Topic Cognitive

8 Aspects of
Personality
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain how the four levels of cognition perception, interpretation,
goals and intelligence reveal aspects of personality;
2. Identify different perceptual styles and their effect on personality;
3. Compare internal locus of control and external locus of control;
4. Differentiate between explanatory styles;
5. Discuss Personal Projects Analysis as a strategy for studying
personality; and
6. Discuss the different types of intelligence and their role in defining
personality.

INTRODUCTION
Understanding how all people differ from each other is a fundamental challenge
to personality psychologists. The differences are described from many aspects as
we discussed in previous topics such as genetic, human development,
motivation, etc. In this topic, we will focus on the aspect of cognition.

Cognition refers to mental processes such as thinking, perceiving, interpreting,

remembering and setting goals. Cognitive approaches to personality focus on
differences in how people process information. In this topic, we will explore four
levels of cognition that are of interest to personality psychologists.

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8.1 FOUR LEVELS OF COGNITION

In the coming sections, we will discuss the four levels of cognition and their
contributions to the differences in personalities. However, before that, let us look
at the description of each level of cognition. Figure 8.1 illustrates the four levels
of cognition.

Figure 8.1: Four levels of cognition

The first level is perception the process of organising information that we

receive through our senses (such as sight, sound, smell and touch) in a
meaningful way. For instance, you and I may hear the same sound, but perceive
it in very different ways.

The second level of cognition that is of interest to personality psychologists is

interpretation making sense of or explaining various events in the world. For
example, imagine you are running across the corridor and then you fall.
Somebody might stop to help you and then ask how you fell. In your answer,
you would probably explain how the event of falling while running across the
corridor had taken place because of the floor had been slightly wet. You may also
interpret this event in different ways maybe you were not paying close enough
attention or maybe you were simply clumsy. The various interpretations reveal
aspects of an individuals personality. The logic behind tests like the Thematic
Apperception Test (TAT) discussed in Topic 7 is based on the notion of
differences in interpretation.

The third level of cognition is an individuals conscious goals the standards that
people develop for evaluating themselves and others. We all develop particular
beliefs about what is important in life and which goals we should pursue.

Finally, we will discuss the fourth level of cognition intelligence and how
different types of intelligence can reveal something about our personality.

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SELF-CHECK 8.1
Describe cognition and the four levels of cognition that are of interest to
personality psychologists.

8.2 PERSONALITY REVEALED THROUGH

PERCEPTION
We always prefer to think that there is a reality out there and the representation
of reality we have in our mind is a flawless perception of the facts. However, this
is not true. Your contribution to your mental representations of reality can be
different from others. In other words, what you see may not be what I see when I
look at the world around me. In this subtopic, we will further explore individual
differences in perception and how these differences reveal certain personalities.
We focus on two aspects where perception plays an important role in defining
the personality which are:
(a) Field dependence versus field independence; and
(b) Pain tolerance.

8.2.1 Field Dependence versus Field Independence

Have you ever been in a situation where you are trying to point out the bigger
picture to your friend, but he just cannot seem to focus on the details and grasp
the bigger picture? These differences in perception was studied extensively by
Herman Witkin. He named this topic field dependence versus field
independence. Herman Witkin believes that personality can be revealed through
differences in how people perceive their environment. Witkin examines the cues
that people use in estimating space.

He created an apparatus called the Rod and Frame Test (RFT) to investigate
individual differences in judging the orientation in space. The subject sits in a
dark room and is instructed to watch a glowing rod surrounded by a glowing
square frame. The experimenter can adjust the tilt of the rod, the frame and the
subjects chair. The subjects task is to adjust the rod by turning a dial, so that the
rod is perfectly straight. To do this properly, the subject has to ignore cues in the
visual field in which the rod appears (for example, when the experimenter tilts
the square frame surrounding the rod). If the subject adjusts the rod in a way to
make it lean in the direction of the tilted frame, then the subject is said to be
dependent on the visual field, or field-dependent. Other subjects may ignore the
external cues and adjust the rod to an upright position by using information from

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their bodies. These people are said to be independent of the field or field
independent they depend on their own sensations instead of the perception of
the field to make the judgment (Larsen & Buss, 2008).

The disadvantage of the Rod and Frame Test is that it is a rather complicated way
to measure field dependence-independence and takes up a lot of time. Hence,
Witkin found new ways to measure this perceptual difference. One way is to
create a hidden figures test where you need to identify the hidden objects in a
picture such as the one in Figure 8.2. Individuals who have trouble locating the
simple figures and shapes embedded within the more complex surrounding
figure are said to be field-dependent. Other individuals who are able to identify
most of the embedded figures quickly are considered as field-independent.

