Objectives

1. To study the variations of air pressure and velocity around the sports balls and the
sphere.
2. To study the effect of surface roughness on boundary layer separation in case of
golf ball.
3. To study the effect of seam on pressure and velocity around the balls.
4. To study the effect of rotation of the balls around an axis perpendicular to the
flight path on boundary layer separation and other flow parameters.
5. To study the amounts and directions of drag and lift force of the rotating balls and
how those affect the path of flight.

[1]
1. Introduction
Aerodynamics plays a prominent part in defining the flight of a ball that is struck or thrown
through the air in almost all ball sports. The main interest is the fact that the ball can often
deviate from its initial straight path, resulting in a curved, or something an unpredictable
flight path. It is particularly fascinating that not all the parameters that affect the flight of the
ball are always under human influence. Lateral deflection in flight, commonly known as
swing, swerve or curve, is well recognized in cricket, tennis, golf, soccer, volleyball and
baseball. In most of these sports, the lateral deflection is produced by spinning the ball about
an axis perpendicular to the line of flight, which gives rise to what is commonly known as
Magnus effect.
The analysis of sporting ball aerodynamics can be traced back to Newton, 1672, who studied
and reviewed the flight of tennis ball. A number of experimental and model-based techniques
have been employed in studying the flight of sporting balls. Recent advances in the field of
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) have led to a dramatic rise in the pace and relative ease
in which these studies can be conducted. The flexibility of CFD lends itself well to be used in
investigations of a broad variety of subjects in sports.
This project will present aerodynamic simulation of soccer ball, golf ball, tennis ball and a
simple sphere. The simulation software that has been used in this project is ANSYS and
SOLID WORKS has been used as drawing tool of the sports balls.
1.1 Approach
A numerical method for solving the Navier-Stokes equations involves the use of computer to
integrate the equation via iteration to yield a solution. This approach is commonly referred as
CFD. The ball geometry was constructed on SOLIDWORKS and a computational domain for
the fluid was constructed around the ball by applying a Boolean operation to subtract the ball
volume from the surroundings. This results in the computational domain for the fluid with a
matched fluid-ball boundary. These models are then meshed into discrete sub-volumes
defining the numerical domain and the appropriate initial and boundary conditions needed for
each case being evaluated.
1.2 Brief descripsion of ANSYS
ANSYS Fluent is the most-powerful computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software tool
available, Fluent includes well-validated physical modeling capabilities to deliver fast,
accurate results across the widest range of CFD and multiphysics applications.
ANSYS Fluent software contains the broad physical modeling capabilities needed to model
flow, turbulence, heat transfer, and reactions for industrial applicationsranging from air
flow over an aircraft wing to combustion in a furnace, from bubble columns to oil platforms,
from blood flow to semiconductor manufacturing, and from clean room design to wastewater
treatment plants. Fluent covers a broad reach, including special models with capabilities to
model in-cylinder combustion, aero-acoustics, turbomachinery and multiphase systems.

[2]
1.3 Brief descripsion of WORKS

This is CAD software, which helps to create 2D or 3D solid models without any complexity,
faster and in the cost effective way. The main advantage of the solid modeler is that very easy
to use, simple graphics user interface and much more friendly, as compared with other CAD
solid modeling softwares. It contains Solid modeling, Motion, Simulation, Toolbox,
TolAnalyst, Circute Works, PhotoView 360, ScanTo3D, edrawings and DWG editor.
According to MIT Survey in 2006, Solidworks selected as High productivity (Up to 95% than
others) CAD software. It provides better design visualization, design better products, Faster
design iterations, improved communications, design with fewer errors, create more aesthetic
design &products and also meets the clients/customer requirements.

[3]
2. Theoretical background
2.1 Boundary layer
When a fluid flows over a stationary surface, e.g. the bed of a river or the wall of a pipe, the
fluid touching the surface is brought to rest by the shear stress at the wall. The velocity
increases from the wall to a maximum in the main stream of the flow.[1]
This profile doesn't just exit, it must build up gradually from the point where the fluid starts
to flow past the surface - e.g. when it enters a pipe. If a flat plate is considered in the middle
of a fluid, it is observed at the building up of the velocity profile as the fluid moves over the
plate.
This region, where there is a velocity profile in the flow due to the shear stress at the wall, it
is known as the boundary layer. The stages of the formation of the boundary layer are shown
in the figure.[2]

Fig No. 2.1

The thickness of this boundary layer is defined as the distance from the wall to the point
where the velocity is 99% of the "free stream" velocity. [1]
2.2 Boundary layer separation
If flow over a boundary occurs when there is a pressure decrease in the direction of flow, the
fluid will accelerate and the boundary layer will become thinner. This is the case for
convergent flows. When the pressure increases in the direction of flow the situation is very
different. Fluid outside the boundary layer has enough momentum to overcome this pressure
which is trying to push it backwards. The fluid within the boundary layer has so little
momentum that it will very quickly be brought to rest, and possibly reversed in direction. If
this reversal occurs it lifts the boundary layer away from the surface as shown below. This
phenomenon is known as boundary layer separation.[1]
At the edge of the separated boundary layer, where the velocities change direction, a line of
vortices occur (known as a vortex sheet). This happens because fluid to either side is moving

[4]
in the opposite direction. This boundary layer separation and increase in the turbulence
because of the vortices results in very large energy losses in the flow.[1]

Fig. No. 2.2

2.3 Drag force

In fluid dynamics, drag or air resistance refers to forces acting opposite to the relative motion
of any object moving with respect to a surrounding fluid, in this case we are talking about air.
This can exist between two fluid layers (or surfaces) or a fluid and a solid surface. Unlike
other resistive forces, such as friction, which are nearly independent of velocity, drag forces
depend on velocity. This is mainly skin-friction drag.
Another type of drag called Form drag or Pressure drag results from the integrated effect of
the static pressure acting normal to its surface resolved in the drag direction.

The drag force acts in the opposite direction of the velocity on the ball. The equation for the
force of drag is:
Cd
FD = 2 v2
where Cd is the drag coefficient, A is the cross sectional area of the ball, v is the
velocity of the ball, and is the density of the air. The drag coefficient is not constant, it
decreases as velocity increases.[1]

Fig. No. 2.3

[5]
2.4 Lift force
Lift or down force is the force generated perpendicular to the direction of travel for an object
moving through a fluid. The same effect occurs when fluid moves over a stationary object,
Cl
such as an aerofoil in a wind tunnel. The equation for the lift force is: FL = 2 v2 where
CL is the lift coefficient, A is the cross sectional area of the ball, v is the velocity of the ball,
and is the density of the air.

