Powerelectronics

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Powerelectronicsistheapplicationofsolidstateelectronicstothecontrol
andconversionofelectricpower.

Thefirsthighpowerelectronicdevicesweremercuryarcvalves.In
modernsystemstheconversionisperformedwithsemiconductorswitching
devicessuchasdiodes,thyristorsandtransistors,pioneeredbyR.D.
Middlebrookandothersbeginninginthe1950s.Incontrasttoelectronic
systemsconcernedwithtransmissionandprocessingofsignalsanddata,in
powerelectronicssubstantialamountsofelectricalenergyareprocessed.
AnAC/DCconverter(rectifier)isthemosttypicalpowerelectronics
devicefoundinmanyconsumerelectronicdevices,e.g.televisionsets,
personalcomputers,batterychargers,etc.Thepowerrangeistypically
fromtensofwattstoseveralhundredwatts.Inindustryacommon
applicationisthevariablespeeddrive(VSD)thatisusedtocontrolan
inductionmotor.ThepowerrangeofVSDsstartfromafewhundredwatts
andendattensofmegawatts.
AnHVDCthyristorvalvetower
Thepowerconversionsystemscanbeclassifiedaccordingtothetypeof 16.8mtallinahallatBalticCable
theinputandoutputpower ABinSweden
ACtoDC(rectifier)
DCtoAC(inverter)
DCtoDC(DCtoDCconverter)
ACtoAC(ACtoACconverter)

Contents
1 History
2 Devices
3 DC/ACconverters(inverters) Abatterychargerisanexampleofa
3.1 Singlephasehalfbridgeinverter pieceofpowerelectronics
3.2 Singlephasefullbridgeinverter
3.3 Threephasevoltagesourceinverter
3.4 Currentsourceinverters
3.5 Multilevelinverters
4 AC/ACconverters
5 Simulationsofpowerelectronicsystems
6 Applications
6.1 Inverters
6.2 Smartgrid
7 Notes
8 References
9 Externallinks

History
Powerelectronicsstartedwiththedevelopmentofthemercuryarcrectifier.
InventedbyPeterCooperHewittin1902,itwasusedtoconvertalternating
current(AC)intodirectcurrent(DC).Fromthe1920son,research
continuedonapplyingthyratronsandgridcontrolledmercuryarcvalvesto
powertransmission.UnoLammdevelopedamercuryvalvewithgrading
electrodesmakingthemsuitableforhighvoltagedirectcurrentpower
transmission.In1933seleniumrectifierswereinvented.[1]

In1947thebipolarpointcontacttransistorwasinventedbyWalterH.
BrattainandJohnBardeenunderthedirectionofWilliamShockleyatBell
Labs.In1948Shockley'sinventionofthebipolarjunctiontransistor(BJT)
improvedthestabilityandperformanceoftransistors,andreducedcosts.
Bythe1950s,higherpowersemiconductordiodesbecameavailableand APCspowersupplyisanexampleof
startedreplacingvacuumtubes.In1956thesiliconcontrolledrectifier apieceofpowerelectronics,whether
(SCR)wasintroducedbyGeneralElectric,greatlyincreasingtherangeof insideoroutsideofthecabinet
powerelectronicsapplications.[2]

Bythe1960stheimprovedswitchingspeedofbipolarjunctiontransistorshadallowedforhighfrequencyDC/DC
converters.In1976powerMOSFETsbecamecommerciallyavailable.In1982theInsulatedGateBipolar
Transistor(IGBT)wasintroduced.

Devices
Thecapabilitiesandeconomyofpowerelectronicssystemaredeterminedbytheactivedevicesthatareavailable.
Theircharacteristicsandlimitationsareakeyelementinthedesignofpowerelectronicssystems.Formerly,the
mercuryarcvalve,thehighvacuumandgasfilleddiodethermionicrectifiers,andtriggereddevicessuchasthe
thyratronandignitronwerewidelyusedinpowerelectronics.Astheratingsofsolidstatedevicesimprovedin
bothvoltageandcurrenthandlingcapacity,vacuumdeviceshavebeennearlyentirelyreplacedbysolidstate
devices.

Powerelectronicdevicesmaybeusedasswitches,orasamplifiers.[3]Anidealswitchiseitheropenorclosedand
sodissipatesnopoweritwithstandsanappliedvoltageandpassesnocurrent,orpassesanyamountofcurrent
withnovoltagedrop.Semiconductordevicesusedasswitchescanapproximatethisidealpropertyandsomost
powerelectronicapplicationsrelyonswitchingdevicesonandoff,whichmakessystemsveryefficientasvery
littlepoweriswastedintheswitch.Bycontrast,inthecaseoftheamplifier,thecurrentthroughthedevicevaries
continuouslyaccordingtoacontrolledinput.Thevoltageandcurrentatthedeviceterminalsfollowaloadline,
andthepowerdissipationinsidethedeviceislargecomparedwiththepowerdeliveredtotheload.

Severalattributesdictatehowdevicesareused.Devicessuchasdiodesconductwhenaforwardvoltageisapplied
andhavenoexternalcontrolofthestartofconduction.Powerdevicessuchassiliconcontrolledrectifiersand
thyristors(aswellasthemercuryvalveandthyratron)allowcontrolofthestartofconduction,butrelyonperiodic
reversalofcurrentflowtoturnthemoff.Devicessuchasgateturnoffthyristors,BJTandMOSFETtransistors
providefullswitchingcontrolandcanbeturnedonoroffwithoutregardtothecurrentflowthroughthem.
Transistordevicesalsoallowproportionalamplification,butthisisrarelyusedforsystemsratedmorethanafew
hundredwatts.Thecontrolinputcharacteristicsofadevicealsogreatlyaffectdesignsometimesthecontrolinput
isataveryhighvoltagewithrespecttogroundandmustbedrivenbyanisolatedsource.

Asefficiencyisatapremiuminapowerelectronicconverter,thelossesthatapowerelectronicdevicegenerates
shouldbeaslowaspossible.
Devicesvaryinswitchingspeed.Somediodesandthyristorsaresuitedforrelativelyslowspeedandareusefulfor
powerfrequencyswitchingandcontrolcertainthyristorsareusefulatafewkilohertz.DevicessuchasMOSFETS
andBJTscanswitchattensofkilohertzuptoafewmegahertzinpowerapplications,butwithdecreasingpower
levels.Vacuumtubedevicesdominatehighpower(hundredsofkilowatts)atveryhighfrequency(hundredsor
thousandsofmegahertz)applications.Fasterswitchingdevicesminimizeenergylostinthetransitionsfromonto
offandback,butmaycreateproblemswithradiatedelectromagneticinterference.Gatedrive(orequivalent)
circuitsmustbedesignedtosupplysufficientdrivecurrenttoachievethefullswitchingspeedpossiblewitha
device.Adevicewithoutsufficientdrivetoswitchrapidlymaybedestroyedbyexcessheating.

