The Scientic Journal of Humanistic Studies | Year 4, no.

Philosophy

Ana Maria STNIL

Nature and society with Th. Hobbes and J.J. Rousseau. The evolution of man from
the natural state to the social state and the social contract

Abstract
This paper's aim is to show some of the main differences between Hobbes' and Rousseau's approach
towards issues that froubled all the political and philosophical communities: nature and the state of nature
and the legitimacy of authority. Even thought they caused a stir in the society and have been accused of
economical and political influence, their studies and their political ideas were way ahead their times; and
their contiibution to the political theory and to the development of the civil society cannot be questioned.
Keywords: state of nature, social confract, natiiral law, education, free will.

On the one hand, the research work tries to
present the way that two of the most important
philosophers of the 17* and 18* century, Th. Hobbes
and J.J Rousseau have referred to nature, explaining
the human evolution from the natural being to the
social one. On the other hand, I intend to show the
different methods used by the two philosophers to
explain the state's birth and development, this
artificial mechanism that is being described by
Hobbes as the only viable solution for individuals'
security and conservation, but which becomes for
Rousseau, the most efficient- Way of recovering the
individual liberty on the grounds of the civil
community ruled by generally accepted mies.
As society is an individually-based community,
and both Hobbes and Rousseau reject the idea of the
inbom human sociability, I will try to emphasize their
approach on the natural man, prior to political and
moral principal intmsions.
Under the influence of the socio-pohtical
events of their times as well as the great thinkers like
Platon, Aristotel, Epicur, Descartes, MachiaveUi etc.,
Hobbes and Rousseau express their own perspectives
upon the ideas spread in the social and political
philosophy of the 17* and 18* century such as: the
idea of the natural man previous to the gain of the
social status, the supposed initial isolation of the
individuals, the origins and the justification (ratio) of
the state, of the legitimate power and rights, the
natural freedom principle and the social contract
concept as well as the property's decisive role in the
society and human relations development.
Hobbes caused a stir in his times because of
his complex philosophical and historical approach on
issues like human nature, origins of the law,
authority's legitimacy, birth of commonwealth. Due
to the presumptive influence of the intellectual,
pohtical and social environment in which he lived (the
civil war, the Cavendish family protection,friendshke
Galileo GaHlei, Mersenne, Gassendi) and developed
his studies on society and politics: Elements of Law,
De cive. Leviathan or The Matter, Forms and Power
of a Common Wealth Ecclesiastical and Civil, and
due to the lack of consistency in Hobbes' attitude
regarding some of the most sensitive topics of his time
(like religion and supremacy of the absolute sovereignty),
Hobbes became a controversial philosopher.
For example, there are exegetes that qualified
as radical the sudden change in Hobbes' attitude
towards monarchy in the end of Leviathan, as there
are interpreters that explain this tum over through the
political and social events that Hobbes experiences in
the period he worked on the end of the book. There is
proof that confirms the fact that the partisans of
monarchy (including one of Hobbes' friends.
Clarendon) publicly accused him of political
opportunism, of undermining the sovereign authority,
after interpreting the last chapters of the Leviathan as