2.5 Magnus effect

The Magnus effect was first discovered by Heinrich Magnus in 1852. The Magnus force is a
force generated by a spinning object traveling through a fluid. The Magnus force is
perpendicular to the velocity of the object and the spin axis. The direction of spin determines
the direction of the Magnus force on the object. So for a ball spinning about a horizontal axis
(that is, pure backspin) the force will be vertical. When spin is placed on a ball the pressure
around the ball is altered. If backspin is placed on the ball, air in the front of the ball is
directed upward and air on the back of the ball is directed downward creating this pressure
difference. It is this pressure difference that allows the ball to stay in flight for a greater
amount of time. Thus, by controlling the incline of the spin axis, and in turn controlling the
direction of the Magnus force, the flight of a ball can be controlled.
The lifting force of the Magus effect is a direct result caused by the velocity of the ball and
the rotation. The direction of the angular velocity is a result of air disturbances caused by the
rotation; this causes the direction of the flight to be altered perpendicular to the linear
velocity. The equation of the Magnus force comes from this relationship: FM = S ( * v )
where v is the velocity, omega is the angular velocity, and S is the Magnus coefficient (which
depends on the density of air and the size of the ball).
When the airflow is smooth and the drag coefficient is high (smooth ball), the boundary layer
of air on the surface of the ball "separates" from the flow or air early as it flows over the ball,
producing a wider wake behind the ball. However, when the airflow is turbulent (dimpled
ball), the boundary layer sticks to the ball for longer. This produces late separation and a
small drag. This can be visualized with the images below. The picture on the left shows the
flow of air around the surface of a golf ball and the picture to the right shows air flow around
a smooth ball.[1][3]

Fig. No. 2.4 Fig. No. 2.5

[6]
3. Literature survey
Advancements in sporting equipment have been fueled not only by the competitive nature of
sport, but also a greater understanding of the physics governing the way sports are played.

The analysis of sporting ball aerodynamics can be traced to Newton, 1672, who
studied and reviewed the flight of a tennis ball.
Mehta (1985) devised a series of experiments on cricket balls, baseballs and golf
balls. Aerodynamic forces were obtained and reported in terms of the spinning rate of
the balls.
Pallis and Mehta (2002) performed wind tunnel studies for sporting balls.
In other studies (Mizota et al., 2013; Oggiano & Saetran, 2010; Barber & Carre, 2010;
Goff & Carre, 2009, 2010; Asai, Seo, Kobayashi, & Sakashita, 2007; Carre, Asai &
Haake 2002), wind tunnel tests and trajectory analyses were conducted for different
types of soccer balls, including a spinning 32-panel soccer ball that is akin to the
generic soccer ball used in this study.
Goodwills, Chin and Haake (2004) performed a similar study and compared spinning
and non-spinning tennis balls.
Barber, Chin, and Carre (2009) used CFD simulation to study aerodynamic behavior
of soccer balls.
Alam, Chowdhury, Stemmer, Wang, and Yang (2012), and Alam et al. (2011)
conducted experiments in order to study the aerodynamic forces of several
commercially available soccer balls.

[7]
4. Case studies

4.1 Simulation of aerodynamic nature of air around a sphere

4.1.1 Statement
Analysis of the aerodynamic nature of air over a rotating sphere of diameter 250 mm at rest
on a surface.

4.1.2 Input parameters

Temperature taken:- 303 K

Input velocity of air:- 16.04 m/s
Viscosity of air at 303 K:- 16.0410-6 Ns/m
Density of air at 303 K:- 1.275 kg/m
Rotational speed of soccer ball:- 31.4 rpm
Dimension of fluid domain:- (1900*1000*1000) mm3
The diameter of sphere:- 220 mm [3]

wall
outlet

1000

1900

1000

inlet

Fig. No. 4.1

[8]
4.1.3 Geometry
A sphere of 250 mm diameter is created in center. A rectangle of 1000*1900 mm2 is created
around it. The sphere is freezed. The rectangle is extruded up to 500 mm to both sides.

Wall

Outlet

Inlet
Sphere wall

Fig. No. 4.2

The fluid domain around the sphere is shown here; here complimentary diagram of
the sphere is taken by extracting the sphere from the air box. So, the fluid domain around the
sphere is only shown. A vacuum is placed at the spot of sphere and the imaginary wall of
vacuum is the wall of sphere.

4.1.4 Mesh generation

Structure type of mesh: - Unstructured Meshing

Number of Divisions: -120
Bias Factor: - 5

wall

outlet

inlet

Fig. No. 4.3

[9]
4.1.5 Input and set up condition

Fluid Air
Density - 1.166 kg/m3
Velocity 16.04 m/s
Viscosity - 1.604*10-5 Ns/m2
Mesh Cell Shape - Triangle
Bias Factor-5
Top and bottom edge- symmetry
Circle edge-sphere wall
Left edge- velocity outlet
Right edge- velocity inlet
Solver- SIMPLE
Under relaxation factor- 0.3
Iterations- 1000

4.1.6 Results

4.1.6.1 Static pressure distribution perpendicular to flow: -

Fig. No. 4.4

The pressure distribution of air around the rotating sphere at y-z plane is shown here. The
pressure color indicator is given at left side of the analysis image. The air is flowing from
positive x direction to negative x direction. Here by looking at the distribution diagram it can

[10]
be said that, the air after colliding with the ball gets distributed and flows around the ball, as
it proceeds to the outer wall of the ball the velocity of air increases and simultaneously the
pressure of the air decreases.

outlet
inlet

Stagnation point Negative pressure area

Fig. No.4.5

Here the pressure distribution of air around the sphere wall is shown in x-z plane. The
pressure color indicator is given at left side of the analysis image. Here it is clearly shown
that the air is coming from positive x-direction and going to negative x direction. Here, as the
air comes and collides at the left end of the sphere we see a high pressure zone at the left end
of the sphere as at this point kinetic energy of the air by colliding with the sphere wall is
transforming into pressure energy, the high pressure zone is highlighted red.

The value of high pressure zone is (3.31*10 Pascal) As after colliding with the sphere wall
the air gets distributed and spreads around the ball its velocity increases and pressure drops as
it approaches to the higher outer wall of the ball, so the higher outer wall is shown as low
pressure zone and marked with blue. This value of low pressure zone is (-4.81*10 Pascal).