Practicaldeviceshavenonzerovoltagedropanddissipatepowerwhenon,andtakesometimetopassthroughan
activeregionuntiltheyreachthe"on"or"off"state.Theselossesareasignificantpartofthetotallostpowerina
converter.

Powerhandlinganddissipationofdevicesisalsoacriticalfactorindesign.Powerelectronicdevicesmayhaveto
dissipatetensorhundredsofwattsofwasteheat,evenswitchingasefficientlyaspossiblebetweenconductingand
nonconductingstates.Intheswitchingmode,thepowercontrolledismuchlargerthanthepowerdissipatedinthe
switch.Theforwardvoltagedropintheconductingstatetranslatesintoheatthatmustbedissipated.Highpower
semiconductorsrequirespecializedheatsinksoractivecoolingsystemstomanagetheirjunctiontemperature
exoticsemiconductorssuchassiliconcarbidehaveanadvantageoverstraightsiliconinthisrespect,and
germanium,oncethemainstayofsolidstateelectronicsisnowlittleusedduetoitsunfavorablehightemperature
properties.

Semiconductordevicesexistwithratingsuptoafewkilovoltsinasingledevice.Whereveryhighvoltagemustbe
controlled,multipledevicesmustbeusedinseries,withnetworkstoequalizevoltageacrossalldevices.Again,
switchingspeedisacriticalfactorsincetheslowestswitchingdevicewillhavetowithstandadisproportionate
shareoftheoverallvoltage.Mercuryvalveswereonceavailablewithratingsto100kVinasingleunit,
simplifyingtheirapplicationinHVDCsystems.

Thecurrentratingofasemiconductordeviceislimitedbytheheatgeneratedwithinthediesandtheheat
developedintheresistanceoftheinterconnectingleads.Semiconductordevicesmustbedesignedsothatcurrentis
evenlydistributedwithinthedeviceacrossitsinternaljunctions(orchannels)oncea"hotspot"develops,
breakdowneffectscanrapidlydestroythedevice.CertainSCRsareavailablewithcurrentratingsto3000amperes
inasingleunit.

DC/ACconverters(inverters)
DCtoACconvertersproduceanACoutputwaveformfromaDCsource.Applicationsincludeadjustablespeed
drives(ASD),[[uninterruptiblepowersupply]|uninterruptiblepowersupplies]](UPS),FlexibleACtransmission
systems(FACTS),voltagecompensators,andphotovoltaicinverters.Topologiesfortheseconverterscanbe
separatedintotwodistinctcategories:voltagesourceinvertersandcurrentsourceinverters.Voltagesource
inverters(VSIs)arenamedsobecausetheindependentlycontrolledoutputisavoltagewaveform.Similarly,
currentsourceinverters(CSIs)aredistinctinthatthecontrolledACoutputisacurrentwaveform.

DCtoACpowerconversionistheresultofpowerswitchingdevices,whicharecommonlyfullycontrollable
semiconductorpowerswitches.Theoutputwaveformsarethereforemadeupofdiscretevalues,producingfast
transitionsratherthansmoothones.Forsomeapplications,evenaroughapproximationofthesinusoidalwavefor
ofACpowerisadequate.Whereanearsinusoidalwaveformisrequired,theswitchingdevicesareoperatedmuch
fasterthanthedesiredoutputfrequency,andthetimetheyspendineitherstateiscontrolledsotheaveragedoutput
isnearlysinusoidal.Commonmodulationtechniquesincludethecarrierbasedtechnique,orPulsewidth
modulation,spacevectortechnique,andtheselectiveharmonictechnique.[4]

Voltagesourceinvertershavepracticalusesinbothsinglephaseandthreephaseapplications.SinglephaseVSIs
utilizehalfbridgeandfullbridgeconfigurations,andarewidelyusedforpowersupplies,singlephaseUPSs,and
elaboratehighpowertopologieswhenusedinmulticellconfigurations.ThreephaseVSIsareusedinapplications
thatrequiresinusoidalvoltagewaveforms,suchasASDs,UPSs,andsometypesofFACTSdevicessuchasthe
STATCOM.Theyarealsousedinapplicationswherearbitraryvoltagesarerequiredasinthecaseofactivepower
filtersandvoltagecompensators.[4]

CurrentsourceinvertersareusedtoproduceanACoutputcurrentfromaDCcurrentsupply.Thistypeofinverter
ispracticalforthreephaseapplicationsinwhichhighqualityvoltagewaveformsarerequired.

Arelativelynewclassofinverters,calledmultilevelinverters,hasgainedwidespreadinterest.Normaloperationof
CSIsandVSIscanbeclassifiedastwolevelinverters,duetothefactthatpowerswitchesconnecttoeitherthe
positiveortothenegativeDCbus.Ifmorethantwovoltagelevelswereavailabletotheinverteroutputterminals,
theACoutputcouldbetterapproximateasinewave.Itisforthisreasonthatmultilevelinverters,althoughmore
complexandcostly,offerhigherperformance.[5]

EachinvertertypediffersintheDClinksused,andinwhetherornottheyrequirefreewheelingdiodes.Eithercan
bemadetooperateinsquarewaveorpulsewidthmodulation(PWM)mode,dependingonitsintendedusage.
Squarewavemodeofferssimplicity,whilePWMcanbeimplementedseveraldifferentwaysandproduceshigher
qualitywaveforms.[4]

VoltageSourceInverters(VSI)feedtheoutputinvertersectionfromanapproximatelyconstantvoltagesource.[4]

Thedesiredqualityofthecurrentoutputwaveformdetermineswhichmodulationtechniqueneedstobeselected
foragivenapplication.TheoutputofaVSIiscomposedofdiscretevalues.Inordertoobtainasmoothcurrent
waveform,theloadsneedtobeinductiveattheselectharmonicfrequencies.Withoutsomesortofinductive
filteringbetweenthesourceandload,acapacitiveloadwillcausetheloadtoreceiveachoppycurrentwaveform,
withlargeandfrequentcurrentspikes.[4]

TherearethreemaintypesofVSIs:

1.Singlephasehalfbridgeinverter
2.Singlephasefullbridgeinverter
3.Threephasevoltagesourceinverter

Singlephasehalfbridgeinverter

Thesinglephasevoltagesourcehalfbridgeinverters,aremeantforlower
voltageapplicationsandarecommonlyusedinpowersupplies.[4]Figure9
showsthecircuitschematicofthisinverter.

