rerncally from a stationary position on its

s;:s:ed of 2 km/s relative to the rocket for

Chapter 13
tft-0ff and at the end of the 5.8 s period.
rerage of these two accelerations.
(11.4 m/s 2 ; 12. 75 m/s 2 ; 252 km/h)
1nzontal position by a plane in level flight Direct stress and strain
rr_ s The missile's rocket motor fires for
rn-Dut. The exhaust jet velocity is 1.8 km/s
: k..\;. Find the acceleration of the missile
ing firing, estimate the speed of the missile
ng for the decrease in mass and taking the
u:-:i-out as the constant acceleration, find

!: 620 mis; 5.61 km; 638 mis; 5.71 km1

' to the vertical at an altitude where g =
krr: s. without power, its rockets fire for
od issuing a jet at 800 mis relative to the The strength and stiffness of materials deals with the effects of loading on machine
:rauons along the line of flight and normal parts and structures, particularly the nature of the internal forces and deformation
Dng the line of flight at the end of firing produced. When a body is pulled by a tensile force or crushed by a compressive force,
: distance travelled in 20 s and the speed the loading is said to be direct. Such direct forces will be found to arise also when
bodies are heated or cooled under constraint and in vessels under pressure.
: m sc: 8.96 m/s 2 ; 31.4 km; 1.64 km/s1
total weight of 2040g kN including 130 t
o booster rockets and three main engines 13.1 Stress
l,cx,sters bum out and at the same instant
The ability of a member to withstand load or transmit fmce depends upon its
as a mass flow rate of propellant of 0 .5 t. s
:iues of 3 km/sand 3.5 km/s respectively. dimensions. The cross-sectional area over which the load is distributed determines
med at lift-off and assuming this remains the intensity of loading or average stress in the member. If the intensity of loading
5. What is the acceleration at bum-out. is uniform the direct stress, a, is defined as the ratio of load, F, to cross-sectional
o the vertical and the thrust to be throttled area A, normal to the load, Fig. 13.1. Thus
fhat is the overall specific impulse of the
load
stress =
'1'\: 8.52 m/s2 ;27.2 m/s 2 ;
3.4 kN s/kg, area
ft has a total mass of 3000 t and its five
F
steady rate for 150 s when taking off
I .:, I~! or a= -
n s relative to the vehicle and 180 t of i~i A
age. Find the acceleration at lift-off, after The direct stress may be tensile (a pull) or compressive (a push). The strength of a
ue the velocity of the vehicle at the end member is measured by the force or stress needed to fracture it.
is lifted, taking the average of the three
The SI units of force and length are the newton and the metre respectively so that
the sta~e.
.2"' m/s 2 ; 32 m/s 2 ; 7260 km/h, 151 km1 the derived SI unit of stress is newtons per square metre (N/m 2). Other multiples of
this unit used are:
I kilonewton per square metre (kN/m2) 103 N/m2
I meganewton per square metre (MN/m2) 106 N/m2
I giganewton per square metre (GN/m2) 109 N/m2
A further form now commonly used takes the area of section as (millimetre) 2 . Note
that
1 N/mm2 = 106 N/m2 = 1 MN/m2
1 kN/mm2 109 N/m2 = 1 GN/m 2

274 Applied mechanics

+(_ _l@

F stress
constant, E
strain

Compression Area A 1.e. a = E or 1: = _I!_

t: E
where Eis the constant of proportional
modulus.

+(___fJ"{)
Tension
I F
Since strain is a ratio of two lengt
E may be given in the basic form ~ I
are involved, the forms GN/m 2 or I
E relates to the stiffness or rigidin c
Fig. 13.1 the load required to produce a giv1
210 GN/m2 but for the softer, more 1
the range is lower, 70-120 G!\ m=.

The name pascal (Pa) is also in use for the unit N/m 2 . In this text, as far as stres,
the load-extension diagram is not l
calculations are concerned, we shall restrict ourselves to the unit forms N/m2 , N/mrr::
it is straight. For those materials. E
and their multiples. The above units of stress are also used for pressure (see page 390,
Eis in the range 100-125 GN m=. a
modulus is very low and variable,
13.2 Strain 40 MN/m2 for the harder varieties. 1
value and can be markedly affecte
A member under any loading experiences a change in shape or size. In the case of reinforcement. For these materials. ti
a bar loaded in tension the extension of the bar depends upon its total length. The
bar is said to be strained and the strain is defined as the extension per unit of original (see page 324).
For further work on the modulus
length of the bar. Strain may be produced in two ways:
1. By application of a load.
2. By a change in temperature, unaccompanied by load or stress. Example A rubber pad for a mach,~c 1
5 mm under this load. If the stress :~ :Ji
If l is the original length of bar, x the extension or contraction in length under load diameter and thickness of a pad o( c: a
or temperature change and 1: the strain, then
SOLUTION
change in length
strain = ---=------'~- load
original length Stress= - -
area
X i.e. a= FIA
or E = -
l X JO'5
i.e. 280 X 103
Strain is a ratio and has therefore no units. 1rd: 4
Strain due to an extension is considered positive, that associated with a contraction hence d 2 = 0.0227 m= ai
i.e. diameter of pad = 151 mm
is negative.
The increase in area due to compre"iQI

