MMSE Journal Vol.7 2016

I. Materials Science Vol.
7
Pag. 01-45
1. Title: An Effective Way of Obtaining Bainite Structure in Alloyed High-Strength
Cast Irons
2. Title: Laser Metal Deposition Repair Applications for Ti-6Al-4V Alloy
3. Title: Statistical Study of Corrosion Types in Constructions in South Region of
Rio De Janeiro Brazil
4. Title: Influence of the Composition of (TlGaS2)1-(TlInSe2)x Alloys on Their
Physical Properties
5. Title: Enhancement of Optical and Thermal Properties of - Glycine Single
Crystal: in the Presence of 2-Aminopyridine Potassium Chloride
II. Mechanical Engineering & Physics

Vol. 7
Pag. 46-88
1. Title: Determining Optimum Location Places for Clutch Couplings in
Hydrostatic and Mechanical Transmissions of Wheeled Tractors
2. Title: The Evaluation of Torsional Strength in Reinforced Concrete Beam
3. Title: Process Modeling for Energy Usage in Smart House System with a
Help of Markov Discrete Chain
4. Title: Statistical Control of the Technological Process Stability to
Manufacturing Cylindrical Parts into High Series
III. Machine Building

Pag. 89-101
1. Title: Conceptual Model of Lapwing Amphibious Aircraft
VIII. Economics & Management Vol.7

Pag. 102-
1. Title: Cost Reduction of Taxi Enterprises at the Expense of Automobile Fleet
Optimization
2. Title: Factor Analysis of Passenger Cars Using as a Taxi
Mechanics, Materials Science & Engineering, December 2016 ISSN 2412-5954
An Effective Way of Obtaining Bainite Structure in Alloyed

High-Strength Cast Irons
R.K. Hasanli1,a
1 Associated professor, Dr., Azerbaijan Technical University, Baku, Azerbaijan

a hasanli_dr@mail.ru
DOI 10.13140/RG.2.2.18415.23200
Keywords: high-strength cast iron, globular graphite, economical alloying, mold, heat treatment, isothermal
transformations, the details of locking devices, structure, properties.
ABSTRACT. This paper describes the features of the isothermal transformation in high-strength nodular cast iron.
It explores the feasibility and effectiveness of obtaining bainite structure in the cast iron ec onomically-alloyed with
Nickel, copper and molybdenum cast in metallic form by continuous cooling air.
Introduction. In the coming years, the engineering industry of Azerbaijan should significantly
be improved by the quality of the products. The most effective way to solve this problem is
development of advanced structural materials, used for manufacturing various parts used in Oil
and Gas industry machinery.
The use of high-strength cast iron with nodular graphite (ductile iron) instead of alloy steel for
producing machine parts is a promising direction of materials science development in
mechanical engineering.
In accordance with existing manufacturing technology, critical parts of the locking devices of
oilfield equipment are produced from alloyed steels and subjected to bulk quenching or
normalizing, followed by nitration to provide high wear resistance and toughness.
Analyses of the Bainite Structure of High-Strength Cast Irons. For ductile iron, such processing
is unsuitable, as parts made from cast iron with volumetric hardening are prone to cracks. Nitrating
ductile iron is also impractical due to the significant duration of the process and the fragility of the
resulting surface layer [1].
To ensure high wear resistance of parts made from sparingly-alloyed high-strength cast iron
there is a possibility of obtaining bainite structure through isothermal treatment or otherwise
[2]. It is known that the material with the bainite structure do not inferior in the wear resistance
to the nitride layer. It was indicated that the highest wear resistance, cast irons possess lower
bainitic structure [3]. The strength of the isothermal heat-treated cast irons is at a high level [2].
Several works are focused on the study of methods employed for obtaining bainitic cast iron [3-
7]. Technique to obtain a matrix of bainite in cast iron in the cast state is complex and requires
complex alloying additions. This does not guarantee the homogeneity of the structures and have
a risk of developing segregation and micro segregation of elements in the iron composition
during solidification.
For cast irons, obtained by casting in a metal mold, this method is unacceptable, as they must
undergo graphitizing annealing [6]. The experiments showed that the introduction of 1.0%
Nickel, 0,5% copper and 0,5% molybdenum in the alloy, obtained by casting in the mold, leads
to the formation of bainite areas in their structure even at slow (furnace and air), cooling after
MMSE Journal. Open Access www.mmse.xyz

