1.

Dynamite

This type of explosive material made of sawdust or diatomaceous earth as an

absorbent and nitroglycerin as the explosive agent. It commonly sold in the shape
of sticks, and is used with a line of fuse, with a primary explosive at the end acting
as its charge, called a 'blasting cap'.

History, Uses, and Properties

History:

Dynamite was invented by the chemist Alfred Nobel in Germany. The product,
originally called 'Nobel's Blasting Powder' was patented in both England and
Sweden on 1867.

Since its invention, dynamite has been employed in mining, construction, and
demolition. It quickly gave rise to the faster development of industry and easier
labor, especially in constructing railways and clearing mine-shafts.

Uses:

Dynamite was also used in warfare. Being classified as a high explosive, it was used
prior to the First World was as a highly effective and lethal explosive.
Nobel became notorious for his invention of dynamite. It was once said that Nobel
would go down in history as a peddler of death for the many lives that were lost
either accidentally, or during times of civil strife, from the use of dynamite.

The chief uses of dynamite were in construction, mining, and demolition. However,
newer explosives and techniques have replaced dynamite in many applications. Dynamite is still
used mainly as a bottom charge or in underwater blasting. Dynamite has been used in armed
conflicts and criminal sabotage, mainly to destroy bridges and other ways of travel, to slow the
advance of supplies or enemy troops.

Preparation

The properties of dynamite are primarily three parts: Nitroglycerin, which acts as its
explosive agent, an absorbent, mostly one part of diatomaceous earth, and a small
amount of sodium carbonate.

Older kinds of dynamite incorporated sawdust as an absorbent. Mixing the

nitroglycerin with absorbents made if safer to transport, since it greatly reduced the
shock sensitivity. Older types dynamite has a tendency to 'sweat' overtime,
meaning that nitroglycerin mixed with the absorbent starts to leak out of and
crystallize around the wrapper. This makes the dynamite highly dangerous.
Trinitrotoluene, most commonly shortened to TNT, is a solid, yellow-colored
chemical compound. It is commonly used as a reagent in chemical synthesis and as
an explosive material. Most often confused as being similar to dynamite, TNT is a
chemical compound, while dynamite is a mixture of nitroglycerin and an absorbent
agent such as sawdust.

History, Uses, and Properties

History:

TNT was invented by the German chemist Joseph Wilbrand in 1863. The original
purpose of TNT was its use as a yellow dye. The use of TNT as an explosive came
many years later, mainly due to the difficulty of detonating TNT, and because it was
less powerful than other explosives at that time.

Uses:

TNT is a comparatively insensitive explosive which enabled it to be poured while in

liquid form into shell cases. The earliest use of TNT as a military explosive was
during 1902, when the Germans used it as a filling for artillery shells. These TNT-
filled armor-piercing shells would explode after penetrating the armor of the target.

TNT is still widely used by the military and by various construction companies
worldwide. It is valued for general use because of its safety and stability. TNT is
insensitive to shock as well as friction, which allows it to be transported and used
without much risk for accidental detonation.

TNT is also water-resistant, which allows it to be used in wet environments. Radford

Army Ammunition Plant currently produces the majority of TNT used by the United
States Military. TNT is also employed for use in demolitions and clearing away large
debris in building foundations.

Production:

The production of TNT is achieved in three steps. It begins with the nitrated toluene,
which is mixed with sulfuric and nitric acid to produce mono-nitrotoluene or MNT.
The MNT is then separated and re-nitrated to produce dinitrotoluene or DNT.

Finally, the DNT is nitrated into trinitrotoluene or TNT by the use of an anhydrous
mix of nitric acid and oleum. As a finishing touch, the TNT is then stabilized by
treating it with an aqueous sodium sulfate solution. This removes the less stable
isomers of TNT, making it more stable for use.

Properties:

TNT is a toxic chemical, and skin contact has been known to cause skin irritation,
making the skin appear yellow-orange in color. Prolonged exposure to TNT can
impair normal liver function and cause anemia, spleen enlargement, as well as
affect male fertility.

Breathing TNT is greatly harmful to the immune system. It is known as a carcinogen,

and oral intake of TNT produces urine which is red in color, due to its chemical
breakdown in the body.

3. Tovex
A water gel explosive, also known as Trenchrite, Seismogel, or Seismopac, is an
alternative to traditional dynamite. It's lower toxicity and safer manufacture has
made it the optimum replacement for dynamite. Trovex has been adopted for
widespread use, with as much as 80% international oil companies using it for
seismic exploration.