Figure 8.2: Hidden figures test

The big question is are perceptual differences related to other differences in

personality functioning? According to Witkins research, field dependence-
independence seems to have consequences for education and interpersonal
relations. (Refer to Table 8.1).

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Table 8.1: Differences between Field-Independent and Field-Dependent Individuals in

the Areas of Education and Interpersonal Relations

Field-Independent
Education Students tend to favour
natural sciences, maths
and engineering.
Interpersonal Individuals depend on Individuals tend to show a
relations social information and
often ask other people for
their opinions.
They are very much
people-oriented and get
along well with others.
Field-Dependent
Students tend to favour
social sciences and
education.
more detached orientation
towards people.
They keep their distance
from others and are not
interested in the opinions of
others.

SELF-CHECK 8.2

1. Explain how personality can be revealed through the way we

perceive the world around us.
2. Describe field-dependence and field-independence.
3. List some of the personality characteristics of field-dependent
individuals.
4. List some of the personality characteristics of field-independent
individuals.

8.2.2 Pain Tolerance

The way we perceive our environment and surroundings whether we focus on
the whole or tend to notice the details depends on our perceptual style. We also
show individual differences in the way we perceive pain or pain tolerance. Two
people might experience the same physical stimulus (such as getting a tooth
pulled out by the dentist), but show completely different reactions in terms of the
pain. Some people cannot bear the slightest pain and complain about minor
discomforts. Others can put up with pain easily without a single complaint.

Psychologist Aneseth Petrie keenly investigated the differences between

individuals in their pain tolerance. In order to measure the level of pain tolerance
by each subject, Petrie studied patients in hospitals undergoing painful
operations. She also studied normal subjects by inducing pain through applying
heat or weights on the middle joint of the subjects fingers. Based on the findings

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from her study, Petrie developed a theory called the reducer-augmenter theory.
According to this theory, people with low pain tolerance (augmenters) have a
nervous system that enhances or augments the subjective impact of sensory
stimulation. In contrast, people who can tolerate pain well (reducers) have a
system that reduces the effects of sensory cues. Research suggests that reducers
often seek out strong stimulation in the form of substances (nicotine, caffeine,
alcohol and other drugs) more than augmenters, perhaps in order to compensate
for lower sensory reactivity and artificially lift their arousal level.

SELF-CHECK 8.3

1. What do the individual differences in pain tolerance reveal about

ones personality?
2. Explain the reducer-augmenter theory in your own words.

8.3 PERSONALITY REVEALED THROUGH

INTERPRETATION
You and I may witness the same event, but have completely different
interpretations of the same event. It always happens in our lives. For example,
you go to a party with your friend and you may interpret the event as a fun,
harmless social gathering. However, your friend may interpret the event as a
selfish and immoral way of having fun.

Psychologist George Kelly is responsible for starting the cognitive revolution in

personality psychology. Kellys ideas about how people interpret events based
on personal constructs paved the way for the cognitive revolution to take place.
In Kellys personal construct theory, the constructs are the ways of perceiving
and interpreting events. In fact, constructs are often used by scientists to interpret
observations. One example of a scientific construct is gravity we cannot see
gravity, but we can demonstrate the effect of gravity by observing other things,
such as an apple falling from a tree. According to Kellys theory, we habitually
employ personal constructs to help us interpret events, particularly in the social
world. Kelly believed that our personalities differ in terms of how we interpret
the social world. These differences are the outcomes of the personal constructs
people routinely apply. What do you notice first when you meet a person? You
might notice how attractive-versus-unattractive the person is and this plays an
important role in how you read the person. On the other hand, I might first
notice how conservative-versus-liberal that same person is. Thus, we both have a

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different interpretation of the same person because we view them through the
unique lens of our personal constructs.

Let us now explore other important developments in the cognitive approach to

personality such as locus of control and learned helplessness.

SELF-CHECK 8.4

1. Give an example of how personality might be revealed through

individual differences in interpretation.
2. Define personal constructs and give an example to explain the
concept.

8.3.1 Locus of Control

Locus of control is a concept which explains an individuals perception of
responsibility for the events in his or her life (Pervin, 2003). Do you tend to place
responsibility internally within yourself or externally, in fate, luck or chance? For
example, if you receive good grades, do you think of it as mere luck or because of
your personal efforts? Your answer to this question determines where you stand
in terms of your locus of control. If you have an external locus of control, you
will generalise expectations that events in your life are outside of your control. In
contrast, if you have an internal locus of control, you will generalise expectations
that life events are under your control and that you are responsible for your life
outcomes.