graphitizing annealing. This complicates the machining of castings and does not eliminate the
need to additional heat treatment [5].
More appropriate for these conditions is the method of obtaining bainite structure in cast iron
via isothermal tempering [3]. It enables the formation of bainitic structure without inclusions of
perlite and structurally free ferrite. However, this method requires special equipment and
additional production space to accommodate the quenching baths. The complexity of the
method is also due to maintaining constant bath temperature and high energy costs.
For cast iron, cast in the mold, especially doped, it is possible to obtain the metal substrate
bainite during continuous cooling [6]. The dopants should increase the stability of austenite in
the pearlite region. It is important to understand whether it is possible at conditions of
continuous cooling to obtain the bainite structure in cast iron, alloyed with Nickel, copper and
molybdenum, and how homogeneous the resulting structure and properties could be.
The presence of structural heterogeneity, as well as difference in proportions of phases in the
matrix can significantly affect the mechanical properties of the investigated alloys. It is
necessary to evaluate the degree of influence of these factors on the level of guaranteed
properties of cast irons.
Thus, in this work the main task was to establish the possibility of obtaining of bainite structure
in alloyed Nickel, copper and molybdenum irons, featured in the metal mold during continuous
cooling in air.
This treatment can be carried out with the heating higher A Hc1 and higher A cK1 . Apparently, it makes
no sense to carry out heating in the inter-critical region, because this can lead to increase in
heterogeneity in the matrix of cast iron. In addition, it is important to ensure the stability of the
super cooled austenite in the pearlite region of decay that would be better achieved after heating
above A Kc1 . In this regard, studies were chosen temperature from 870 to 930 0C.
Isothermal hardening machined alloy and, for comparison, non-alloyed high-strength cast irons with
nodular graphite. Samples of unalloyed iron were studied dependence of bainitic structure from the
temperature of isothermal holding. At the same time, the objective was to establish a link between
the original structure of the matrix and the speed and completeness of bainite transformation. The
latter is important in the development of production technologies for the manufacture of castings of
parts of the locking devices from ductile iron in single and metallic forms [6-8].
Temperature of austenitization was 9100C that exceeds 500C for the A cK1 investigated alloy. The
exposure was 15 min, isotherm temperatures: 350, 400 and 4500C. During quenching, the samples
of ferrite and pearlite cast irons were subjected to the same heating in a furnace and simultaneously
transferred into the bath. Exposure in the bath was from 30 to 20 hours. After isothermal holding
the samples were cooled in water.
It is established that at low shutter speeds in the bath, the iron acquires high hardness, due to
presence of a significant amount of martensitic, formed during cooling of the samples to the
temperature isotherms in the water. The transformation of bainite in ferrite iron initially develops
slower than in pearlite, as evidenced by their high hardness (see table 1).
It is discovered, that the bainite transformation starts to develop intensively in the cast irons with
ferrite initial structure after more than a 10-minute exposure. At temperatures of 3500C and 4000C it
almost ends at 15-16 minutes (Fig.1). Cooling bath with a temperature of 3500C leads to the
formation of lower bainitic (Fig. 1, 2), and a temperature of 400 and 450 0C - top. Fine precipitation
of carbides in the structure of samples treated at 450 0C, with the extracts of more than 16 min are
clearly visible (Fig. 3-5).

Table 1. Hardness (HB) high-strength cast iron, casted in a mold, after isothermal hardening.
The
tempe-
rature
of the
isother- 450 400 350
mal
quen-
ching,
o
C
isoth.
holding 30s 50s 100 s 16m 2h 60s 90s 10m 16m 2h 90s 120s 10m 16m 2h
the cast
iron
Source structure of cast iron:
pearlite
512 444 340 321 - - 387 375 321 - 425 402 364 351 351
ferritic 24 18
512 512 512 - 496 496 283 241 532 512 340 283 -
8 7
a) b)
c)
Fig. 1. The effect of time aging at 350 0C for isotherm the structure of ferritic ductile cast iron: )
isoth=2 min.; b) isoth=10 min.; c) isoth=16 min. 800

a) b)
c) d)
Fig. 2. The effect of time aging at 3500C for isotherm the structure of pearlitic ductile cast iron:
) =2 min.; b) =10 min.; c) =16 min.; d) =2 hours
a) b)
c) d)
Fig. 3. The effect of exposure time with isotherm 4000C on the structure of ferritic ductile cast iron:
) =1,5 min; b) =10 min; c - =16 min.; d) =2 hours

a) b)
Fig. 4. The effect of exposure time with isotherm 4000C on the structure of pearlite ductile cast
iron: ) =10 min; b) =10 min.
a) b)
c)
Fig. 5. The influence of exposure time on the isotherm at 4500C the structure of pearlite ductile cast
iron: - =100 sec.; b - =16 min.; c - =2 hours
Studies found that the initial structure of the metallic base of cast iron, cast in the mold, has a
significant influence on kinetic parameters of bainite transformation. In the original ferrite matrix,
the transformation is quicker and more complete than in pearlite. However, the incubation period in
ferrite is more.
Summary. Thus, an efficient way of obtaining Manitou patterns in the economically-alloyed iron
cast in metal mold by continuously cooled air. The proposed technique provides heat treatment
resulting in a rational structure and properties of ductile iron castings for the parts of the locking
devices of oilfield equipment.