History, Uses, and Properties

History:

E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Company, Inc. first developed Tovex in the 1960's The
first attempts at making Torvex was by mixing pelletized TNT with aqueous gels. It
was commercially successful, but proved to have problems mainly with oxygen
balance and the cost of production. In the late 1973, the formula was perfected by
replacing TNT with methyl ammonium nitrate, thus allowing Tovex to replace
nitroglycerin-based dynamites.

Uses:

The most common uses of Tovex is in construction, mining, tunneling, avalanche

rescue, and seismic exploration. Tovex is the only explosive developed that has not
been used as an instrument of warfare.

Properties:

The chemical properties of Tovex is a 50/50 aqueous solution of ammonium nitrate

and methylammonium nitrate. Sensitized fluids and other ingredients such as
sodium nitrate, aluminum, and coal are added to make some of the product grades
cap sensitive. Thickening agents are sometimes used to enhance water resistance
by acting as crystal modifiers.

Propane-1,2,3-triyl trinitrate

(NG), (United States spelling) also known as nitroglycerine (UK spelling),

trinitroglycerin, trinitroglycerine, 1,2,3-trinitroxypropane and glyceryl trinitrate, is a
heavy, colorless, oily, explosive liquid obtained by nitrating glycerol.

Other names[hide]

1,3-Dinitrooxypropan-2-yl nitrate

Manufacturing

The industrial manufacturing process often uses a nearly 50:50 mixture of

concentrated sulfuric acid and concentrated nitric acid. This can be produced by
mixing white fuming nitric acid (quite costly pure nitric acid in which oxides of
nitrogen have been removed, as opposed to red fuming nitric acid) and
concentrated sulfuric acid. More often, this mixture is attained by the cheaper
method of mixing fuming sulfuric acid, also known as oleum, (sulfuric acid
containing excess sulfur trioxide) and azeotropic nitric acid (consisting of around
70% nitric acid, the rest being water).

The sulfuric acid produces protonated nitric acid species, which are attacked by
glycerin's nucleophilic oxygen atoms. The nitro group is thus added as an ester C-O-
NO2 and water is produced. This is different from an aromatic nitration reaction in
which nitronium ions are the active species in an electrophilic attack of the
molecules' ring system.

The addition of glycerin results in an exothermic reaction (i.e., heat is produced), as

usual for mixed acid nitrations. However, if the mixture becomes too hot, it results
in runaway, a state of accelerated nitration accompanied by the destructive
oxidizing of organic materials of nitric acid and the release of very poisonous brown
nitrogen dioxide gas at high risk of an explosion. Thus, the glycerin mixture is added
slowly to the reaction vessel containing the mixed acid (not acid to glycerin). The
nitrator is cooled with cold water or some other coolant mixture and maintained
throughout the glycerin addition at about 22 C (72 F), much below which the
esterification occurs too slowly to be useful. The nitrator vessel, often constructed of
iron or lead and generally stirred with compressed air, has an emergency trap door
at its base, which hangs over a large pool of very cold water and into which the
whole reaction mixture (called the charge) can be dumped to prevent an explosion,
a process referred to as drowning. If the temperature of the charge exceeds about
30 C (86 F) (actual value varying by country) or brown fumes are seen in the
nitrator's vent, then it is immediately drowned.

Instability and desensitization

In its pure form, it is a primary contact explosive (physical shock can cause it to
explode) and degrades over time to even more unstable forms. This makes it highly
dangerous to transport or use. In this undiluted form, it is one of the more powerful
explosives, comparable to the more recent RDX and PETN, as well as the plastic
explosive C-4which contains 9092% RDX as its active ingredient.

A serious problem in the use of nitroglycerin results from its high freezing point
13 C (55 F). Solid nitroglycerin is much less sensitive to shock than the liquid, a
feature common in explosives.

Nitroglycerin

IUPAC name

1,2,3-Trinitroxypropane

Properties

Molecular formula C3H5N3O9

Molar mass 227.09 g mol1

Exact mass 227.002578773 g mol1

Appearance Colorless liquid

Density 1.6 g cm3 (at 15 C)

Melting point 14 C, 287 K, 57 F

Boiling point 50-60 C, 323-333 K, 122-140 F (decomposes)

History
Nitroglycerin was the first practical explosive stronger than black powder. It was
synthesized by chemist Ascanio Sobrero in 1847, working under Thophile-Jules
Pelouze at the University of Turin. Sobrero initially called his discovery
pyroglycerine, and warned vigorously against its use as an explosive. It was later
adopted as a commercially useful explosive by Alfred Nobel

USES

The main use of nitroglycerin, by tonnage, is in explosives such as dynamite and in

propellants.