Lowordercurrentharmonicsgetinjectedbacktothesourcevoltagebythe
operationoftheinverter.Thismeansthattwolargecapacitorsareneeded
forfilteringpurposesinthisdesign.[4]AsFigure9illustrates,onlyone
Figure8:TheACinputforanASD.
switchcanbeonattimeineachlegoftheinverter.Ifbothswitchesinaleg
wereonatthesametime,theDCsourcewillbeshortedout.
 Inverterscanuseseveralmodulationtechniquestocontroltheirswitching
schemes.ThecarrierbasedPWMtechniquecomparestheACoutput
waveform,vc,toacarriervoltagesignal,v.Whenvcisgreaterthanv,
S+ison,andwhenvcislessthanv,Sison.WhentheACoutputisat
frequencyfcwithitsamplitudeatvc,andthetriangularcarriersignalisat
frequencyfwithitsamplitudeatv,thePWMbecomesaspecial
sinusoidalcaseofthecarrierbasedPWM.[4]Thiscaseisdubbedsinusoidal
pulsewidthmodulation(SPWM).Forthis,themodulationindex,or
FIGURE9:SinglePhaseHalf
amplitudemodulationratio,isdefinedasma=vc/v.
BridgeVoltageSourceInverter

Thenormalizedcarrierfrequency,orfrequencymodulationratio,is
calculatedusingtheequationmf=f/fc.

Iftheovermodulationregion,ma,exceedsone,ahigherfundamentalACoutputvoltagewillbeobserved,butat
thecostofsaturation.ForSPWM,theharmonicsoftheoutputwaveformareatwelldefinedfrequenciesand
amplitudes.Thissimplifiesthedesignofthefilteringcomponentsneededforthelowordercurrentharmonic
injectionfromtheoperationoftheinverter.Themaximumoutputamplitudeinthismodeofoperationishalfofthe
sourcevoltage.Ifthemaximumoutputamplitude,ma,exceeds3.24,theoutputwaveformoftheinverterbecomes
asquarewave.[4]

AswastrueforPWM,bothswitchesinalegforsquarewavemodulationcannotbeturnedonatthesametime,as
thiswouldcauseashortacrossthevoltagesource.TheswitchingschemerequiresthatbothS+andSbeonfora
halfcycleoftheACoutputperiod.[4]ThefundamentalACoutputamplitudeisequaltovo1=vaN=2vi/.

Itsharmonicshaveanamplitudeofvoh=vo1/h.

Therefore,theACoutputvoltageisnotcontrolledbytheinverter,butratherbythemagnitudeoftheDCinput
voltageoftheinverter.[4]

Usingselectiveharmonicelimination(SHE)asamodulationtechniqueallowstheswitchingoftheinverterto
selectivelyeliminateintrinsicharmonics.ThefundamentalcomponentoftheACoutputvoltagecanalsobe
adjustedwithinadesirablerange.SincetheACoutputvoltageobtainedfromthismodulationtechniquehasodd
halfandoddquarterwavesymmetry,evenharmonicsdonotexist.[4]Anyundesirableodd(N1)intrinsic
harmonicsfromtheoutputwaveformcanbeeliminated.

Singlephasefullbridgeinverter

Thefullbridgeinverterissimilartothehalfbridgeinverter,butithasanadditionallegtoconnecttheneutralpoint
totheload.[4]Figure3showsthecircuitschematicofthesinglephasevoltagesourcefullbridgeinverter.

Toavoidshortingoutthevoltagesource,S1+andS1cannotbeonatthesametime,andS2+andS2alsocannot
beonatthesametime.Anymodulatingtechniqueusedforthefullbridgeconfigurationshouldhaveeitherthetop
orthebottomswitchofeachlegonatanygiventime.Duetotheextraleg,themaximumamplitudeoftheoutput
waveformisVi,andistwiceaslargeasthemaximumachievableoutputamplitudeforthehalfbridge
configuration.[4]

FIGURE3:SinglePhaseVoltage
SourceFullBridgeInverter
FIGURE4:CarrierandModulating
SignalsfortheBipolarPulsewidth
ModulationTechnique
outputwaveform.[4]
AswasthecaseforthehalfbridgeSHE,theACoutputvoltagecontainsnoevenharmonicsduetoitsoddhalfand
oddquarterwavesymmetry.[4]
Threephasevoltagesourceinverter
FIGURE5:ThreePhaseVoltage
SourceInverterCircuitSchematic
voltages.InordertopreservethePWMfeatureswithasinglecarriersignal,thenormalizedcarrierfrequency,mf,
needstobeamultipleofthree.Thiskeepsthemagnitudeofthephasevoltagesidentical,butoutofphasewith
States1and2fromTable2areusedtogeneratetheACoutputvoltagewith
bipolarSPWM.TheACoutputvoltagecantakeononlytwovalues,either
ViorVi.Togeneratethesesamestatesusingahalfbridgeconfiguration,a
carrierbasedtechniquecanbeused.S+beingonforthehalfbridge
correspondstoS1+andS2beingonforthefullbridge.Similarly,Sbeing
onforthehalfbridgecorrespondstoS1andS2+beingonforthefull
bridge.Theoutputvoltageforthismodulationtechniqueismoreorless
sinusoidal,withafundamentalcomponentthathasanamplitudeinthe
linearregionoflessthanorequaltoone[4]vo1=vab1=vima.
UnlikethebipolarPWMtechnique,theunipolarapproachusesstates1,2,
3and4fromTable2togenerateitsACoutputvoltage.Therefore,theAC
outputvoltagecantakeonthevaluesVi,0orV[1]i.Togeneratethese
states,twosinusoidalmodulatingsignals,VcandVc,areneeded,asseen
inFigure4.
VcisusedtogenerateVaN,whileVcisusedtogenerateVbN.The
followingrelationshipiscalledunipolarcarrierbasedSPWM
vo1=2vaN1=vima.
ThephasevoltagesVaNandVbNareidentical,but180degreesoutof
phasewitheachother.Theoutputvoltageisequaltothedifferenceofthe
twophasevoltages,anddonotcontainanyevenharmonics.Therefore,if
mfistaken,eventheACoutputvoltageharmonicswillappearat
normalizedoddfrequencies,fh.Thesefrequenciesarecenteredondouble
thevalueofthenormalizedcarrierfrequency.Thisparticularfeatureallows
forsmallerfilteringcomponentswhentryingtoobtainahigherquality
SinglephaseVSIsareusedprimarilyforlowpowerrangeapplications,
whilethreephaseVSIscoverbothmediumandhighpowerrange
applications.[4]Figure5showsthecircuitschematicforathreephaseVSI.
Switchesinanyofthethreelegsoftheinvertercannotbeswitchedoff
simultaneouslyduetothisresultinginthevoltagesbeingdependentonthe
respectivelinecurrent'spolarity.States7and8producezeroACline
voltages,whichresultinAClinecurrentsfreewheelingthrougheitherthe
upperorthelowercomponents.However,thelinevoltagesforstates1
through6produceanAClinevoltageconsistingofthediscretevaluesof
Vi,0orVi.[4]
ForthreephaseSPWM,threemodulatingsignalsthatare120degreesout
ofphasewithoneanotherareusedinordertoproduceoutofphaseload
 eachotherby120degrees.[4]Themaximumachievablephasevoltage
amplitudeinthelinearregion,malessthanorequaltoone,is
vphase=vi/2.Themaximumachievablelinevoltageamplitudeis
Vab1=vab3/2

TheonlywaytocontroltheloadvoltageisbychangingtheinputDC
voltage.