Research on locus of control started during the time when Julian Rotter was
developing his social learning theory. According to Rotters "expectancy model"
of learning behaviour, learning depends on the degree to which a person values a
reinforcer its reinforcement value. Some reinforcers, for example, public praise
and recognition are not valued by some people, and these persons will not
respond well to them. People differ in their expectations for reinforcement
some believe they are in control of outcomes, whereas others do not.

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ACTIVITY 8.1
Can you think about any of your real life experience where having an
internal locus of control was an advantage for you, and another
experience where having an internal locus of control was a
disadvantage? Share them in your class.

8.3.2 Learned Helplessness

Learned helplessness is a term coined by Martin Seligman and Steven Maier in
1967 to describe the behaviour of dogs after receiving electric shocks. Learned
helplessness is another individual difference in how people interpret the world.
Research on learned helplessness also started during the time when Julian Rotter
was developing his learning theory. Psychologists discovered learned
helplessness while studying avoidance learning in dogs. The dogs were given
small electric shocks and it was ensured that they could not escape. During the
first few shocks, the dogs would try their best to escape. However, eventually
they just accepted the shocks without trying to escape. Both animals and
humans, when subjected to unpleasant and inescapable circumstances, become
passive and accept the situation, which results in learned helplessness. In
everyday life, learned helplessness can lead the people to be trapped in an
unpleasant situation that is apparently outside of their control. For example, a
woman that is being abused by her husband may try to escape the abuse
somehow, but when her attempts failed for a few times, she might just accept the
beatings from her husband as a result of learned helplessness.

The original model of learned helplessness was discovered through the learning
experiments with dogs and generalised to humans through experimental studies.
However, humans are more complex than dogs in terms of thinking about life
events, analysing situations and forming new expectations for behaviour. What
determines whether the learned helplessness will spill over from one situation to
the next? What motivates people to take control of their lives? Psychologists
studied the thinking patterns of people who have gone through learned
helplessness conditioning in order to answer the questions above.

This search for answers resulted in a reformulation of the learned helplessness

model. The reformulated model of learned helplessness emphasises on the
thoughts a person has that may lead to a state of learned helplessness.
Psychologists argued that people give explanations for life events, especially the
unpleasant events. Your explanation reveals something about your explanatory
style and your explanatory style depends on how you employ certain attributional

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categories to explain causes of events. There are three broad categories of

attributions:
(a) External or internal;
(b) Stable or unstable; and
(c) Global or specific (refer to Table 8.2 for examples).

The explanatory style that is most likely to result in learned helplessness is one
that emphasises internal, stable and global causes for negative events. This is
known as the pessimistic explanatory style. In contrast, the optimistic
explanatory style emphasises on external, temporary and specific causes of
events. Explanatory style has also been found to be stable over time.

Table 8.2: Dimensions of Explanatory Style

Internal/External Stable/Unstable Global/Specific

External Unstable Specific

Optimistic My boyfriend broke My boyfriend broke My boyfriend broke

style up with me because up with me because he up with me because he
his mother pressured needs all his time to found out that I
him. complete an important cheated on him.
project at work.
Internal Stable Global
My boyfriend broke My boyfriend broke My boyfriend broke
Pessimistic up with me because up with me because Im up with me because
style Im not rich and not taller than him and he Im a selfish and
thin enough. wants someone who is inconsiderate person
shorter. who could not remain
faithful to him.

Source: Adapted from Larsen & Buss (2008)

SELF-CHECK 8.5

1. How is the original model of learned helplessness different from

the reformulated model?
2. Differentiate the explanatory style dimensions of internal/external,
stable/ temporary and global/specific.
3. Discuss the key elements of optimistic and pessimistic explanatory
styles and provide examples of each type of explanatory style.

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8.4 PERSONALITY REVEALED THROUGH

GOALS
Thus far, we have discussed aspects of personality that are revealed through the
perceptions and interpretations of a person towards the world. We will now
explore another aspect of cognition, an individuals goals. In this subtopic, we
will learn how personality can be revealed through these goals. We all have
different goals in life and these differences are part of our personalities.

There have been various different terms used to describe these individual goals
such as personal strivings, current concerns, personal projects and life tasks. All
of these constructs represent what people believe are worth chasing in life and
the goal-directed behaviours they perform to fulfil these beliefs and desires.

A personal project can be defined as the relevant actions intended to achieve a

goal that a person has chosen (Carver & Scheier, 2008). Psychologist Brian Little
believes that personal projects can help us understand personality because they
reflect how people find their way through everyday life. For example, personal
projects in your daily life might consist of goals such as exercising regularly,
eating healthy, reading one book a month and developing a better relationship
with your family.