Nitroglycerin is an oil that may explode with heat, pressure or when it burns. It is
extremely unstable, therefore dropping or bumping a container can also make it
explode.

Nitroglycerin is a high explosive which is so unstable that the slightest jolt, friction,
or impact can cause it to detonate. The molecule contains oxygen, nitrogen, and
carbon in weak bonds; when it explodes great energy is released as the atoms
rearrange to form new molecules with strong, stable bonds like N2 and CO. It is the
speed of the decomposition reaction which makes it such a violent explosiveIn
medicine, where it is generally called glyceryl trinitrate, nitroglycerin is used as a
heart medication (under the trade names Nitrospan, Nitrostat, Nitrol, and Tridil,
amongst others). It is used as a medicine for angina pectoris (ischaemic heart
disease) in tablets, ointment, solution for intravenous use, transdermal patches
(Trinipatch, Transderm Nitro, Nitro-Dur), or sprays administered sublingually
(Nitrolingual Pump Spray, Natispray, and NitroMist). Patients who experience angina
when doing certain physical activities can often prevent symptoms by taking
nitroglycerin 5 to 10 minutes before the activity.

subsiding of chest pain

decrease of blood pressure

increase of heart rate.

orthostatic hypotension

These effects arise because nitroglycerin is converted to nitric oxide in the body by
mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase,[17] and nitric oxide is a natural vasodilator.

Side effects

The side effects of nitroglycerin include lack of sexual desire, headache, painful
urination and increased bowel movements.[citation needed] Patients are often told
to sit or lie down during and immediately after taking nitroglycerin to reduce the
risk of low blood pressure. A drop in blood pressure can be accompanied by
weakness or dizziness.[18]

Shortly after the invention of nitroglycerin, this substance was noticed to be capable
of inducing a violent headache. Headaches are the most prominent side effect of
nitrate therapy

Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine

Other names [hide]

RDX
1,3,5-Trinitro-1,3,5-triazacyclohexane
1,3,5-Trinitrohexahydro-s-triazine
cyclonite, hexogen,

RDX, an initialism for Research Department Explosive, is an explosive nitroamine

widely used in military and industrial applications.In its pure, synthesized state RDX
is a white, crystalline solid. As an explosive, it is usually used in mixtures with other
explosives and plasticizers, phlegmatizers or desensitizers. It is stable in storage
and is considered one of the most powerful and brisant of the military high
explosives.

RDX

Properties

Molecular formula C3H6N6O6

Molar mass 222.12 g mol1

Appearance Colorless crystals

Density 1.82 g/cm3

Melting point 205.5 C, 479 K, 402 F

Boiling point 234 C, 507 K, 453 F

Terrorism

Ahmed Ressam, the al-Qaeda Millenium Bomber, used a small quantity of RDX as
one of the components in the explosives that he prepared to bomb Los Angeles
International Airport on New Year's Eve 1999/2000; the combined explosives could
have produced a blast forty times greater than that of a devastating car bomb.[36]
[37]

RDX was main component used for the 2006 Mumbai train bombings.[38] It was
also believed to be the explosive in the 2010 Moscow Metro bombings.[39]

History

RDX was used by both sides in World War II. The U.S. produced about 15,000 long
tons (15,000 t) per month during WW II and Germany about 7,000 long tons
(7,100 t) per month.[11] RDX had the major advantages of possessing greater
explosive power than TNT used in the First World War, and requiring no additional
raw materials for its manufacture.[11]

5.3 USE

RDX is a nitrate explosive compound (Turley and Brewster 1987) that can be utilized
as a propellant, gunpowder, or high explosive depending on the initiation type
(Boileau et al. 2009).

RDX has both military and civilian applications. As a military explosive, RDX can be
used alone as a base charge for detonators or mixed with another explosive such as
TNT to form cyclotols, which produce a bursting charge for aerial bombs, mines, and
torpedoes (HSDB 2009; Lewis 2000; Sax and Lewis 1989; Stokinger 1982).

As an explosive, RDX is one and a half times more powerful than TNT and is easily
initiated with mercury fulminate (Lewis 2007).

Common military uses of RDX have been as an ingredient in plastic bonded

explosives or plastic explosives, which have been used as explosive fill in almost all
types of munition compounds (Gibbs and Popolato 1980; HSDB 2009).