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 The Scientifc Joumal of Humanistic Studies
Hobbes' new position towards the Common Wealth
and Cromwell.
Being one of the royal family protges,
exegetes have tried over the years to understand the
influence level of his social statute on his political and
philosophical thinking by following the
correspondence between the historical events and his
published political ideas.
When analyzing the presumptive influence of
Hobbes' political and aristocratic companions and
employers, most of the exegetes argue that Hobbes
does not change his view regarding the necessify of
the so-called social contract and political sociefy - the
inalienable character of individuals' right to securify.
Still, Tuck and Baumgold (Baumgold, 2000: 35-37)
explain that the alteration of his view regarding the
best governmental formation, can be based not only
on the last chapters and on the conclusions of
Leviathan, but also on the 26th and 27th chapters.
On the other hand, John Watkins and Quentin
Skinner (Jonathan M. Wiener, 1974: 252) argue that
historical information is absolutely necessary for an
accurate and logical reconstmction and interpretation
of Hobbes' philosophy (including the political
philosophy). Influenced by the Wittgenstein language
theory. Skinner emphasizes the fact that the tm
understanding of the sense of Hobbes' ideas clearly
depends on the restoration of the context in which
they had been used.
Jean Bodin (Richard Tuck, 2004: 137) also
joins the ones that believe that Hobbes was keen on
the idea of legislative sovereignfy, expressing, at the
same time, hostilify towards a mixed government by
promoting the requirement that any sovereign power
should respect all the institutions that govem the life
of hiunans: associations, universities, family, the
church etc.
Despite the fact that researchers cannot come
to an agreement regarding the extent to which Hobbes
was influenced by his wealthyfi-iendsand employers,
the thinker's opinions regarding the social contract
and especially the state had a great impact on other
philosophers of those times and not only. The
personification of the state as an artificial human was
also adopted by many scholars from Continental
Europe: Benedict de Spinoza, Johan and Pieter de la
Court brothers and Pufendorf Furthermore, the
expression "homo homini lupus" that Hobbes used to
describe the natural state of the human being became
not only famous, but also a reference point or a
controversial issue to other thinkers of the 18th and
19th century.
By rising against the traditional political
thinking iat preceded him, Hobbes proclaims the
necessify of a new moral philosophy, more profound,
assuming the role of rationing the ideas of law,
moralify, political power and religion. He tries to find
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Year 4, no. 7
the answers to many questions that were a subject of
distress in the civil sociefy, questions regarding the
justification of the existence of the state, the legitimate
fimctionalify of sociefy and the relationship between
the sovereign and his people.
Approximately a century later, Rousseau
reinterprets, in an original and antagonistic manner,
the relationship between human evolution and the
communify that the individual belongs to, the negative
effects of vulgarizing the arts and science in the
sociefy, the origins of inequalify among humans and
the stiingency of implementing the state authorify.
Hobbes explains the nature of his investigation
by saying it is rational and mathematical, the only
proper approach of political science, arguing that this
is the logical approach, and not the dogmatic or the
rhetorical one. As a result, Hobbes begins a complex
trial of rewriting the natural and political law in
scientific terms (Ctlin Avramescu, 2001: 127), the
main purpose of his political papers was to clarify the
rights and the responsibilities of the sovereign and the
vassals. Even though Hobbes was explicit about the
nature of his investigation, Sti-auss (Leo" Strauss,
1996) did not believed that this philosophy had it's
origins in tradition or science, but in the vast
knowledge and human nature experimentation through
the efforts of self-analysis and the analysis of the
people that surrounded Hobbes.
Rousseau's philosophy is grounded on the
idea of the superiorify of the natural human state over
the civilized one, as he perceives nature,, as being
previous to law and morahfy, the civilized state of
human being not only thatti-ansformsthe actions of a
rational human into moral actions, but it also cormpts
him, by making him vulnerable.
From the law philosophy perspective,
Rousseau's most significant stiidies are The discourse
on the origins of inequality and The Social Contract,
studies that are inter-connected and that dovetail each
other. According to Wokler (R. Wokler, 1996), Emile
was the most relevant study on education from the
Platon's Republic and all the other papers had a
profound impact on political sciences, in theory and
practice, as well as on romantic naturalism and
novel's development.
Most of the exegetes recognize that in The
discourse on the origins of inequality Rousseau is
more of an observer, as he focuses on describing the
evolution of human nature from its origins to the civil
state. The political and social program that he
conceives is being revealed in The Social Contract
and Emile.
Regarding human nature and the birth of civil
sociefy and the commonwealth evolution, Rousseau
stood out from his epoch stream by evoking the good
 The Scientifc Journal of Humanistic Studies
nature in man, his individual is bom good, innocent,