At a close look, it can be said that the sphere itself is rotating at clockwise direction in this
plane, hence low pressure zone is shown at the top surface, compared to down surface.

[11]
 Low pressure, high velocity

inlet
outlet High pressure, Low velocity

Fig. No. 4.6

It is the air pressure distribution around the sphere wall plotted in x-z plane. The pressure
color indicator is given at left side of the analysis image. As we see the air comes from
positive x side and collides with the sphere wall at the right end producing a high pressure
zone, as at this point kinetic energy by colliding with sphere wall is transformed into pressure
energy. This zone is marked as red at the very right end.

After collision, the air flow gets distributed around the sphere outer wall and with the
increasing diameter of sphere face the velocity of air around the sphere increases,
simultaneously the pressure drops. Hence we see, the pressure of the air is decreasing
gradually with the increasing face diameter of the sphere, and the color changes from orange
to yellow to green to light blue indicating the pressure drop contour. At the maximum face
diameter the air pressure is minimum; this zone is marked by indigo colored contour. After
the maximum face diameter zone the air gets scattered, and huge amount of air follows the
straight line flow with respective to the maximum face diameter. The amount of air that is
attached to the sphere surface loses its velocity and rises in pressure due to less travel path,
vortex flow and other factors. Here we see a high pressure build up but at a low rate with
respect to frontal face. The pressure build up is shown by color contour of light blue, green
and yellow in order.

[12]
 4.1.6.2 Velocity distribution

High velocity region

inlet
outlet

Stagnation point

Fig. No. 4.7

The velocity of air at different point around the sphere wall is shown here at x-z plane. Here,
the velocity distribution color indicator is given at the left side of the analysis image. Here,
the air comes from the positive x-side and goes to negative x-side. And the ball rotates in
clockwise direction. As the air comes and collides with the left end of the ball the velocity
drop is maximum at the left end of the ball, this zone is indicated with green, light blue and
blue color.

After colliding at the left end the air gets distributed and flows with the outer wall of the
sphere. With increasing face diameter of the wall the velocity of air increases this zone is
marked as yellow. And at reaching the maximum face diameter of the sphere the velocity of
air becomes maximum and this zone is marked as red. Here also due to the clockwise rotation
the passing air is opposed by the rotational movement of the ball at the bottom surface and is
pushed at the top surface, hence it shows greater velocity magnitude, i.e, wide red zone at top
surface and lower velocity magnitude, i.e, small red band at bottom surface.

After the maximum facing diameter the air gets away in straight line around the maximum
diameter of the sphere, the rest air flows around the sphere surface and shows turbulent and
vortex flow at the exit side, hence the velocity of the air drops, and it shows its drop down
nature at a more area compared to the inlet side, this zone shows light blue and green colored
velocity contour spread over larger area. Moreover due to viscous force of air the air flow at
the very close zone to the outer surface of the sphere, we see a velocity drop and the air flows
at a very low speed just around the surface of the sphere.

[13]
 Low velocity high pressure

High velocity pressure low

Fig. No. 4.8

Here the velocity magnitude of air around the sphere wall at y-z plane. This shows the
maximum face diameter of the sphere, ie, the diameter of the sphere. Due to maximum face
diameter the air passing around the sphere wall travels the maximum path at this zone and
shows the maximum velocity of air around the sphere wall here. The maximum velocity zone
is marked with red velocity contour. Due to the rotation of the sphere, the velocity magnitude
is shown less at right end and more at left end. Due to viscosity around the sphere wall the air
foil touching the sphere wall shows very low velocity, this zone is marked with indigo color,
and the velocity of the air foil increases gradually with increasing distance from the sphere
surface, these zones are marked with light blue, green and yellow colors respectively.

[14]
4.1.6.3 Drag force and lift force

In case of flow over static sphere the body is symmetrical.

Fig. No. 4.9 drag force on (ve) x axis (-1 0 0)

From figure it is clear that drag force is 7.381 N and drag coefficient is 0.2342

Fig. No. 4.10 lift force on y axis (0 1 0)

From figure it is clear that lift force is 4.016 N and lift coefficient is 0.1274

[15]
4.2 Simulation of aerodynamic nature of air passing around a golf ball

4.2.1 About golf

Golf is a club and ball sports in which players use various clubs to hit balls into a series of
holes on a course in as few strokes as possible. Masters Championship, U.S. Open, The Open
Championship, PGA Tournament are some famous golf tournaments held all around the
world. Tiger Woods, Jack Nicklaus, Arnold Palmer, Ben Hogan are one of the world famous
golfers. Jeev Milkha Singh, Anirban Lahiri, Shiv Kapoor, Arjun Atwal are famous among
golfers in India.

4.2.2 Golf ball and ambient properties

(Here, all dimension of golf ball is taken as standardised during game by IGF)
Golf Ball Material:- Surlyn, an ionomer of ethylene acid, a new synthetic resin.
Temperature:- 303K
Density of Air:- 1.166 kg/m3
Viscosity of Air:- 16.04x10-6 Ns/m2
Diameter of Golf Ball:- 42.07x10-3 m
Reynolds No. for Golf Ball:- 2.5x105
Standard spin Rate of Golf ball:- 2500 RPM (clockwise)
Velocity of Inlet air:- 95.31 m/s (this is taken equal to the velocity of ball during
game, and in reverse direction of ball advancement)

1000

1000
Ball cavity

1900

Fig. No. 4.11

[16]
4.2.3 Geometry

As the standard dimension, specified by IGF, a golf ball made of Surlyn of 42.07 mm
diameter is drawn in Solid works software, then a fluid domain of air is taken around it of
dimension 1900x1000x1000 mm2. The fluid domain is created by first putting an air box of
given specification around the golf ball and then extracting the golf ball from the box leaving
the ball cavity.

Fig. No. 4.12

4.2.4 Mesh generation

Structure type of mesh- Unstructured meshing

Number of divisions- 120
Mesh method- Triangle
Bias factor- -5

4.2.5 Input parameters

Fluid- Air
Density- 1.166 kg/m3
Velocity- 95.31 m/s
Viscosity- 1.604x10-5 Ns/m2
Mesh cell shape- Triangle
Bias factor- 5
Top and bottom edge- Symmetry
Circle edge- Golf ball wall
Left edge- Velocity outlet
Right edge- Velocity inlet
Solver- SIMPLE
Under relaxation factor- 0.3
Iterations- 1000

[17]
 Here one assumption is made, as the ball is assumed to move from negative x side to
positive x side. While doing the analysis, as complimentary drawing is taken, the air
inside the fluid domain is assumed to move from positive x-side to negative x-side, i.e the
opposite of assumed ball movement.