References
[1] V.V. Dubrov and others, The use of high-strength cast iron in valve. In proc. High-strength cast
iron with nodular graphite. Kiyev, Naukova Dumka, 1998, pp. 78-81.
[2] A.I. Belyakov, A.A. Belyakov, A.A. Zhukov Isothermal quenching of cast iron with nodular
graphite // Blank production in mechanical engineering, 2008, No. 1, pp. 44-48.
[3] A.I. Belyakov and others. Production of castings from high-strength nodular cast iron. M.,
Mechanical engineering, 2010, p. 712.
[4] I.N. Bogachev, R.I. Mints Cavitation-erosion fracture of cast iron. Sat. Theory and practice of
foundry production, Ural Polytechnic Institute, vol. 89, 1999, pp. 71-78.
[5] L.P. Ushakov Wear-resistant cast iron with spheroidal graphite. M., Mechanical engineering,
2005, 153 p.
[6] R.K. Hasanli, Structure and properties of ductile iron. Baku, Science, 2013, 250 p.
[7] R.K. Hasanli, Peculiarities of structure and phase composition of heat-treated high-strength cast
irons with nodular graphite // Journal of mechanical engineering, 2013, No. 10, pp. 31-33.
[8] N.W. Ismailov, Features of producing engineering castings, using silica sand and bentonite clay
in Azerbaijan // Journal of mechanical engineering 2012, No. 6, pp. 11-14.
[9] E.A. Silva, L.F.V.M. Fernandes, N.A.S. Sampaio, R.B. Ribeiro, J.W.J. Silva, M.S.Pereira
(2016), A Comparison between Dual Phase Steel and Interstitial Free Steel Due To the Springback
Effect. Mechanics, Materials Science & Engineering Journal Vol.4, Magnolithe GmbH, doi:
10.13140/RG.2.1.3749.7205
[10] L. I. fron, D. A. Litvinenko (1994), Obtaining high-strength weldable steels with bainite
structure using thermomechanical treatment, Metal Science and Heat Treatment, Vol. 36, Is. 10,
Springer, doi: 10.1007/BF01398082

Laser Metal Deposition Repair Applications for Ti-6Al-4V Alloy
L. Jyothish Kumar 1, a & C.G. Krishnadas Nair 2
1 doctoral scholar, Jain University, Bangalore 560078