free, capable of compassion.
As we can see Hobbes and Rousseau define
differently the natural state of the individual. Rousseau
relates the natural state to anthropology. He admits
that the individual was in competition with the animals
as well as admits that iii order to survive and sometimes
win this competition, the individuals gathered into
families and the farnilies joined together into what he
called "the seed b^ sociefy". In Rousseau's view, the
individual gains^the social dependence as he becomes
a part of the civilized sociefy, hence the primitive
individual goes to several changes as he becomes
more intelligent, communicative, creative and egocentric.
On the other hand, Hobbes describes the
primitive individual as an absent individual from
sociefy (Robin E. R Bunce, 2009), two of his major
attributes are selfishness and pride. The war between
individuals in natural state is caused exactly by the
continuous competition for glory, dignify. By tiying to
show each other their superiorify and capacities, the
printive individuals are full of hati-ed and envy.
Locke disapproved Hobbes' excessive
pessimism, and Rousseau based his progressive
political and innovative theories on the optimistic
Enlightenment. In A Discourse on Inequality,
Rousseau praises the perfection of the natural state of
human being, condemning sociefy for all the evils in
mans' life, the sociefy is in his opinion guilfy for
diversifying the types of relations among individuals
and for all the vested interests that lead to conflicts
among individuals.
Regardless of man's initial qualities, perceiving
man as independent from sociefy is the key of
imderstanding his development and the sociefy's ascent.
The primitive envirormient described by
Hobbes through the famous saying "man is a wolf for
man" is in Rousseau's opinion the sociefy that
nourishes private properfy which imphes abuses,
greed of money, inequities, slavery on one hand, and
luxury and despotic govemance on the other hand.
The individual, the private interest is the result of a
whole system of inequalities and interdependence
relationships. Furthermore, human nature is being
strangled and reason deters man to act against his
primitive, original emotions and needs. Even though
Rousseau, beheves in the inbom goodness, he argues
that^tat is invented out of rich individuals' necessify
toiprotectthein.wealth. -
;r ' 1 : Hobbes.':. social contract emerges in a one step
process, after .which an absolute sovereign is being
chaired. Afterwards, we notice that Locke's perspective
on social contract .changes citizens' role in the
political and administrative stmctures that govemed.
Both philosophers agreed that by accepting some
rules, rights and obligations (social contract), therefore
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Year 4, no. 7
by becoming part ofa social communify, the primitive
individuals loose their natural state. The main
difference between their approach relates to the very
process of acceding to this new organized communify.
Locke imagined a two step process, first the
individuals decided to willingly abandon their natural
state and to enter an artificial communify that they
empowered with elementary executive and judicial
prerogatives. Then, the new social stmcture formed by
the individuals involved had the right to choose one
government form.
In Rousseau's opinion, the. sociefy is a
network of partnerships whereby the individuals
renounce wiiout any restraint at their personal
freedom and accept the conv^tional freedom which
imphes obeying the established mies, sociefy's laws.
The purpose of the disclaimer of each individual is the
securify, the unify and welfare of the coUectivify.
Sociefy is viewed as the only organism that can
defend private properfy.
Rousseau embraces Hobbes' definition on
natiiral freedom - the lack of extemal consti-aints and
barriers. For Rousseau, the natural freedom concept
has more than social connotations. Rousseau's free
individual is also independent because his wishes and
needs do not exceed his own abilities to fulfill them.
Emile is one of his works in which he explains that the
main reason for the cormption of the human condition
is the loss of the balance between will/need and
abilify/possibilify. The individuals' natiiral passions
are altered by the partnerships enhancement. In this
marmer new artificial passions and desires take the
place of the natiiral ones even though these new needs
can not be satisfied by individual efforts, only by
collective efforts. This is the mechanism that weakens
and depresses the individual. The restoration of the
initial balance becomes for Rousseau the best
solution, even though it is a collective solution, for the
recovery of freedom.
Freedom becomes the social conti-act's
elementary commitment (J.J.Roussseau, 2009: 84).
By delegating the individual freedom to the general
will, the communify as a whole will force the
individual to be free in the sense that the social
communify will establish a set of mies that will
prevent him of being oblige to act against his will.
If we take into consideration the way that J.J.
Rousseau based his philosophy on the social coiti-act
on the principles of equalify and freedom, developing
a whole theory around the supremacy' of the
legislative power, we can name him the father of the
most liberal social contract possible, a contract
according to which each individual from a communify
seals a deal with each othei-. Therefore, we can only
conclude that Rousseau's influence upon the French
Revolution reveals to be quite decisive.
 The Scientifc Journal of Humanistic Studies
J.J. Rousseau had a different vision upon the
