_{v}=0.286\cdot V_{r
}
for a temperature of 500 C. The table below show some results, for rooms with a h
eight of 2.70 m (8 ft 10 in).
Amount of water required to suppress the fire (volume computation)
Area of the room Volume of the room Vr Amount of liquid water Vw
maximum optimal
25 m2 (30 sq yd) 67.5 m 39 L (9.4 gal) 5.4 L (1.3 gal)
50 m2 (60 sq yd) 135 m 78 L (19 gal) 11 L (2.7 gal)
70 m2 (84 sq yd) 189 m 110 L (26 gal) 15 L (3.6 gal)
Note that the formulas give the results in cubic meters, which are multiplied by
1,000 to convert to liters.
Of course, a room is never really closed, gases can go in (fresh air) and out (h
ot gases and water vapour) so the computations will not be exact.
See also
Glossary of firefighting list of firefighting terms and acronyms, with descrip
tions
Glossary of firefighting equipment expansion of Glossary of firefighting
Glossary of wildfire terms expansion of Glossary of firefighting
Index of firefighting articles alphabetical list of firefighting articles
List of fire departments
Outline of firefighting structured list of firefighting topics, organized by s
ubject area
References
"Firefighter". Retrieved 30 November 2016.
"Recruitment UK Fire Service Resources". Retrieved 30 November 2016.
Safety, Government of Canada, Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and. "Fire
Fighter : OSH Answers". Retrieved 30 November 2016.
International Fire Service Training Association. Fire Service Orientation and In
doctrination. Philadelphia: Board of Regents, 1984. Print.
Dillon, Matthew; Garland, Lynda (2005). Ancient Rome: From the Early Republic to
the Assassination of Julius Caesar. ISBN 9780415224581.
"History UK Fire Service Resources". Retrieved 30 November 2016.
"Fire History - A Historical Repository for the Fire Service of the United State
s of America". Fire History. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
City of Fort Lauderdale (April 2011). "Fire-Rescue - Special Operations Command"
. fortlauderdale.gov.
Tommy Tine (January 2014). "City of Dallas:Dallas Fire-Rescue Department". City
of Dallas.
Jobmonkey (January 2014). "Firefighter Schedules and Work Life". jobmonkey.com.
"Fire & Rescue NSW - Annual Report 2012/13". Fire.nsw.gov.au.
"7 key duties of a fire warden". healthandsafetyhandbook.com.au. Retrieved 21 Fe
bruary 2015.
Fire Warden Certification Classes - City of Houston - http://houstontx.gov/fire/
HFMO/highrisecert.html
Essentials of Fire Fighting and Fire Department Operations 5th Edition. 2008.
"3 heat-related threats to firefighters and how to fix them". FireRescue1. Retri
eved 2016-06-16.
Thomson Delmar Learning. The Firefighter's Handbook: Essentials of Fire Fighting
and Emergency Response. Second Edition. Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Publishers, 20
04.
"The Risks of Being a Fireman". work.chron.com. Retrieved 2016-06-16.
"Firefighting stiffens arteries, impairs heart function - News Bureau - Universi
ty of Illinois". illinois.edu. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
Hall, Richard. Essentials of Fire Fighting. Fourth Edition. Stillwater, OK: Fire
Protection Publications, 1998:
"George Mason University Students Use Sound to Put Out Fire". Retrieved 30 Novem
ber 2016.
http://www.fireengineering.com/fire-prevention-protection.html
"Firefighter Career Guide". FireTactics. Retrieved February 21, 2015.
Bernard Klaene. Structural Firefighting: Strategies and Tactics. Jones and Bartl
ett Publishers, 2007. ISBN 0-7637-5168-5, ISBN 978-0-7637-5168-5
"Washington DC Business News - Business, Money, Financial & Corporate News". NBC
4 Washington. Archived from the original on 23 November 2007. Retrieved 21 Febru
ary 2015.
"Four-alarm fire on Avenue B". thevillager.com. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
Indeed, the mass of one mole of water is 18 g, a liter (0.001 m) represents one k
ilogram i.e. 55.6 moles, and at 500 C (773 K), 55.6 moles of an ideal gas at atmo
spheric pressure represents a volume of 3.57 m.
same as above with a temperature of 100 C (373 K), one liter of liquid water prod
uces 1.723 m of vapour
we consider that only Vr - Vv of the original room atmosphere remains (Vv ha
s been replaced by water vapour). This atmosphere contains less than 21% of oxyg
en (some was used by the fire), so the remaining amount of oxygen represents les
s than 0.21(Vr-Vv). The concentration of oxygen is thus less than 0.21(Vr-Vv)/Vr,
and we want this fraction to be 0.15 (15%).
External links
Look up firefighting in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Firefighting.
CDC - NIOSH Fire Fighter Fatality Investigation and Prevention Program
[show]
v t e
Firefighting
[show]
v t e
Fire
[show]
v t e
Natural disasters
Authority control
GND: 4125289-5 NDL: 00571993
Categories:
Firefighting
Navigation menu
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Article
Talk
Read
Edit
View history
Search
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
 Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
???????
Bn-lm-g
Bosanski
Deutsch
????????
Esperanto
?????
Franais
???
??????
Magyar
??????????
Nederlands
???
Norsk bokml
Polski
Romna
???????
?????? / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / ??????????????
Suomi
Svenska
??
??
Edit links
This page was last edited on 28 April 2017, at 12:53.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License;
additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use a
nd Privacy Policy. Wikipedia is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundatio
n, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Wikimedia Foundation
Powered by MediaWiki