4.2.6 Results

4.2.6.1 Static pressure distribution

Ball cavity

outlet
inlet

Stagnation point

Fig. No. 4.13

The air pressure distribution around the golf ball at x-y plane is shown here. The air coming
from positive x side collides with the ball at the stagnation point at the right side of the ball
and has created a huge high pressure zone there, as the kinetic energy of air is transformed
into pressure energy at this point. This zone is marked with red.

After colliding at the stagnation point, the air hitting the ball gets scattered over the ball
surface, and with increasing the ball face diameter the velocity of the air increases,
subsequently dropping the air pressure. This zone is marked with moderate pressure region,
given yellow and green coloured index.

After reaching the maximum face diameter, the air has to cover the maximum path here, its
velocity gets maximum and pressure drops to minimum. This zone is marked with light blue.

After reaching the maximum face diameter a part of air flows in straight line from the
maximum face diameter and the rest follows the ball surface. Moreover a vortex flow is
generated at the back of the outlet side. Here, the air speed decreases gradually, increasing the
pressure. This zone is marked with green and yellow colours.

[18]
The pressure drop at the ball dimples is shown clearly here. Presence of dimples generates
uneven surface type on ball surface and vortex flows are also generated at ball dimples. Due
to this reason the natural flow of air gets hampered at ball dimples and air slows down. Due
to slowing down of air, the pressure of air at ball dimples increases. Hence we see ball
dimples pressure zones are marked as higher pressure zone over normal ball pressure.
Dimples are marked as red (high pressure zone over yellow (moderate pressure zone) and
yellow (moderate pressure zone) over light blue (low pressure zone).

outlet
inlet

Stagnation point

Fig. No. 4.14

The air pressure distribution around the golf ball at x-y plane is shown here again. The air
coming from positive x side collides with the ball at the stagnation point at the left side of the
ball and has created a huge high pressure zone there, as the kinetic energy of air is
transformed into pressure energy at this point. This zone is marked with red.

After colliding at the stagnation point, the air hitting the ball gets scattered over the ball
surface, and with increasing the ball face diameter the velocity of the air increases,
subsequently dropping the air pressure. This zone is marked with moderate pressure region,
given yellow and green coloured index.

After reaching the maximum face diameter, the air has to cover the maximum path here, its
velocity gets maximum and pressure drops to minimum. This zone is marked with light blue.
Moreover due to clockwise rotation of the ball, the air flow at bottom surface gets opposed by
the ball rotation, and results decreasing air speed and increasing air pressure at the bottom
surface compared to top surface, where a more low pressure zone due to higher velocity of air
can be seen, as here the ball rotation is added up with the air flow.
After reaching the maximum face diameter a part of air flows in straight line from the
maximum face diameter and the rest follows the ball surface. Moreover a vortex flow is

[19]
generated at the back of the outlet side. Here, the air speed decreases gradually, increasing the
pressure. This zone is marked with green and yellow colours.

The pressure rise at the ball dimples is also shown clearly here. Presence of dimples generates
uneven surface type on ball surface and vortex flows are also generated at ball dimples. Due
to this reason the natural flow of air gets hampered at ball dimples and air slows down. Due
to slowing down of air, the pressure of air at ball dimples increases. Hence we see ball dimple
pressure zones are marked as higher pressure zone over normal ball pressure. Dimples are
marked as red (high pressure zone over yellow (moderate pressure zone) and yellow
(moderate pressure zone) over light blue (low pressure zone).

Fig. No. 4.15

Here the static pressure distribution around the golf ball is shown at y-z plane. Here, at the
maximum face diameter of the ball, ie the original diameter of the ball is shown in y-z plane.
As at this plane over the maximum face diameter, the air has to travel the maximum distance,
its velocity becomes maximum, and the pressure drops to minimum. So, the low pressure
zone around the ball is shown with light green over yellow colour indicator. Moreover due to
the rotation of the ball, more low pressure zone at bottom surface and less low pressure zone
at top surface can be seen. As at top surface, the rotation of the ball opposes the air flow and
decreases its velocity, subsequently increases the pressure, and at the bottom surface the
rotation of the ball adds up with air flow and increases air velocity and decreases pressure.

[20]
 Stagnation point

Fig. No. 4.16

The static air pressure distribution over the ball surface at y-z plane is shown here. As
discussed earlier, the air coming from positive x side collides with the ball at the stagnation
point of the ball and creates a huge high pressure zone there, as the kinetic energy of air is
transformed into pressure energy at this point. This zone is marked as red.

Next, after the stagnation point, the air hitting the ball gets scattered over the ball surface, and
with increasing the ball face diameter the velocity of the air increases, subsequently dropping
the air pressure. This zone is marked with moderate pressure region, given yellow and green
coloured index. The air velocity is moderate here.

After that, the air reaches the maximum face diameter, here the air has to cover maximum
path, its velocity gets maximum and pressure drops to minimum. This zone is marked with
light blue. The air velocity is seen to be maximum at this zone. At this point, due to
clockwise rotation of the ball, the rotational velocity of the ball adds up with the air velocity
at the top surface and opposes the air velocity at bottom surface, generating a more low
pressure zone at top surface and a less low pressure zone at bottom surface.

The pressure drop at the ball dimples is also shown clearly here. Presence of dimples
generates uneven surface type on ball surface and vortex flows are also generated at ball
dimples. Due to this reason the natural flow of air gets hampered at ball dimples and air slows
down. Due to slowing down of air, the pressure of air at ball dimples increases. Hence we see
ball dimples pressure zones are marked as higher pressure zone over normal ball pressure.
Dimples are marked as red (high pressure zone over yellow (moderate pressure zone) and
yellow (moderate pressure zone) over light blue (low pressure zone).

[21]
4.2.6.2 Velocity distribution

outlet inlet
Stagnation
point

Fig. No. 4.17

The velocity distribution of air around the golf ball at x-z plane is shown here. The air
coming from positive x side collides with the ball at the stagnation point at the right side of
the ball. Due to this collision the velocity of the air drops, and generates a low velocity zone
at the front of the ball, this zone is marked with light blue and green coloured region over
yellow.