FIGURE6:ThreePhaseSquare Currentsourceinverters
WaveOperationa)SwitchStateS1b)
SwitchStateS3c)S1Outputd)S3 CurrentsourceinvertersconvertDC
Output currentintoanACcurrent
waveform.Inapplicationsrequiring
sinusoidalACwaveforms,magnitude,frequency,andphaseshouldallbe
controlled.CSIshavehighchangesincurrentovertime,socapacitorsare
commonlyemployedontheACside,whileinductorsarecommonly
employedontheDCside.[4]Duetotheabsenceoffreewheelingdiodes,the
powercircuitisreducedinsizeandweight,andtendstobemorereliable
thanVSIs.[5]Althoughsinglephasetopologiesarepossible,threephase
CSIsaremorepractical.
FIGURE7:ThreePhaseCurrent
Initsmostgeneralizedform,athreephaseCSIemploysthesame SourceInverter
conductionsequenceasasixpulserectifier.Atanytime,onlyone
commoncathodeswitchandonecommonanodeswitchareon.[5]

Asaresult,linecurrentstakediscretevaluesofii,0andii.Statesare
chosensuchthatadesiredwaveformisoutputandonlyvalidstatesare
used.Thisselectionisbasedonmodulatingtechniques,whichinclude
carrierbasedPWM,selectiveharmonicelimination,andspacevector
techniques.[4]

CarrierbasedtechniquesusedforVSIscanalsobeimplementedforCSIs,
resultinginCSIlinecurrentsthatbehaveinthesamewayasVSIline
voltages.Thedigitalcircuitutilizedformodulatingsignalscontainsa
Figure8:SynchronizedPulse
switchingpulsegenerator,ashortingpulsegenerator,ashortingpulse
WidthModulationWaveformsfora
distributor,andaswitchingandshortingpulsecombiner.Agatingsignalis
ThreePhaseCurrentSourceInverter
producedbasedonacarriercurrentandthreemodulatingsignals.[4] a)CarrierandModulatingSignalsb)
S1Statec)S3Stated)Output
Ashortingpulseisaddedtothissignalwhennotopswitchesandno
Current
bottomswitchesaregated,causingtheRMScurrentstobeequalinalllegs.
Thesamemethodsareutilizedforeachphase,however,switching
variablesare120degreesoutofphaserelativetooneanother,andthecurrentpulsesareshiftedbyahalfcycle
withrespecttooutputcurrents.Ifatriangularcarrierisusedwithsinusoidalmodulatingsignals,theCSIissaidto
beutilizingsynchronizedpulsewidthmodulation(SPWM).Iffullovermodulationisusedinconjunctionwith
SPWMtheinverterissaidtobeinsquarewaveoperation.[4]

ThesecondCSImodulationcategory,SHEisalsosimilartoitsVSIcounterpart.Utilizingthegatingsignals
developedforaVSIandasetofsynchronizingsinusoidalcurrentsignals,resultsinsymmetricallydistributed
shortingpulsesand,therefore,symmetricalgatingpatterns.Thisallowsanyarbitrarynumberofharmonicstobe
eliminated.[4]Italsoallowscontrolofthefundamentallinecurrentthroughtheproperselectionofprimary
switchingangles.Optimalswitchingpatternsmusthavequarterwaveand
halfwavesymmetry,aswellassymmetryabout30degreesand150
degrees.Switchingpatternsareneverallowedbetween60degreesand120
degrees.Thecurrentripplecanbefurtherreducedwiththeuseoflarger
outputcapacitors,orbyincreasingthenumberofswitchingpulses.[5]

Thethirdcategory,spacevectorbasedmodulation,generatesPWMload
linecurrentsthatequalloadlinecurrents,onaverage.Validswitching
statesandtimeselectionsaremadedigitallybasedonspacevector
transformation.Modulatingsignalsarerepresentedasacomplexvector
usingatransformationequation.Forbalancedthreephasesinusoidal
signals,thisvectorbecomesafixedmodule,whichrotatesatafrequency,
.Thesespacevectorsarethenusedtoapproximatethemodulatingsignal. Figure9:SpaceVector
Ifthesignalisbetweenarbitraryvectors,thevectorsarecombinedwiththe RepresentationinCurrentSource
zerovectorsI7,I8,orI9.[4]Thefollowingequationsareusedtoensurethat Inverters
thegeneratedcurrentsandthecurrentvectorsareonaverageequivalent.

Multilevelinverters

Arelativelynewclasscalledmultilevelinvertershasgainedwidespread
interest.NormaloperationofCSIsandVSIscanbeclassifiedastwolevel
invertersbecausethepowerswitchesconnecttoeitherthepositiveorthe
negativeDCbus.[5]Ifmorethantwovoltagelevelswereavailabletothe
inverteroutputterminals,theACoutputcouldbetterapproximateasine
wave.[4]Forthisreasonmultilevelinverters,althoughmorecomplexand
costly,offerhigherperformance.[5]Athreelevelneutralclampedinverter
isshowninFigure10.

FIGURE10:ThreeLevelNeutral
ClampedInverter
levelcounterpart.
Controlmethodsforathreelevelinverteronlyallowtwoswitchesofthe
fourswitchesineachlegtosimultaneouslychangeconductionstates.This
allowssmoothcommutationandavoidsshootthroughbyonlyselecting
validstates.[5]ItmayalsobenotedthatsincetheDCbusvoltageisshared
byatleasttwopowervalves,theirvoltageratingscanbelessthanatwo

Carrierbasedandspacevectormodulationtechniquesareusedformultileveltopologies.Themethodsforthese
techniquesfollowthoseofclassicinverters,butwithaddedcomplexity.Spacevectormodulationoffersagreater
numberoffixedvoltagevectorstobeusedinapproximatingthemodulationsignal,andthereforeallowsmore
effectivespacevectorPWMstrategiestobeaccomplishedatthecostofmoreelaboratealgorithms.Duetoadded
complexityandnumberofsemiconductordevices,multilevelinvertersarecurrentlymoresuitableforhighpower
highvoltageapplications.[5]Thistechnologyreducestheharmonicshenceimprovesoverallefficiencyofthe
scheme.