13.3 Relation between stres~ and strain: Young's modulus of elasticity reduction in ,eai
strain = - - - - - ~
original kngtll
If the extension or compression in a member due to a load disappears on removal
of the load, then the material is said to be elastic. Most metals are elastic over a limited a X
---
range of stress known as the elastic range. Elastic materials, with some exceptions. E
obey Hooke's law, which states that: the strain is directly proponional to the applied 280 X 103 0.005
stress. Thus i.e.
1 X 106
 Direct stress and strain 275

stress
--- = constant, E
r
'~
..
F strain

A.rea A i.e. _!!_ = E or = _!!_

E
where Eis the constant of proportionality, known as the modulus of elasticity or Young's
modulus.

~~.I +
F
,.
it '\ m 2 . In this text, as far as stress
:hes to the unit forms N/m2 , N/mm~
U5-D used for pressure (see page 390l.
oge in shape or size. In the case of
depends upon its total length. The
I as the extension per unit of original
,-o ways:
Since strain is a ratio of two lengths, the units of E are those of stress. Values of
E may be given in the basic form N/m2 , or more conveniently, since large numbers
are involved, the forms GN/m2 or kN/mm2 .
E relates to the stiffness or rigidity of a material since the higher its value, the greater
the load required to produce a given extension. E for steels ranges from 196 to
210 GN/m 2 but for the softer, more ductile materials such as aluminium and copper,
the range is lower, 70-120 GN/m 2 . Many materials do not obey Hooke's law, i.e.
the load-extension diagram is not a straight line, or only a very small portion of
it is straight. For those materials, Eis an approximation only. Thus for cast iron,
Eis in the range 100-125 GN/m2, and for concrete 16-22 GN/m2 . For rubber, the
modulus is very low and variable, ranging from 1 MN/m2 when soft to about
40 MN/m 2 for the harder varieties. Similarly for plastics and polymers, E has a low
value and can be markedly affected by the method of manufacture and type of
reinforcement. For these materials, the direct modulus Eis not particularly applicable
t (see page 324).
For further work on the modulus of elasticity see Section 14.4 and Table 14.1.

Example A rubber pad for a machine mounting is to carry a load of 5 kN and to compress
lied by load or stress.
5 mm under this load. If the stress in the rubber is not to exceed 280 kN/m 2 , determine the
or contraction in length under load diameter and thickness of a pad of circular cross-section. Take E for rubber as 1 MN/m 2

SOLUTION

Stress = load
area
1.e. <J = FIA
3
3 _5xl0
1.e. 280 X iO - 1rd 2/
4
hence d 2 = 0.0227 m 2 and d = 0.1508 m
~-e. that associated with a contractio::
1.e. diameter of pad = 151 mm
The increase in area due to compression has been neglected. Also
.
Young's modulus of elasticity stram = -reduction in length
-----=---
original length
lue to a load disappears on remo,a.
Most metals are elastic over a limi~ <J X

.tic materials, with some exceptions. E

ls directly proportional to the appliei:. 280 X 103 0.005
i.e. -----
1 X 1Q6

276 Applied mechanics

Therefore thickness of pad is given by: X = X1 + X2

= (E 1 X 0.36) + (Ez X O 2-+
l = 0.018 m = 18 mm
= 0.00075 X 0.36 + 0.001
= 0.00051 m
= 0.51 mm
Example Fig. 13.2 shows a steel strut with two grooves cut out along part of its length. Calculatt
Note: It has been assumed here that th
the total compression of the strut due to a load of 240 kN. E = 200 GN!m 2.
at the change in cross-section the stre,,,
produces little error in the calculatec .
SOLUTION
Subscripts 1 and 2 denote solid and grooved portions, respectively. The load at every section
is the same, 240 kN. Problems
For the solid length of 360 mm, 1. A bar of25 mm diameter is ,u:-_,e
on a 300 mm length. E = :1:-: 4
compression, x 1 = E 1l = E1 X 0.36
F 240 X 103 2. A steel strut, 40 mm diametc .. ,
Stress, a 1 = 0.15 X 109 N/m 2 Calculate the ratio of the e'\ta:~.;;
A, 0.04 X 0.04