necessity of reorganizing the communities, therefore
the concepts of liberty and equality gained other
connotations in his studies. Hobbes believed that the
physical and psychic equality of man in the nattiral
state leads to the leveling of the chance of obtaining the
same resources and as a result, this equality is generating
conflicts and violence. On the other hand, Rousseau
defines the equality concept by the sheer independence
of one person to the other, this kind of independence
exists only for humans in the natural state.
The commonwealth that Hobbes is proposing
as the one and only solution for escaping the
miserable existence of the man in the natural
condition, the best solution for escaping "the state of
war", is being represented by a mechanism that
provides man with many more advantages (security
and wealth) than disadvantages (possible abuses of
power, some restrictions of liberty, unfair decisions of
the sovereign etc.). Rousseau argues that precisely the
society's evolution and the interdependence of
humans have led to a whole system of inequities and
to the abuses of the ones more powerful and agile
upon the weak and ignorant ones.
While Hobbes tries to justify the legitimacy
of the commonwealth he conceived and explains in
detail the benefits of humans integrated i this kind of
socio-political organism, Rousseau underlines the
motives for the existence of this social condition (as
he beheves that this condition has cormpted and
subdued the natural man) and for the restoration of the
state on the pillars of nature and virtue. Rousseau
argues that virtue and liberal society are two sfrong
related concepts. Following Montesquieu's idea on
virtue, Rousseau rates virtue as a main principle of
democracy, as being inseparable from equality or
from the acknowledgement of equality.
Rousseau tries to restore the sacred unity of
the city which was destroyed by Hobbes through the
emphasis on the dualism between the temporal power
and the spiritual power on one hand, and the dualism
between the earthly land and the heavenly land, on the
other hand. Not only that Rousseau chooses the
classic fortress over the modem state, but he pleads,
for the recuperation of the primitive man, the naturai
human being which was independent, non-political,
and therefore free.
According to Hobbes it is impossible to stand
for the priority of natural law without doubtfully
believing that the individual precedes civil society and
that all the rights of the civil community and of the
sovereign derive from the rights that belonged
primarily to the individual
The tradition that Hobbes is rejecting conceived
that the individual can reach perfection only within a
community, within a civil society. Hence the fradition
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Year 4, no. 7
presumed that society existed prior to the individual.
While the pre-modem natural law theories derived the
rights of individuals from their responsibilities,
Hobbes creates a new political doctrine from the very
need of finding a human causality that can lead to a
solid social order. After realizing that in order to
respect any mle or law, the individual needs exact and
scientific information regarding that law or mle and
the context in which it was settled, Hobbes assumes
the natural law should be derived from the human
passions, as most individuals are most of the time
dominated by passions. Following this argumentation,
the philosopher explains that this is the only solution
for an efficient law.
Rousseau has a different perception on
natural condition or natural state, this concept is rather
logic and methodological than empiric. Being aware
of the eighteenth century theories regarding the
origins of primitive man, of natural man, Rousseau
believes that family is the oldest and the only natural
society, therefore he places it at the origins of the
state. As Rousseau disapproved of the willingly
alienation of liberty, he settles will, not force, at the
foundation of modem political philosophy. The laws'
authority grounds in the free will expressed by the
majority.
Speaking on education and the importance of
raising the children as good citizens, we underline an
original and meticulous approach in conceiving the
relationship between the humans and the state. This is
represented by Rousseau's education and formation
program consisting of several stages that are
absolutely necessary in the evolution of a child to a
mature citizen in order to become useful not only to
the primary society - the family, but also to the state.
The precision used by Hobbes to describe the
role of the sovereign in the organization and
legislation of the various areas of hiunan life can be
also identified in Rousseau's work when he explains
the importance of preserving the natural state of the
child by a vigilant confrol of each aspect of his
education and environment. In addition to this,
exegetes like Boyd (W. Boyd, 1956), say that
Rousseau tries to create the independence and self-
sufficiency of the child in the third stage (12-15 years)
by using methods like limiting the child's reading hst
to only one book - Robinson Crusoe. In works like A
Discourse on Political Economy and Considerations
for the Government ofPoland, Rousseau delegates the
responsibility of such a compelling education to the
state, whose interest is to mould the chilidren into good
and useful citizens for the entire community.
Rousseau is convinced that a proper
education can lead to the development of perfectibility,
this tendency of humans to always improve themselves.
Survival is not the only aim in Rousseau's program.
 The Scientifc Journal of Humanistic Studies Year 4, no. 7