Next the air spreads over the ball and with increasing face diameter of the ball the air velocity
increases, and at the maximum face diameter, i.e. the ball diameter the velocity of the air
becomes maximum. These zones are marked with yellow and orange (moderate pressure
zone) and maximum face diameter is marked with red (low pressure zone).

After reaching the maximum face diameter a part of air flows in straight line from the
maximum face diameter and the rest follows the ball surface. Moreover a vortex flow is
generated at the back of the outlet side. Here, the air speed decreases gradually and a big low
velocity zone at the back of the ball marked with green and light blue is generated.

The velocity drop at the ball dimples is also shown clearly here. Presence of dimples
generates uneven surface type on ball surface and vortex flows are also generated at ball
dimples. Due to this reason the natural flow of air gets hampered at ball dimples and air slows
down. The low air velocity zones of air over the dimples around the ball are marked with
indigo and light blue.

[22]
 Fig. No. 4.18

The velocity of air around the golf ball is shown here at y-z plane. This picture shows the
maximum face diameter velocity analysis of the ball, as the ball face diameter is maximum
here; the velocity of air around the ball is maximum.

Though due to presence of dimples around the ball, the adjacent air layer around the ball
shows low velocity but out of adjacent layer, high velocity zone of air around the ball marked
with red and yellow (high velocity zone) is seen.

[23]
4.2.6.3 Drag force and lift force

Fig. No. 4.20 drag force on (ve) x axis (-1 0 0)

From figure it is clear that drag force is 0.0168 N and drag coefficient is 0.208

Fig. No. 4.21 lift force on y axis (0 1 0)

From figure it is clear that lift force is 0.00015 N and lift coefficient is 0.0018

[24]
 4.3 Simulation of aerodynamic nature of air passing around a tennis ball

4.3.1 About tennis

Tennis is a racket sport game that can be played individually against a single opponent
(singles) or between two teams or two players (doubles). Tennis ball is an important part of
this game. Some famous tennis tournaments are Wimbledon open, French open, USA open
and Australian open. Tennis is also included in olympic sports. Some famous tennis players
are Biyon Borg, Roger Federer, Rafael Nadal, Novak Djokovic etc. From India, Leander
Paes, Mahesh Bhupati, Sania MIrza and many other players had shown their talents in this
game.

4.3.2 Tennis ball and ambient properties

(Here, all dimension of tennis ball is taken as standardised during game by ITF)
Tennis Ball Material- Vulcanised rubber shell covered with felt made from nylon
or wool.
Temperature- 303K
Density of Air- 1.166 kg/m3
Viscosity of Air- 16.04x10-6 Ns/m2
Diameter of Tennis Ball- 70x10-3 m
Reynolds no. for Tennis Ball- 2.5x105 [5]
Standard Spin Rate of Tennis Ball- 2600 RPM (clockwise)[8]
Velocity of Inlet Air- 100.26m/s (this is taken equal to the velocity of ball during
game, and in reverse direction of ball) [5][8]

outlet wall
1000

Tennis ball wall Inlet

1900

1000

Fig. No. 4.22

[25]
4.3.3 Geometry

As the standard dimension, specified by ITF, a tennis ball made of vulcanised rubber and
covered with felt made of wool of 70 mm diameter is drawn in Solid works software, and
then a fluid domain of air is taken around it of dimension 1900x1000x1000 mm2. The fluid
domain is created by first putting an air box of given specification around the tennis ball and
then extracting the tennis ball from the box leaving the ball seam.

wall

Inlet
outlet

Fig. No. 4.23

4.3.4 Mesh generation

Structure type of mesh- Unstructured meshing

Number of divisions-
Mesh method- Triangle
Bias factor- -5

4.3.5 Input parameters

Fluid- Air
Density- 1.166 kg/m3
Velocity- 100.26 m/s
Viscosity- 1.604x10-5 Ns/m2
Mesh cell shape- Triangle
Bias factor- 5
Top and bottom edge- Symmetry
Circle edge- Tennis ball wall
Left edge- Velocity outlet
Right edge- Velocity inlet
Solver- SIMPLE
Under relaxation factor- 0.3
Iterations- 1000

Here one assumption is made, as the ball is assumed to move from negative x side to positive
x side, while doing the analysis, as complimentary drawing is taken. The air inside the fluid

[26]
domain is assumed to move from positive x-side to negative x-side, i.e the opposite of
assumed ball movement.

4.3.6 Results

4.3.6.1 Static pressure distribution

Seam

Fig. No. 4.24

Here the static pressure distribution around the tennis ball is shown at y-z plane. Here, at the
maximum face diameter of the ball, i.e the original diameter of the ball is shown in y-z plane.
As at this plane over the maximum face diameter, the air has to travel the maximum distance,
its velocity becomes maximum, and the pressure drops to minimum. So, the low pressure
zone around the ball is shown with indigo colour indicator. Moreover due to the rotation of
the ball, more low pressure zone at top surface and less low pressure zone at bottom surface
can be seen. As at bottom surface, the rotation of the ball opposes the air flow and decreases
its velocity, subsequently increases the pressure, and at the top surface the rotation of the ball
adds up with air flow and increases air velocity and decreases pressure.[9]

Two small green high pressure zone can also be seen at the bottom surface. The high pressure
zone is present due to the presence of seam over the ball surface. As the air flows over the

[27]
 seam, its normal flow gets hampered, due to sudden change of surface type, and vortex flow
at the seam, because of this velocity of the air drops, generating two high pressure zone.

inlet
outlet

Stagnation point
Seam

Fig. No. 4.25

The air pressure distribution around the tennis ball at x-y plane is shown here. The air coming
from positive x side collides with the ball at the stagnation point at the left side of the ball and
has created a huge high pressure zone there, as the kinetic energy of air is transformed into
pressure energy at this point. This zone is marked with red.

After colliding at the stagnation point, the air hitting the ball gets scattered over the ball
surface, and with increasing the ball face diameter the velocity of the air increases,
subsequently dropping the air pressure. This zone is marked with moderate pressure region,
given yellow coloured index.