AC/ACconverters
ConvertingACpowertoACpowerallowscontrolofthevoltage,frequency,andphaseofthewaveformappliedto
aloadfromasuppliedACsystem.[6]Thetwomaincategoriesthatcanbeusedtoseparatethetypesofconverters
arewhetherthefrequencyofthewaveformischanged.[7]AC/ACconverterthatdon'tallowtheusertomodifythe
frequenciesareknownasACVoltageControllers,orACRegulators.ACconvertersthatallowtheusertochange
thefrequencyaresimplyreferredtoasfrequencyconvertersforACtoACconversion.Underfrequencyconverters
therearethreedifferenttypesofconvertersthataretypicallyused:cycloconverter,matrixconverter,DClink
converter(akaAC/DC/ACconverter).

ACvoltagecontroller:ThepurposeofanACVoltageController,orACRegulator,istovarytheRMSvoltage
acrosstheloadwhileataconstantfrequency.[6]ThreecontrolmethodsthataregenerallyacceptedareON/OFF
Control,PhaseAngleControl,andPulseWidthModulationACChopperControl(PWMACChopperControl).[8]
Allthreeofthesemethodscanbeimplementednotonlyinsinglephasecircuits,butthreephasecircuitsaswell.

ON/OFFControl:Typicallyusedforheatingloadsorspeedcontrolofmotors,thiscontrolmethodinvolves
turningtheswitchonfornintegralcyclesandturningtheswitchoffformintegralcycles.Becauseturning
theswitchesonandoffcausesundesirableharmonicstobecreated,theswitchesareturnedonandoffduring
zerovoltageandzerocurrentconditions(zerocrossing),effectivelyreducingthedistortion.[8]
PhaseAngleControl:Variouscircuitsexisttoimplementaphaseanglecontrolondifferentwaveforms,such
ashalfwaveorfullwavevoltagecontrol.Thepowerelectroniccomponentsthataretypicallyusedare
diodes,SCRs,andTriacs.Withtheuseofthesecomponents,theusercandelaythefiringangleinawave
whichwillonlycausepartofthewavetobeinoutput.[6]
PWMACChopperControl:Theothertwocontrolmethodsoftenhavepoorharmonics,outputcurrent
quality,andinputpowerfactor.InordertoimprovethesevaluesPWMcanbeusedinsteadoftheother
methods.WhatPWMACChopperdoesishaveswitchesthatturnonandoffseveraltimeswithinalternate
halfcyclesofinputvoltage.[8]

Matrixconvertersandcycloconverters:Cycloconvertersarewidelyusedinindustryforactoacconversion,
becausetheyareabletobeusedinhighpowerapplications.Theyarecommutateddirectfrequencyconvertersthat
aresynchronisedbyasupplyline.Thecycloconvertersoutputvoltagewaveformshavecomplexharmonicswith
thehigherorderharmonicsbeingfilteredbythemachineinductance.Causingthemachinecurrenttohavefewer
harmonics,whiletheremainingharmonicscauseslossesandtorquepulsations.Notethatinacycloconverter,
unlikeotherconverters,therearenoinductorsorcapacitors,i.e.nostoragedevices.Forthisreason,the
instantaneousinputpowerandtheoutputpowerareequal.[9]

SinglePhasetoSinglePhaseCycloconverters:SinglePhasetoSinglePhaseCycloconvertersstarted
drawingmoreinterestrecentlybecauseofthedecreaseinbothsizeandpriceofthepowerelectronics
switches.Thesinglephasehighfrequencyacvoltagecanbeeithersinusoidalortrapezoidal.Thesemightbe
zerovoltageintervalsforcontrolpurposeorzerovoltagecommutation.
ThreePhasetoSinglePhaseCycloconverters:Therearetwokindsofthreephasetosinglephase
cycloconverters:3to1halfwavecycloconvertersand3to1bridgecycloconverters.Bothpositiveand
negativeconverterscangeneratevoltageateitherpolarity,resultinginthepositiveconverteronlysupplying
positivecurrent,andthenegativeconverteronlysupplyingnegativecurrent.

Withrecentdeviceadvances,newerformsofcycloconvertersarebeingdeveloped,suchasmatrixconverters.The
firstchangethatisfirstnoticedisthatmatrixconvertersutilizebidirectional,bipolarswitches.Asinglephasetoa
singlephasematrixconverterconsistsofamatrixof9switchesconnectingthethreeinputphasestothetreeoutput
phase.Anyinputphaseandoutputphasecanbeconnectedtogetheratanytimewithoutconnectinganytwo
switchesfromthesamephaseatthesametimeotherwisethiswillcauseashortcircuitoftheinputphases.Matrix
convertersarelighter,morecompactandversatilethanotherconvertersolutions.Asaresult,theyareableto
achievehigherlevelsofintegration,highertemperatureoperation,broadoutputfrequencyandnaturalbi
directionalpowerflowsuitabletoregenerateenergybacktotheutility.

Thematrixconvertersaresubdividedintotwotypes:directandindirectconverters.Adirectmatrixconverterwith
threephaseinputandthreephaseoutput,theswitchesinamatrixconvertermustbebidirectional,thatis,they
mustbeabletoblockvoltagesofeitherpolarityandtoconductcurrentineitherdirection.Thisswitchingstrategy
permitsthehighestpossibleoutputvoltageandreducesthereactivelinesidecurrent.Therefore,thepowerflow
throughtheconverterisreversible.Becauseofitscommutationproblemandcomplexcontrolkeepitfrombeing
broadlyutilizedinindustry.

Unlikethedirectmatrixconverters,theindirectmatrixconvertershasthesamefunctionality,butusesseparate
inputandoutputsectionsthatareconnectedthroughadclinkwithoutstorageelements.Thedesignincludesa
fourquadrantcurrentsourcerectifierandavoltagesourceinverter.Theinputsectionconsistsofbidirectional
bipolarswitches.Thecommutationstrategycanbeappliedbychangingtheswitchingstateoftheinputsection
whiletheoutputsectionisinafreewheelingmode.Thiscommutationalgorithmissignificantlylesscomplexity
andhigherreliabilityascomparedtoaconventionaldirectmatrixconverter.[10]

DClinkconverters:DCLinkConverters,alsoreferredtoasAC/DC/ACconverters,convertanACinputtoan
ACoutputwiththeuseofaDClinkinthemiddle.MeaningthatthepowerintheconverterisconvertedtoDC
fromACwiththeuseofarectifier,andthenitisconvertedbacktoACfromDCwiththeuseofaninverter.The
endresultisanoutputwithalowervoltageandvariable(higherorlower)frequency.[8]Duetotheirwideareaof
application,theAC/DC/ACconvertersarethemostcommoncontemporarysolution.Otheradvantagesto
AC/DC/ACconvertersisthattheyarestableinoverloadandnoloadconditions,aswellastheycanbedisengaged
fromaloadwithoutdamage.[11]