~ 0.15 X 109 3. When a bolt is in tension. rn.: :c

Strain, E1
109
= 0.00075
the bolt which is smaller thar. :::ii
E 200 X
353 mm2) carries a tensile l0.1.: I
For the grooved length of 240 mm, stress if the shank area is u,e..-:
compression, x2 = E2 x 0.24
4. A light alloy bar is obsef\ e.: : ~
240 X 103 a tensile stress of 280 M'.\ ::".:
Stress, az - - - - - - - - - - = 0.2 X 109 N/m2
(0.0016 - 0.02 X 0.02)
5. A duralumin tie, 600 mm lo~.; ~
Strain, E2
a2 0.2 X 109 = 0.001 The hole is 30 mm diamete: .:.:-.J
E 200 X 109
due to a load of 180 k~. E = :
The total compression of the strut is equal to the sum of the compressions of the solid and
grooved portions. Therefore 6. A steel strut of rectangular ,;:. :;.i
has breadth 40 mm and dept~ ~
E = 220 GN/m 2 , calculate :-.e
240 kN

7. A solid cylindrical bar. oi :: : :1
tube of 20 mm internal d1,ii,:c:::1
Determine the external dia::-:~:a:1
the stress in the solid bar .:c: J
total change in length oi :~,:: -l
20 mm
240 mm

~~
10mm~mt
40mm
=r 13.4 Compound bars
When two or more member, .::.~c: 1
load and extend or compress t'."::: s.
L bar. The stresses in each men~::,~r
10mm

fl 40mm I- l. The total load is the sur.~ ,:,J

2. The load taken by each r.~c::-:-.1
3. The extension or contra-:::~
Fig. 13.2 Consider a concrete column ra:::-.fc
 ,., ..,

Direct stress and strain 277

X = X 1 + Xz
= (E1 X 0.36) + (E2 X 0.24)
= 0.00075 X 0.36 + 0.001 X 0.24
= 0.00051 m
= 0.51 mm
:,. , . , :a out along part of its length. Calculate
t:: ~,-, i.:.\' E = 200 GN!m 2. Note: It has been assumed here that the stress distribution is uniform over all sections, but
at the change in cross-section the stress distribution is-actually very complex. The assumption
produces little error in the calculated compression.
,n, ~espectively. The load at every section
Problems
1. A bar of 25 mm diameter is subjected to a tensile load of 50 kN. Calculate the extension
on a 300 mm length. E = 200 GN/m 2 .
(0.153 mm)
2. A steel strut, 40 mm diameter, is turned down to 20 mm diameter for one-half its length.
~ x 109 N/m 2 Calculate the ratio of the extensions in the two parts due to axial loading.
(4: 1)
1.1X:,-5 3. When a bolt is in tension, the load on the nut is transmitted through the root area of
the bolt which is smaller than the shank area. A bolt 24 mm in diameter (root area =
353 mm2) carries a tensile load. Find the percentage error in the calculated value of the
stress if the shank area is used instead of the root area.
(21.7 per cent)
4. A light alloy bar is observed to i.ncrease in length by 0.35 per cent when subjected to
= 0.2 x 109 N/m 2 a tensile stress of 280 MN/m 2 Calculate Young's modulus for the material.
r: (80 GN/m 2)
5. A duralumin tie, 600 mm long, 40 mm diameter, has a hole drilled out along its length.
(,~
The hole is 30 mm diameter and 100 mm long. Calculate the total extension of the tie
due to a load of 180 kN. E = 84 GN/m 2 .
st.:::-: c1f the compressions of the solid and (1.24 mm)
6. A steel strut of rectangular section is made up of two lengths. The first, 150 mm long,
has breadth 40 mm and depth 50 mm; the second, 100 mm long, is 25 mm square. If
E = 220 GN/m 2 , calculate the compression of the strut_ under a load of 100 kN.
(0. 107 mm)
7. A solid cylindrical bar, of 20 mm diameter and 180 mm long, is welded to a hollow
tube of20 mm internal diameter, 120 mm long, to make a bar of total length 300 mm.
Determine the external diameter of the tube if, when loaded axially by a 40 kN load,
the stress in the solid bar and that in the tube are to be the same. Hence calculate the
total change in length of the bar. E = 210 kN/mm2 .
20 mm
(28.3 mm; 0.184 mm)

!" i
13.4 Compound bars

[];i 40 mm I
When two or more members are rigidly fixed together so that they share the same
load and extend or compress the same amount, the two members form a compound
bar. The stresses in each member are calculated using the following:
1.
')
The total load is the sum of the loads taken by each member.
The load taken by each member is given by the product of its stress and its area.
3. The extension or contraction is the same for each member.
Consider a concrete column reinforced by two steel bars (Fig. 13.3) subjected to a