After reaching the maximum face diameter, the air has to cover the maximum path here, its
velocity gets maximum and pressure drops to minimum. This zone is marked with indigo.
With increasing distance from the ball the air pressure drops gradually in the fluid domain.
These zones are marked with light blue and green colour over the indigo marked zone.
Moreover due to clockwise rotation of the ball, the air flow at bottom surface gets opposed by
the ball rotation, and results decreasing air speed and increasing air pressure at the bottom
surface compared to top surface, where a more low pressure zone due to higher velocity of air
can be seen, as here the ball rotation is added up with the air flow.[10]

After reaching the maximum face diameter a part of air flows in straight line from the
maximum face diameter and the rest follows the ball surface. Moreover a vortex flow is

[28]
generated at the back of the outlet side. Here, the air speed decreases gradually, increasing the
pressure. This zone is marked with green and yellow colours.[8]

One small high pressure zone can be seen at the bottom surface, this is present due to the
presence of seam at the bottom surface. In the seam the natural flow of air gets hampered due
to uneven seam surface presence, which slows up the air at the seam and generates vortex
flow. That generates low velocity, and a high pressure zone at the seam.

Stagnation point

outlet
inlet

Seam lines

Fig. No. 4.26

Here velocity distribution of air coloured by static pressure around ball is shown. As
discussed earlier, the air coming from positive x side collides with the ball at the stagnation
point at the left side of the ball and has created a huge high pressure zone there, as the kinetic
energy of air is transformed into pressure energy at this point. This zone is marked as red,
showing low velocity of air.

Next, after the stagnation point, the air hitting the ball gets scattered over the ball surface, and
with increasing the ball face diameter the velocity of the air increases, subsequently dropping
the air pressure. This zone is marked with moderate pressure region, given yellow coloured
index. The air velocity is moderate here.[10]

After that, the air reaches the maximum face diameter, here the air has to cover maximum
path, its velocity gets maximum and pressure drops to minimum. This zone is marked with
indigo. The air velocity is seen to be maximum at this zone. Moreover due to clockwise
rotation of the ball, here at the top surface the rotation of the ball is added up with the air
velocity, generating a high air velocity zone.

[29]
After reaching the maximum face diameter a part of air flows in straight line from the
maximum face diameter and the rest follows the ball surface. Moreover a vortex flow is
generated at the back of the outlet side. Here, the air speed decreases gradually, increasing the
pressure. This zone is marked with green and yellow colours. Air velocity is again moderate
here.
A drop of velocity and up rise of pressure can also be seen at the seam lines. This is due to
sudden surface change at the seam surface and vortex flow at the seam.

Seam lines

Stagnation point

Fig. No. 4.27

The static air pressure distribution over the ball surface at y-z plane is shown here. As
discussed earlier, the air coming from positive x side collides with the ball at the stagnation
point of the ball and creates a huge high pressure zone there, as the kinetic energy of air is
transformed into pressure energy at this point. This zone is marked as red.

Next, after the stagnation point, the air hitting the ball gets scattered over the ball surface,
and with increasing the ball face diameter the velocity of the air increases, subsequently
dropping the air pressure. This zone is marked with moderate pressure region, given yellow
coloured index. The air velocity is moderate here.

After that, the air reaches the maximum face diameter, here the air has to cover maximum
path, its velocity gets maximum and pressure drops to minimum. This zone is marked with
indigo. The air velocity is seen to be maximum at this zone. At this point, due to clockwise
rotation of the ball, the rotational velocity of the ball adds up with the air velocity at the top
surface and opposes the air velocity at bottom surface, generating a more low pressure zone
at top surface and a less low pressure zone at bottom surface.

Again, the pressure rise at the seam lines of the ball can be seen. This due to, while travelling
over the seam the air flow gets hampered due to sudden surface change at the seam and

[30]
vortex flow at the seam. The seam lines can be seen as a high pressure band over the ball,
differing from the base body colour.

4.3.6.2 Velocity distribution

seam

Fig. No. 4.28

The velocity distribution of air around the tennis ball at y-z plane is shown here. Here, at the
maximum face diameter of the ball, ie the original diameter of the ball is shown in y-z plane.
As at this plane over the maximum face diameter, the air has to travel the maximum distance,
its velocity becomes maximum. So, the high velocity zone around the ball is shown with red
and yellow colour indicator. Moreover due to the rotation of the ball, more high velocity zone
at top surface and less high velocity zone at bottom surface can be seen. As at bottom
surface, the rotation of the ball opposes the air flow and decreases its velocity, and at the top
surface the rotation of the ball adds up with air flow and increases air velocity.

Two small green blue velocity zone can also be seen at the bottom surface. The low velocity
zone is present due to the presence of seam over the ball surface. As the air flows over the

[31]
 seam, its normal flow gets hampered, due to sudden change of surface type, and vortex flow
at the seam, because of this a low velocity zone is created at the seam.

Stagnation
point
outlet
inlet

Fig. No. 4.29

The air velocity distribution around the tennis ball at x-z plane is shown here. The air coming
from positive x side collides with the ball at the stagnation point at the right side of the ball
and has created a low velocity zone there. The coming air here, at the stagnation point
collides with the ball and loses all its velocity and creates the low velocity zone. This zone is
marked with blue.

After colliding at the stagnation point, the air hitting the ball gets scattered over the ball
surface, and with increasing the ball face diameter the velocity of the air increases. This zone
is marked with moderate velocity region, given light blue and green coloured index.

After reaching the maximum face diameter, the air has to cover the maximum path here, its
velocity gets maximum. This zone is marked with yellow.

After reaching the maximum face diameter a part of air flows in straight line from the
maximum face diameter and the rest follows the ball surface. Moreover a vortex flow is
generated at the back of the outlet side. Here, the air speed decreases gradually. This zone is
marked with green and light blue colours. And, at the opposite of the stagnation point we see
again a velocity drops, and just like the stagnation point. Here also the air velocity is
minimum and this region is marked with blue.

[32]
 Stagnation inlet
outlet point

seam

Fig. No. 4.30

The air velocity distribution around the tennis ball at x-y plane is shown here. The air coming
from positive x side collides with the ball at the stagnation point at the right side of the ball
and has created a low velocity zone there. The coming air here, at the stagnation point
collides with the ball and loses all its velocity and creates the low velocity zone. This zone is
marked with blue.

After colliding at the stagnation point, the air hitting the ball gets scattered over the ball
surface, and with increasing the ball face diameter the velocity of the air increases. This zone
is marked with moderate velocity region, given light blue and green coloured index.