Hybridmatrixconverter:HybridmatrixconvertersarerelativelynewforAC/ACconverters.Theseconverters
combinetheAC/DC/ACdesignwiththematrixconverterdesign.Multipletypesofhybridconvertershavebeen
developedinthisnewcategory,anexamplebeingaconverterthatusesunidirectionalswitchesandtwoconverter
stageswithoutthedclinkwithoutthecapacitorsorinductorsneededforadclink,theweightandsizeofthe
converterisreduced.Twosubcategoriesexistfromthehybridconverters,namedhybriddirectmatrixconverter
(HDMC)andhybridindirectmatrixconverter(HIMC).HDMCconvertthevoltageandcurrentinonestage,while
theHIMCutilizesseparatestages,liketheAC/DC/ACconverter,butwithouttheuseofanintermediatestorage
element.[12][13]

Applications:Belowisalistofcommonapplicationsthateachconverterisusedin.

ACVoltageController:LightingControlDomesticandIndustrialHeatingSpeedControlofFan,Pumpor
HoistDrives,SoftStartingofInductionMotors,StaticACSwitches[6](TemperatureControl,Transformer
TapChanging,etc.)
Cycloconverter:HighPowerLowSpeedReversibleACMotorDrivesConstantFrequencyPowerSupply
withVariableInputFrequencyControllableVARGeneratorsforPowerFactorCorrectionACSystem
IntertiesLinkingTwoIndependentPowerSystems.[6]
MatrixConverter:Currentlytheapplicationofmatrixconvertersarelimitedduetononavailabilityof
bilateralmonolithicswitchescapableofoperatingathighfrequency,complexcontrollawimplementation,
commutationandotherreasons.Withthesedevelopments,matrixconverterscouldreplacecycloconverters
inmanyareas.[6]
DCLink:Canbeusedforindividualormultipleloadapplicationsofmachinebuildingandconstruction.[11]

Simulationsofpowerelectronicsystems
PowerelectroniccircuitsaresimulatedusingcomputersimulationprogramssuchasPLECS,PSIMand
MATLAB/simulink.Circuitsaresimulatedbeforetheyareproducedtotesthowthecircuitsrespondundercertain
conditions.Also,creatingasimulationisbothcheaperandfasterthancreatingaprototypetousefortesting.[14]

Applications
Applicationsofpowerelectronicsrangeinsizefromaswitchedmode
powersupplyinanACadapter,batterychargers,audioamplifiers,
fluorescentlampballasts,throughvariablefrequencydrivesandDCmotor
drivesusedtooperatepumps,fans,andmanufacturingmachinery,upto
gigawattscalehighvoltagedirectcurrentpowertransmissionsystemsused
tointerconnectelectricalgrids.Powerelectronicsystemsarefoundin
virtuallyeveryelectronicdevice.Forexample:

DC/DCconvertersareusedinmostmobiledevices(mobilephones,
Outputvoltageofafullwave
PDAetc.)tomaintainthevoltageatafixedvaluewhateverthe
rectifierwithcontrolledthyristors
voltagelevelofthebatteryis.Theseconvertersarealsousedfor
electronicisolationandpowerfactorcorrection.Apoweroptimizer
isatypeofDC/DCconverterdevelopedtomaximizetheenergyharvestfromsolarphotovoltaicorwind
turbinesystems.
AC/DCconverters(rectifiers)areusedeverytimeanelectronicdeviceisconnectedtothemains(computer,
televisionetc.).ThesemaysimplychangeACtoDCorcanalsochangethevoltagelevelaspartoftheir
operation.
AC/ACconvertersareusedtochangeeitherthevoltagelevelorthefrequency(internationalpoweradapters,
lightdimmer).InpowerdistributionnetworksAC/ACconvertersmaybeusedtoexchangepowerbetween
utilityfrequency50Hzand60Hzpowergrids.
DC/ACconverters(inverters)areusedprimarilyinUPSorrenewableenergysystemsoremergencylighting
systems.MainspowerchargestheDCbattery.Ifthemainsfails,aninverterproducesACelectricityatmains
voltagefromtheDCbattery.Solarinverter,bothsmallerstringandlargercentralinverters,aswellassolar
microinverterareusedinphotovoltaicsasacomponentofaPVsystem.

Motordrivesarefoundinpumps,blowers,andmilldrivesfortextile,paper,cementandothersuchfacilities.
Drivesmaybeusedforpowerconversionandformotioncontrol.[15]ForACmotors,applicationsincludevariable
frequencydrives,motorsoftstartersandexcitationsystems.[16]

Inhybridelectricvehicles(HEVs),powerelectronicsareusedintwoformats:serieshybridandparallelhybrid.
Thedifferencebetweenaserieshybridandaparallelhybridistherelationshipoftheelectricmotortotheinternal
combustionengine(ICE).Devicesusedinelectricvehiclesconsistmostlyofdc/dcconvertersforbatterycharging
anddc/acconverterstopowerthepropulsionmotor.Electrictrainsusepowerelectronicdevicestoobtainpower,
aswellasforvectorcontrolusingpulsewidthmodulation(PWM)rectifiers.Thetrainsobtaintheirpowerfrom
powerlines.Anothernewusageforpowerelectronicsisinelevatorsystems.Thesesystemsmayusethyristors,
inverters,permanentmagnetmotors,orvarioushybridsystemsthatincorporatePWMsystemsandstandard
motors.[17]

Inverters

Ingeneral,invertersareutilizedinapplicationsrequiringdirectconversionofelectricalenergyfromDCtoACor
indirectconversionfromACtoAC.DCtoACconversionisusefulformanyfields,includingpowerconditioning,
harmoniccompensation,motordrives,andrenewableenergygridintegration.