he aims to a civil communify in which citizens are
being treated equally, by the same mies that they have
contributed on by reasoning and delegating their
power afld authorify to respectable and capable leaders.
In his disapproval of superficialify and surrogate,
Rousseau aims to a good life, to happiness in a
bounded communify.
The modem age was marked by a double
breach, on one hand the breakage between the political
and religious communities, on the other hand the
breakage between the human being as a political
pavm and the human being as a psychological
individualify.
Tuck (Richard Tuck, 2004) beheves that the
religious development represents for Hobbes, as well
as for other scholars of the times (More, Bacon,
Rousseau, Owen, Saint-Simone), an important
process in the upheaval of human life to the most
profound level.
Hobbes tried to explain the advantages of a
new relation between government and church. One of
his well-known exegetes, Leo Strauss (Robin E. R.
Bunce, 2009), mentioned that Hobbes militated for an
atheist sociefy as he thought that the fear of God is
undermining not only the stabilify and the prosperify
of the sociefy, but the sociefy itself Skeptic Hobbes
assumed that individuals are not only prone to
mistakes and errors, but they could be easily influenced
by the preachers. His attitude towards religion can be
explained by his desire to buUd an efficient social
order that will not be questioned or undermined by
peoples' behefs in miracles, spirits, hell etc.
Rousseau was very much aware of all the
risks involved as the human soul is an intricate one
and as the extemal pressure (family, pohtical, social,
economical, religious) can divert his moral principles
from the ones taught through education and experience.
That is why he beheved that a civil rehgion is the
proper altemative in order to enhance state's power
and legitimacy. By eluding the theological character.
Rousseau empowers the sovereign with the
responsibilify of establish the civil religion mies.
If we take into consideration the fact that the
last half of the Leviathan discusses a new Christian
theology, we can admit the fact that the purpose of
this transformation goes beyond the will of assuring
the sovereign's authorify and absolute obedience.
Hobbes eliminates the conventional Trinify idea and
the concept of hell by denying the possibilify of an
etemal torture after death, afterwards he tries to
liberate the fear in the hfe of individuals, especially
the fear of immaterial spirits.
During the analysis of the capital revolution
that Hobbes started by inserting the political idealism
spirit into the hedonist tradition, Edmund Burke
assesses that the political atheism is a modem specific
phenomena. He notices that the atheist thinkers before
Hobbes did not had the tendency of doubting the fact
that the social life needs the belief in God and his
worship.
As the majorify of the thinkers of the 17*
century, Rousseau rejects the idea of divine authorify.
He replaces the obedience of the human being to other
humans and the obedience of all humans to God, with
the obedience of the human to himself. As Pierre
Mannent also observes, this self-submission does not
have any hierarchic limits, as the individual is free
from any divine lineage, being restricted only by
economic boundaries and needs.
As Hobbes and Locke are considered the first
precursors of the right-wing politics because of their
early approach to concepts like individuahsm and
liberalism, Rousseau reveals himself as being a tme
initiator of the "progressive" and revolutionary ideas
on liberty and equahfy among individuals.
Furthermore, both Hobbes and Rousseau had a strong
contribution in the constmction of modem thinking
and political institutions as their research work is
appreciated by researchers in the field as being
original, revolutionary, captivating and, last but not
least, a generator of constmctive polemics.

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 The Scientic Journal of Humanistic Studies I Year 4, no. 7

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http.7/fs.oxfordjoumals.org/content/XXXl/4/457.extract

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