Little developed the Personal Projects Analysis method for evaluating the
achievement of a goal of personal projects. In this method, subjects are first
instructed to make a list of personal projects that they perceived as important in
their daily lives. Then, they are told to rate each project on several scales. The
beliefs that people have about their projects such as how important they are, how
stressful and how much success they have in achieving their goals are useful for
understanding how personality works in everyday life. Little also found that
overall levels of happiness and life satisfaction are most related to feeling in
control of ones personal projects, and being optimistic about the successful
completion of these projects (Carver & Scheier, 2008).

ACTIVITY 8.2
The following link is a Personal Projects Analysis. Go to this link and
view how the Personal Projects Analysis procedure is like.
http://www.brianrlittle.com/research/assessment-tools-2/

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SELF-CHECK 8.6
1. Give three examples of personal projects in your life and discuss
what they reveal about your personality.
2. Discuss the Personal Projects Analysis as a strategy for studying
personality.

8.5 INTELLIGENCE
Intelligence has been defined in many ways. One definition of intelligence is related
to academic achievement how much knowledge a person has acquired relative to
others in his or her age group. Other definitions describe intelligence as the ability or
aptitude to learn rather than how much one knows or has achieved. Intelligence has
also been defined as a single broad factor often called g for general intelligence.
However, as tests were developed, researchers began to discover separate abilities
such as perceptual ability, verbal ability, memory ability and arithmetic ability. Thus,
another view of intelligence as being domain-specific emerged.

A widely-accepted definition of intelligence was proposed by Howard Gardner

(1983) which includes the application of cognitive skill and knowledge to solve
problems, learn and achieve goals that are valued by the individual and the culture.
Gardner suggested a theory of multiple intelligences which includes eight types of
intelligence which include linguistic intelligence (word smart, learn languages
quickly) and musical intelligence (musically gifted, have a keen ear for music).
Please refer to Figure 8.3 to see the rest of the types of intelligences listed in
Gardners theory.

Other psychologists have also added to this list of different types of intelligences.
Peter Salovey and Jack Mayer (1990) suggested the concept of emotional intelligence.
The concept of emotional intelligence was later popularised by Dan Goleman (1995).
Emotional intelligence is defined as the ability to manage and control the emotions
of one's self and others. Emotional intelligence has quickly gained popular interest
due to its major implications. Traditional measures of intelligence predict school
performance, but not outcomes later in life, such as job success and marital success.
Emotional intelligence strongly predicts these life outcomes such as job and marital
success. Emotional intelligence includes a set of five specific abilities:
(a) Awareness of our own feelings and bodily signals, being able to identify our
own emotions and make distinctions;

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(b) Ability to regulate emotions, especially negative emotions, and to manage

stress;
(c) Ability to control ones impulses, direct attention and effort, delay gratification
and stay on task toward goals;
(d) Ability to decode social and emotional cues of others (empathy); and
(e) Ability to influence and guide others without incurring anger and resentment.

Figure 8.3: Gardners Theory of Multiple Intelligences

SELF-CHECK 8.7
Discuss the different definitions of intelligence together with the
strengths and weaknesses of each approach.

ACTIVITY 8.3
1. Think of a person whom you consider as emotionally intelligent.
What are the attributes this person has that make him
emotionally intelligent?
2. Which kind of intelligence do you value more and why? Share
your opinions with your course mates.

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The four levels of cognition perception, interpretation, goals and

intelligence can reveal certain things about a persons personality.

The first level is perception, which is about the process of organising

information that we receive through our senses (such as sight, sound, smell
and touch) in a meaningful way.

The second level of cognition is interpretation, which is making sense of or

explaining various events in the world.

The third level of cognition is about an individuals conscious goals the

standards that people develop for evaluating themselves and others.

The fourth level of cognition intelligence and how different types of

intelligence can reveal something about our personality.

Herman Witkin believes personality can be revealed through differences in

perceptual style which he named as field dependence versus field
independence.

Locus of control is a concept which explains an individuals perception of

responsibility for the events in his or her life.

In Kellys personal construct theory, the constructs are the ways of perceiving
and interpreting events.

The explanatory style is the tendency that you have to employ certain
attributional categories to explain causes of events.

Gardner introduced concept of multiple intelligences where he identified

eight types of intelligence.

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Explanatory style Multiple intelligences

Field-dependent Personal constructs
Field-independent Personal projects
Emotional intelligence Reducer-augmenter theory
Learned helplessness
Locus of control

Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (2008). Perspectives on personality (6th ed.). New
York: Pearson.
Larsen, R. J., & Buss, D. M. (2008). Personality psychology: Domains of
knowledge about human nature (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Pervin, L. A. (2003). The science of personality (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Oxford
University Press.

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