Inpowersystemsitisoftendesiredtoeliminateharmoniccontentfoundinlinecurrents.VSIscanbeusedas
activepowerfilterstoprovidethiscompensation.Basedonmeasuredlinecurrentsandvoltages,acontrolsystem
determinesreferencecurrentsignalsforeachphase.Thisisfedbackthroughanouterloopandsubtractedfrom
actualcurrentsignalstocreatecurrentsignalsforaninnerlooptotheinverter.Thesesignalsthencausethe
invertertogenerateoutputcurrentsthatcompensatefortheharmoniccontent.Thisconfigurationrequiresnoreal
powerconsumption,asitisfullyfedbythelinetheDClinkissimplyacapacitorthatiskeptataconstantvoltage
bythecontrolsystem.[4]Inthisconfiguration,outputcurrentsareinphasewithlinevoltagestoproduceaunity
powerfactor.Conversely,VARcompensationispossibleinasimilarconfigurationwhereoutputcurrentsleadline
voltagestoimprovetheoverallpowerfactor.[5]

Infacilitiesthatrequireenergyatalltimes,suchashospitalsandairports,UPSsystemsareutilized.Inastandby
system,aninverterisbroughtonlinewhenthenormallysupplyinggridisinterrupted.Powerisinstantaneously
drawnfromonsitebatteriesandconvertedintousableACvoltagebytheVSI,untilgridpowerisrestored,oruntil
backupgeneratorsarebroughtonline.InanonlineUPSsystem,arectifierDClinkinverterisusedtoprotectthe
loadfromtransientsandharmoniccontent.AbatteryinparallelwiththeDClinkiskeptfullychargedbythe
outputincasethegridpowerisinterrupted,whiletheoutputoftheinverterisfedthroughalowpassfiltertothe
load.Highpowerqualityandindependencefromdisturbancesisachieved.[4]

VariousACmotordriveshavebeendevelopedforspeed,torque,andpositioncontrolofACmotors.Thesedrives
canbecategorizedaslowperformanceorashighperformance,basedonwhethertheyarescalarcontrolledor
vectorcontrolled,respectively.Inscalarcontrolleddrives,fundamentalstatorcurrent,orvoltagefrequencyand
amplitude,aretheonlycontrollablequantities.Therefore,thesedrivesareemployedinapplicationswherehigh
qualitycontrolisnotrequired,suchasfansandcompressors.Ontheotherhand,vectorcontrolleddrivesallowfor
instantaneouscurrentandvoltagevaluestobecontrolledcontinuously.Thishighperformanceisnecessaryfor
applicationssuchaselevatorsandelectriccars.[4]

Invertersarealsovitaltomanyrenewableenergyapplications.Inphotovoltaicpurposes,theinverter,whichis
usuallyaPWMVSI,getsfedbytheDCelectricalenergyoutputofaphotovoltaicmoduleorarray.Theinverter
thenconvertsthisintoanACvoltagetobeinterfacedwitheitheraloadortheutilitygrid.Invertersmayalsobe
employedinotherrenewablesystems,suchaswindturbines.Intheseapplications,theturbinespeedusuallyvaries
causingchangesinvoltagefrequencyandsometimesinthemagnitude.Inthiscase,thegeneratedvoltagecanbe
rectifiedandtheninvertedtostabilizefrequencyandmagnitude.[4]

Smartgrid

Asmartgridisamodernizedelectricalgridthatusesinformationandcommunicationstechnologytogatherand
actoninformation,suchasinformationaboutthebehaviorsofsuppliersandconsumers,inanautomatedfashionto
improvetheefficiency,reliability,economics,andsustainabilityoftheproductionanddistributionof
electricity.[18][19]

Electricpowergeneratedbywindturbinesandhydroelectricturbinesbyusinginductiongeneratorscancause
variancesinthefrequencyatwhichpowerisgenerated.Powerelectronicdevicesareutilizedinthesesystemsto
convertthegeneratedacvoltagesintohighvoltagedirectcurrent(HVDC).TheHVDCpowercanbemoreeasily
convertedintothreephasepowerthatiscoherentwiththepowerassociatedtotheexistingpowergrid.Through
thesedevices,thepowerdeliveredbythesesystemsiscleanerandhasahigherassociatedpowerfactor.Wind
powersystemsoptimumtorqueisobtainedeitherthroughagearboxordirectdrivetechnologiesthatcanreduce
thesizeofthepowerelectronicsdevice.[20]

Electricpowercanbegeneratedthroughphotovoltaiccellsbyusingpowerelectronicdevices.Theproducedpower
isusuallythentransformedbysolarinverters.Invertersaredividedintothreedifferenttypes:central,module
integratedandstring.CentralconverterscanbeconnectedeitherinparallelorinseriesontheDCsideofthe
system.Forphotovoltaic"farms",asinglecentralconverterisusedfortheentiresystem.Moduleintegrated
convertersareconnectedinseriesoneithertheDCorACside.Normallyseveralmodulesareusedwithina
photovoltaicsystem,sincethesystemrequirestheseconvertersonbothDCandACterminals.Astringconverteris
usedinasystemthatutilizesphotovoltaiccellsthatarefacingdifferentdirections.Itisusedtoconvertthepower
generatedtoeachstring,orline,inwhichthephotovoltaiccellsareinteracting.[20]
Powerelectronicscanbeusedtohelputilitiesadapttotherapidincreaseindistributedresidential/commercial
solarpowergeneration.GermanyandpartsofHawaii,CaliforniaandNewJerseyrequirecostlystudiestobe
conductedbeforeapprovingnewsolarinstallations.Relativelysmallscalegroundorpolemounteddevicescreate
thepotentialforadistributedcontrolinfrastructuretomonitorandmanagetheflowofpower.Traditional
electromechanicalsystems,suchascapacitorbanksorvoltageregulatorsatsubstations,cantakeminutestoadjust
voltageandcanbedistantfromthesolarinstallationswheretheproblemsoriginate.Ifvoltageonaneighborhood
circuitgoestoohigh,itcanendangerutilitycrewsandcausedamagetobothutilityandcustomerequipment.
Further,agridfaultcausesphotovoltaicgeneratorstoshutdownimmediately,spikingdemandforgridpower.
Smartgridbasedregulatorsaremorecontrollablethanfarmorenumerousconsumerdevices.[21]

Inanotherapproach,agroupof16westernutilitiescalledtheWesternElectricIndustryLeaderscalledfor
mandatoryuseof"smartinverters".ThesedevicesconvertDCtohouseholdACandcanalsohelpwithpower
quality.Suchdevicescouldeliminatetheneedforexpensiveutilityequipmentupgradesatamuchlowertotal
cost.[21]