The plasticized form of RDX, composition C-4, contains 91% RDX, 2.1%
polyisobutylene, 1.6% motor oil, and 5.3% 2-ethylhexyl sebacate (Turley and
Brewster 1987).
Civilian applications of RDX have included use in fireworks, in demolition blocks, as
a heating fuel for food rations (Turley and Brewster 1987), and formerly as an
occasional rodenticide (HSDB 2009). Combinations of RDX and HMX, another
explosive, have been the chief ingredients in approximately 75 products (U.S. Army
1978c).

ANFO

ANFO (or AN/FO, for ammonium nitrate / fuel oil) is a widely used explosive mixture.
The oil used is most often No. 2 fuel oil, or diesel fuel, but sometimes kerosene, coal
dust, or even molasses. Nitromethane is one of the most effective fuels used in this
sort of explosive.

It is by far the most widely used explosive in coal mining, quarrying, metal mining,
and civil construction: it accounts for an estimated 80% of the
6,000,000,000 pounds (2.7109 kg) of explosive used annually in North America.[1]
It also sees service in improvised explosive devices, where it is also known as a
fertilizer bomb.[2]

Chemistry

ANFO under most conditions is considered a high explosive; it decomposes through

detonation rather than deflagration and with a high velocity. It is a tertiary explosive
consisting of distinct fuel and oxidizer phases and requires confinement for efficient
detonation and brisance. Its sensitivity is relatively low; it generally requires a
booster (e.g., one or two sticks of dynamite, as historically used, or in more recent
times, Tovex or cast boosters of TNT/PETN or similar compositions) to ensure reliable
detonation.

The basic chemistry of ANFO detonation is the reaction of ammonium nitrate

(NH4NO3) with a long chain hydrocarbon (CnH2n+2) to form nitrogen, carbon
dioxide and water. In an ideal stoichiometrically balanced reaction, ANFO is
composed of approximately 94.3% AN and 5.7% FO by weight. The normal ratio
recommended is 2 U.S. quarts of fuel oil per 50 pounds of ammonium nitrate (80
ml/kg). In practice, a slight excess of fuel oil is added, i.e., 2.5 to 3 quarts of fuel oil
per 50 pounds of ammonium nitrate, as underdosing results in reduced performance
while overdosing merely results in more post-blast fumes.[3] When detonation
conditions are optimal, the aforementioned gases are the only products. In practical
use, such conditions are impossible to attain, and blasts produce moderate amounts
of toxic gases such as carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen (NOx).

Industrial use

Ammonium nitrate is widely used as a fertilizer in the agricultural industry. In many

countries its purchase and use is restricted to buyers who have obtained the proper
license. This restriction is primarily because it is an attractive and simple
component used in the production of fertilizer bombs.

In the mining industry, the term ANFO specifically describes a mixture of solid
ammonium nitrate prills and No. 2 fuel oil (heating oil.) In this form, it has a bulk
density of approximately 840 kg/m3. The density of individual prills is about
1300 kg/m3, while the density of pure crystalline ammonium nitrate is 1700 kg/m3.
AN prills used for explosive applications are physically different from fertilizer prills;
the former contain approximately 20% air. These versions of ANFO which use prills
are generally called explosives grade, low density, or industrial grade ammonium
nitrate. These voids are necessary to sensitize ANFO: they create so-called "hot
spots".[4] Finely powdered aluminium can be added to ANFO to increase both
sensitivity and energy; however, this has fallen out of favor due to cost. Other
additions include perlite, chemical gassing agents, or glass air bubbles to create
these voids.[5]

AN is highly hygroscopic, readily absorbing water from air. It is dangerous when

stored in humid environments, as any absorbed water interferes with its explosive
function. AN is also water soluble. When used in wet mining conditions, considerable
effort must be taken to dewater boreholes.

Other explosives based on the ANFO chemistry exist; the most commonly used are
emulsions. They differ from ANFO in the physical form the reactants take. The most
notable properties of emulsions are water resistance and higher bulk density.

The popularity of ANFO is largely attributable to its low cost and high stability. In
most jurisdictions, ammonium nitrate need not be classified as an explosive for
transport purposes; it is merely an oxidizer. Many mines prepare ANFO on-site using
the same No. 2 diesel fuel that powers their vehicles, although heating oil (No. 2
fuel oil), which is nearly identical, may cost less than No. 2 diesel fuel. Many fuels
can theoretically be used; the low volatility and cost of No. 2 fuel oil makes it ideal.