After reaching the maximum face diameter, the air has to cover the maximum path here, its
velocity gets maximum. This zone is marked with yellow. Moreover due to anticlockwise
rotation of the ball, the air flow at bottom surface gets opposed by the ball rotation, and
results decreasing air speed at the bottom surface compared to top surface, where a higher
velocity of air can be seen, as here the ball rotation is added up with the air flow. Hence the
spread of yellow region is higher at top surface compared to bottom surface.

After reaching the maximum face diameter a part of air flows in straight line from the
maximum face diameter and the rest follows the ball surface. Moreover a vortex flow is
generated at the back of the outlet side. Here, the air velocity drops a lot, and this whole zone
is marked with light blue colour.

One small low velocity zone marked as yellow, over red region after which suddenly blue
region has started can be seen at the bottom surface, this is present due to the presence of
seam at the bottom surface. In the seam the natural flow of air gets hampered due to uneven

[33]
seam surface presence, which slows up the air at the seam and generates vortex flow. That
generates low velocity zone at the seam.

A high velocity zone around the ball can be seen all around the ball except at the stagnation
point. This is because of high revolution of the ball, which generates a high velocity air foil
around the ball as the rotational energy of the ball is transferred to its adjacent layer.

seam

Fig. No. 4.31

The magnified velocity distribution around the maximum face diameter of the ball at y-z
plane is shown here. As at this plane over the maximum face diameter, the air has to travel
the maximum distance, its velocity becomes maximum. So, the high velocity zone at the
bottom of the ball is shown with red colour indicator.

Two green and blue velocity zone can also be seen at the bottom surface. The low velocity
zone is present due to the presence of seam over the ball surface. As the air flows over the
seam, its normal flow gets hampered, due to sudden change of surface type, and vortex flow
at the seam, because of this a low velocity zone is created at the seam.

[34]
 Stagnation
point

outlet
inlet
Seam line

Fig. No. 4.32

The air coming from positive x side collides with the ball at the stagnation point at the left
side of the ball. Due to this collision the velocity of the air drops, creating a low velocity zone
of air of blue colour at the stagnation point.

Next, after the stagnation point, the air hitting the ball gets scattered over the ball surface, and
with increasing the ball face diameter the velocity of the air increases. This zone is marked
with moderate velocity region, given yellow and green coloured index. The air velocity is
moderate here.

After that, the air reaches the maximum face diameter, here the air has to cover maximum
path, its velocity gets maximum. This zone is marked with red and orange. The air velocity is
seen to be maximum at this zone. Moreover due to clockwise rotation of the ball, here at the
top surface the rotation of the ball is added up with the air velocity, generating a high air
velocity zone marked with red. Subsequently at the bottom surface the rotation of the ball
opposes the air flow and generates a low pressure zone compared to the top surface, this zone
is marked with green and orange.

After reaching the maximum face diameter a part of air flows in straight line from the
maximum face diameter and the rest follows the ball surface. Moreover a vortex flow is
generated at the back of the outlet side. Here, the air speed decreases gradually. This zone is
marked with green and yellow colours. Air velocity is again moderate here.

The seam lines are marked here with comparatively low velocity regions over the surface, as
at the seam the velocity drops due to change of surface type and vortex flow at the seam.

[35]
 Fig. No. 4.33

Fig. No. 4.34

[36]
 Fig. No. 4.35

4.3.6.3 Drag force and lift force

Fig. No. 4.36 drag force on (ve) x axis (-1 0 0)

From figure it is clear that drag force is 0.0255 N and drag coefficient is 0.2089

Fig. No. 4.37 lift force on y axis (0 1 0)

From figure it is clear that lift force is 0.00032 N and lift coefficient is 0.1718

[37]
4.4 Simulation of aerodynamic nature of air passing around a foot ball

4.4.1 About football

Football is a team game played between two teams containing eleven players each. The main
objective of the game is to score goal by kicking the ball. This game is famous worldwide,
and many popular tournaments like FIFA World cup, UEFA Euro cup, UEFA Champions
league etc are organised around the world centering this beautiful game.
Many famous players like Pele, Diego Maradona, Lionel Messi, Cristiano Ronaldo has
shown their talents in this game. Baichung Bhutia, I M Bijayan, Sunil Chettri, Subrata Paul
are some famous Football players from India.

4.4.2 Football and ambient properties

(Here, all dimension of football is taken as standardised during game by FIFA)

Football Outer Material:- Leather with polyurethane, a synthetic material to protect
the ball from damages
Temperature:- 303K
Density of Air:- 1.166 kg/m3
Viscosity of Air:- 16.04x10-6 Ns/m2
Diameter of Football:- 220x10-3 m
Reynolds no. for Football- 2.5x105 [3]
Standard spin rate of Football- 9 RPM (clockwise) [2]
Velocity of Inlet Air- 66.83 m/s (this is taken equal to the velocity of ball during
game, and in reverse direction of ball movement)[3]

1000
wall
outlet

Ball cavity
1900
1000

inlet

Fig. No. 4.38

[38]
 4.4.3 Geometry

As the standard dimension specified by FIFA, a football made of leather with polyurethane,
with a diameter of 220 mm diameter is drawn in Solid works software, then a fluid domain of
air is taken around it of dimension 1900x1000x1000 mm2. The fluid domain is created by
first putting an air box of given specification around the football and then extracting the
football from the box leaving the ball cavity.

wall
outlet

inlet

Fig. No. 4.39

4.4.4 Mesh generation

Structure type of mesh- Unstructured meshing

Number of divisions-
Mesh method- Triangle
Bias factor- -5

4.4.5 Input parameters

Fluid:- Air
Density:- 1.166 kg/m3
Velocity:- 66.83 m/s
Viscosity:- 1.604x10-5 Ns/m2
Mesh cell shape:- Triangle
Bias factor:- 5
Top and bottom edge:- Symmetry
Circle edge:- Football wall
Left edge:- Velocity outlet
Right edge:- Velocity inlet
Solver:- SIMPLE
Under relaxation factor:- 0.3
Iterations:- 1000

Here one assumption is made, as the ball is assumed to move from negative x side to positive
x side, while doing the analysis, as complimentary drawing is taken. The air inside the fluid

[39]
domain is assumed to move from positive x-side to negative x-side, ie the opposite of
assumed ball movement.

4.4.6 Results

4.4.6.1 Static pressure distribution

Stagnation
point

Fig. No. 4.40

The static air pressure distribution over the ball surface at y-z plane is shown here. The air
coming from positive x side collides at the stagnation point of the ball and creates a huge
high pressure zone there, as the kinetic energy of air is transformed into pressure energy at
this point. This zone is marked as red.