Notes
1.Thompson,M.T."Notes01"(http://www.thompsonrd.com/NOTES%2001%20INTRODUCTION%20TO%20POWER%
20ELECTRONICS.pdf)(PDF).IntroductiontoPowerElectronics.ThompsonConsulting,Inc.
2.Kharagpur."PowerSemiconductorDevices"(http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/Webcoursecontents/IIT%20Kharagpur/Powe
r%20Electronics/PDF/L1(SSG)(PE)%20((EE)NPTEL).pdf)(PDF).EEIIT.Retrieved25March2012.
3.MuhammadH.Rashid,POWERELECTRONICSHANDBOOKDEVICES,CIRCUITS,ANDAPPLICATIONSThird
EditionThestructureintroducedinthisworkisamultilevelinverter,whichusesSeparateDCSources.Themultilevel
inverterusingcascadedinverterwithSDCSsynthesizesadesiredvoltagefromseveralindependentsourcesofDC
voltages,whichmaybeobtainedfrombatteries,fuelcells,orsolarcells.Thisconfigurationrecentlybecomesvery
popularinACpowersupplyandadjustablespeeddriveapplications.Thisnewinvertercanavoidextraclampingdiodes
orvoltagebalancingcapacitors.ButterworthHeinemann,2007ISBN9780123820365
4.Rashid,M.H.(2001).PowerElectronicsHandbook.AcademicPress.pp.225250.
5.Trzynadlowski,A.M.(2010).IntroductiontoModernPowerElectronics.Wiley.pp.269341.
6.Rahsid,M.H.(2010).PowerElectronicsHandbook:Devices,Circuits,andApplications.Elsevier.pp.147564.
ISBN9780123820365.
7.Skvarenina,T.L.(2002).ThepowerelectronicshandbookIndustrialelectronicsseries.CRCPress.pp.94140.
ISBN9780849373367.
8.Rashid,M.H.(2005).DigitalpowerelectronicsandapplicationsElectronics&Electrical.AcademicPress.ISBN9780
120887576.
9.Tolbert,L.M."CYCLOCONVERTERS"(http://www.scribd.com/sagar%20jaiswal/d/18197288Cycloconverters).
UniversityofTennessee.Retrieved23March2012.
10.Klumpner,C."PowerElectronics2"(http://hermes.eee.nott.ac.uk/teaching/h5cpe2/).Retrieved23March2012.
11.Vodovozov,V(2006).Electronicengineering.ISBN9789985690390.
12.LipoKim,Sul(2000)."AC/ACPowerConversionBasedonMatricConverterTopologywithUnidirectionalSwitches".
IEEETransactionsonIndustryApplications.36(1):139145.doi:10.1109/28.821808(https://doi.org/10.1109%2F28.82
1808).
13.WheelerWijekoon,Klumpner(July2008)."ImplementationofaHybridAC/ACDirectPowerConverterwithUnity
VoltageTransferRatio".IEEETransactionsonPowerElectronics.23(4):19181986.doi:10.1109/tpel.2008.924601(htt
ps://doi.org/10.1109%2Ftpel.2008.924601).
14.Khader,S."THEAPPLICATIONOFPSIM&MATLAB/SIMULINKINPOWERELECTRONICSCOURSES"(htt
p://www.psut.edu.jo/sites/educon/program/contribution1139_b.pdf)(PDF).Retrieved25March2012.
15.Bose,BimalK.(SeptemberOctober1993)."PowerElectronicsandMotionControlTechnologyStatusandRecent
Trends".IEEE.
16.Bose,BimalK.(February2009)."PowerElectronicsandMotorDrivesRecentProgressandPerspective".IEEE.
17.Yano,MasaoShigeryAbeEiichiOhno(2004)."HistoryofPowerElectronicsforMotorDrivesinJapan".IEEE.
18.D.J.Hammerstrometal."PacificNorthwestGridWiseTestbedDemonstrationProjects,PartI.OlympicPeninsula
Project"(http://www.pnl.gov/main/publications/external/technical_reports/PNNL17167.pdf)(PDF).Retrieved
20140115.
 19.U.S.DepartmentofEnergy."SmartGrid/DepartmentofEnergy"(http://energy.gov/oe/technologydevelopment/smartgr
id).Retrieved20120618.
20.Carrasco,JuanManuelLeopoldoGarciaFranqueloJanT.BialasieweczEduardoGalvanRamonC.PortilloGuisado
Ma.AngelesMartinPratsJoseIgnacioLeonNarcisoMorenoAlfonso(August2006)."PowerElectronicSystemsfor
theGridIntegrationofRenewableSources:ASurvey".IEEE.53(4):1002.doi:10.1109/tie.2006.878356(https://doi.org/
10.1109%2Ftie.2006.878356).
21.LaMonica,Martin(20140121)."PowerElectronicsCouldHelpGridandSolarPowerGetAlong|MITTechnology
Review"(http://www.technologyreview.com/news/523386/powerelectronicssmoothsolartransition/).
Technologyreview.com.Retrieved20140122.

References
IssaBatarseh,"PowerElectronicCircuits"byJohnWiley,2003.
S.K.Mazumder,"HighFrequencyInverters:FromPhotovoltaic,Wind,andFuelCellbasedRenewableand
AlternativeEnergyDER/DGSystemstoBatterybasedEnergyStorageApplications",BookChapterin
PowerElectronicshandbook,EditorM.H.Rashid,AcademicPress,Burlington,Massachusetts,2010.
V.Gureich"ElectronicDevicesonDiscreteComponentsforIndustrialandPowerEngineering",CRCPress,
NewYork,2008,418p.
Editor:Semikron,Authors:Dr.UlrichNicolai,Dr.TobiasReimann,Prof.JrgenPetzoldt,JosefLutz:
ApplicationManualIGBTandMOSFETpowermodules,1.edition,ISLEVerlag,1998,ISBN3932633
245onlineversion(http://www.sindopower.com/ApplicationManualoxid/)
R.W.Erickson,D.Maksimovic,FundamentalsofPowerElectronics,2ndEd.,Springer,2001,ISBN0
792372700[1](http://ecee.colorado.edu/copec/book/SecEd.html)
ArendtWintrichUlrichNicolaiWernerTurskyTobiasReimann(2010),Applikationshandbuch2010(htt
p://www.powerguru.org/wordpress/wpcontent/uploads/2012/12/SEMIKRON_Applikationshandbuch_Leist
ungshalbleiter.pdf)(PDFVersion)(inGerman)(2.ed.),ISLEVerlag,ISBN9783938843567
ArendtWintrichUlrichNicolaiWernerTurskyTobiasReimann(2011),ApplicationManual2011(http://w
ww.powerguru.org/wordpress/wpcontent/uploads/2012/12/SEMIKRON_application_manual_power_semic
onductors.pdf)(PDFVersion)(inGerman)(2.ed.),ISLEVerlag,ISBN9783938843666

Externallinks
InteractivePowerElectronicsSeminar(iPES)(http://www.ipes.ethz.c
WikimediaCommonshas
h/ipes/e_index.html)
mediarelatedtoPower
Powerguru.org(http://www.powerguru.org/)powerelectronics electronics.
knowledgebasewithtrainingmaterial(PowerGuru)
LoadPowerSourcesforPeakEfficiency,byJamesColotti,publishedinEDN1979October5(http://www.ie
ee.li/pdf/essay/load_power_sources_for_peak_efficiency_edn_1979_10_05.pdf)
PowerElectronicsSimulationTool(http://www.geckosimulations.com/geckocircuits.html)
DCDCconvertersOnlineSimulation(http://www.cirvirlab.com/index.php/tutorials/168dcdcconverterso
nlinesimulator.html)

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