Next, after the stagnation point, the air hitting the ball gets scattered over the ball surface, and
with increasing the ball face diameter the velocity of the air increases, subsequently dropping
the air pressure. This zone is marked with moderate pressure region, given yellow green and
light blue coloured index. The air velocity is moderate here.

After that, the air reaches the maximum face diameter, here the air has to cover maximum
path, its velocity gets maximum and pressure drops to minimum. This zone is marked with
indigo. The air velocity is seen to be maximum at this zone. At this point, due to clockwise
rotation of the ball, the rotational velocity of the ball adds up with the air velocity at the top
surface and opposes the air velocity at bottom surface, generating a more low pressure zone
at top surface and a less low pressure zone at bottom surface. But due to low rpm of football
this pressure variation is not significant here.

[40]
Again, the pressure rise at the seam lines of the ball can be seen. This due to, while travelling
over the seam the air flow gets hampered due to sudden surface change at the seam and
vortex flow at the seam. The seam lines can be seen as a high pressure band over the ball,
differing from the base body colour.

Back of
stagnation
point

Fig. No. 4.41

Here the backside of the ball is shown. After reaching the maximum face diameter a part of
air flows in straight line from the maximum face diameter and the rest follows the ball
surface. Moreover a vortex flow is generated at the back of the outlet side. Here, the air speed
decreases gradually at the back surface of the ball, increasing the pressure. This zone is
marked with light blue colours, showing a little high pressure zone.
At the exact opposite of the stagnation point the pressure build up is a quite high, this
point is marked with moderate high pressure region, coloured green.

[41]
 4.4.6.2 Velocity distribution

inlet
outlet

Stagnation
point

Fig. No. 4.42

The air velocity distribution around the football at x-y plane is shown here. The air coming
from positive x side collides with the ball at the stagnation point at the left side of the ball and
has created a low velocity zone there. The coming air here, at the stagnation point collides
with the ball and loses all its velocity and creates the low velocity zone. This zone is marked
with indigo.

After colliding at the stagnation point, the air hitting the ball gets scattered over the ball
surface, and with increasing the ball face diameter the velocity of the air increases. This zone
is marked with moderate velocity region, given light blue, green and yellow coloured index.

At reaching the maximum face diameter, the air has to cover the maximum path here, its
velocity gets maximum. This zone is marked with yellow, orange and red. Moreover due to
clockwise rotation of the ball, the air flow at bottom surface gets opposed by the ball rotation,
and results decreasing air speed at the bottom surface compared to top surface, where a
higher velocity of air can be seen, as here the ball rotation is added up with the air flow.
Hence the spread of red and yellow region is higher at top surface compared to bottom
surface. Though due to low rpm of football this variation is not that noticeable.[4]

After reaching the maximum face diameter a part of air flows in straight line from the
maximum face diameter and the rest follows the ball surface. Moreover a vortex flow is
generated at the back of the outlet side. Here, the air velocity drops a lot, and this whole zone
is marked with light blue colour.

The whole body around the ball shows a light blue and indigo air foil around the ball, this is
because, the natural air flow gets obstructed by the ball surface and the velocity of the air
drops around the ball surface.

[42]
 Football
seam cavity

Fig. No. 4.43

The seam of the ball around the whole body can be seen in the figure. Here a detailed image
of seam around the ball surface is shown. The seams are marked with indigo all around, as air
cannot flow freely at the seam due to sudden change of surface type, moreover small vortex
flows are also generated in the seam. Hence, we see low velocity zones marked indigo all
around the seam.[3]

Football
seam lines

Fig. No. 4.44

[43]
4.4.6.3 Drag force and lift force

Fig. No. 4.45 drag force on (ve) x axis (-1 0 0)

From figure it is clear that drag force is 0.1235 N and drag coefficient is 0.276

Fig. No. 4.46 lift force on y axis (0 1 0)

From figure it is clear that lift force is 0.0069 N and lift coefficient is 0.002

5. Conclusion
The present work simulates the aerodynamical nature of different sports balls. The simulation
results are very much needed for better design approach of those balls. So, it can be
summarised as i) static pressure and velocity distribution are very much required to evaluate
nessary flow velocity of air for a particular game. ii) Drag and lift force are requred to
quantify resistive nature of air flow. iii) Simulation gives the flexibility to analyse different
cases without real time experimentation which is much more economical. So, finally it can be
concluded that the present work would ease the future design of efficient and ecoomical
sports balls.

[44]
References
1) Jain A.K., Fluid mechanics including hydraulic machines, Khanna Publishers, Eighth
Edition, page nos. 451-500
2) Pouya Jalilian, Patrick K. Kreun, Mohammad Hady M. Makhmalbaf, William W.
Liou, Computational aerodynamics of baseball, soccer ball and volleyball, American
Journal of Sports Science 2014; 2(5): pages nos. 115-121
3) Rabindm D. Mehta and Jani Macari Pallis, Sports Ball Aerodynamics: Effects of
Velocity, Spin and Surface Roughness, MATERIALS AND SCIENCE IN SPORTS,
pages nos. 185-197

4) Clinton E. Smith, Direct Numerical Simulation of the Flow over a Golf Ball,
December 2011, page nos. 112-114, 118-122, 131-140
5) Clinton Smith, Nikolaos Beratlis, Elias Balaras, Kyle Squires, and Masaya Tsunoda;
NUMERICAL INVESTIGATION OF THE FLOW OVER A GOLF BALL IN
THESUBCRITICAL AND SUPERCRITICAL REGIMES, Sixth International
Symposium on Turbulence and Shear Flow Phenomena, 22-24 June 2009, page nos.
1014-1016
6) Rabindra Mehta, Firoz Alam and Aleksandar Subic, Review of tennis ball
aerodynamics, sports technology 2008, page nos. 8-12
7) F. Alam, W. Tio, S. Watkins, A. Subic and J. Naser, Effects of Spin on Tennis Ball
Aerodynamics: An Experimental and Computational Study
8) https://tennisspeedresearch.blogspot.in/2011/01/forehand-speed-and-spin-rates-of-
atp.html
9) https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228001372_Review_of_tennis_ball_aerody
namics
10) http://twu.tennis-warehouse.com/learning_center/aerodynamics2.php
11) http://www.livestrong.com/article/439185-average-spin-rates-launch-angle-ball-
speed-golf

[45]