2 professor, research superviser, Chancellor, Jain University, Bangalore 560078
a jyothish@rapitech.co.in
DOI 10.13140/RG.2.2.35949.38889
Keywords: Laser Metal Deposition, Ti-6Al-4V powder and substrate, Taguchi L9 Orthogonal array method, Process
parameters.
ABSTRACT. Laser metal deposition is an additive manufacturing process, which is used to produce functional metal parts
or repair existing parts. This paper focuses on deposition of Ti-6Al-4V material for remanufacturing of existing Ti-6Al-4V
components. Optimization of laser metal deposition process parameters is significant in achieving good metallurgical and
mechanical properties such as fine grain structure and bonding strength for aerospace applications. Taguchis L9 orthogonal
array method has been adopted to optimize the laser power, powder feed rate and scan speed. Analysis of variance
(ANOVA) is used to study the effect of process parameters on the deposit and verification trial experiments were conducted
to ascertain the optimum process parameters performance. Residual stress measurement results revealed that the residual
stress is compressive and significantly higher in optimized test specimen with good bonding strength. The optimized results
shown that enhanced properties in refurbishment of aero engine parts using Ti-6Al-4V powder material.
Introduction: Laser Metal Deposition (LMD) is an additive manufacturing process, which builds 3
dimensional parts directly from CAD data. A high power laser heat source is used to create a melt pool
in the substrate and powder material is fed co-axially in to the melt pool. Due to rapid cooling the
molten pool solidification takes place to produce highly dense metal parts with reduced waste of
material compared to conventional manufacturing process.
[1] LMD is a latest technology, which is used for freeform fabrication and repair of engineering and
aerospace components [2]. Kamran shah et.al [3] have studied the effects of process parameters on
direct laser metal deposition of IN 718 on Ti-6Al-4V substrate by using pulsed laser heat source
parameters. It was found that optimized process parameters like laser power, scanning speed and
powder feed rate resulted in crack free deposition with improved mechanical and metallurgical
properties. Dinda et al. [4] have investigated microstructure analysis and thermal properties of Inconel
625 process with direct metal deposition. In this study Taguchi L9 orthogonal array method was
applied to evaluate the effect of process parameters on the microstructure and mechanical properties of
Inconel 625 material. Ryan Cottam et al. [5] studied the laser cladding of Ti-6Al-4V powder to
understand the effect of laser cladding parameters on the metallurgical properties of the material. It was
observed that microstructure of Ti-6Al-4V deposit in the clad zone with optimized process parameters
was refined and contributed to the good deposition strength. Qun-li et al. [6] have studied direct laser
metal deposition of Inconel-718 and the effects of process parameters on rate of deposition and layer
thickness. It was found that the optimized process parameters lead to directional solidification with fine
martensite microstructure and increased microhardness. R. Keshavamurthy et al. [2] have carried out
process parameters optimization for direct metal deposition of H13 tool steel by using Taguchi
orthogonal array method of design of experiments. The effect of powder feed rate, laser scan speed
and laser power on the hardness of the deposit have been studied. It was found that optimum process
parameters have contributed to the increased hardness of the deposit and the optimised process
parameters were verified from the analysis of variance (ANOVA). Laser Metal Deposition process
includes several process parameters such as laser power, scan speed, beam diameter, powder feed rate,
hatch spacing, layer thickness and scanning orientation.
From the above literature review, it is crucial to optimize these process parameters to achieve the
desired quality characteristics of the deposited materials. In view of above, the objective of the current
study is to optimize the process parameters of laser metal deposition of Ti-6Al-4V powder on Ti-6Al-
4V substrate using Taguchi L9 orthogonal array method to achieve maximum hardness and bonding
strength. Ti-6Al-4V is having high strength to weight ratio widely used in aerospace applications such
as airframe, compressor blades, vanes and discs at elevated temperature.
Details of Experiments: Deposition material: Fig.1 shows the scanning electron microscope (SEM) of
Ti-6Al-4V powder particles used in the current study. As shown in the Fig.1 the powder particles are
spherical in shape and size distribution varies between 44-106 m and the powders produced by gas
atomization process. Fig.2 shows the EDS analysis of elemental composition of Ti-6Al-4V material.
Table-1 shows the chemical composition of Ti-6Al-4V powder material used in the present study.
Fig. 1. Scanning electron micrograph of Ti-6Al-4V powder at 2000 X Magnification.
Fig. 2. SEM image and EDAX pattern of elemental composition.

Table 1. Chemical composition of Ti-6Al-4V powder

Element C O N H Fe Al V Ti
Percentage 0.01 0.063 0.02 0.0045 0.21 6.4 4.0 Balance
Substrate material: The substrate material used in the present study is Ti-6Al-4V plate to deposit Ti-
6Al-4V powder. The chemical composition of Ti-6Al-4V substrate is given in the Table. 2.
Table 2. Chemical composition of Ti-6Al-4V substrate

Element C Al Ti V Fe
Percentage 0.0590 5.6600 90.2100 3.7200 0.1400
Planning of experiments: Using Taguchi method experiments are planned since it is a robust design
method when the process is affected by several process parameters. When compared with traditional
methods of experimental planning, Taguchi method helps in reducing number of experiments, cost and
time. Taguchi suggested orthogonal array method, which gives different combinations of parameters
and their levels for each set of experiment [7, 8]. As per Taguchi orthogonal array method complete
process parameter area is investigated with least number of experiments.
Design of experiments using Taguchi L9 Orthogonal array method: In the present study the best
potential combination of process parameters have been determined by using Taguchi L9 orthogonal
array method. Laser power, scan speed and powder feed rate have been selected as variable input
process parameters and higher hardness as the desired output and quality characteristic. L9 orthogonal
arrays and signal to noise (S/N) ratio are the two important tools used in Taguchi design of experiments
method. The column of L9 orthogonal array represents the process parameters to optimize and the rows
represents the levels of each process parameter. The mean and the variance of the output response at
every parameter setting in L9 orthogonal array are later combined in to a single performance measure
known as S/N ratio and the S/N ratio helps to measure quality characteristics with importance on
variation [9, 10]. Minitab software (Version: 17) was used to calculate the S/N ratio using Taguchi
method. Input process parameters for laser metal deposition of and their levels are shown in table. 3
and experimental plan based on Taguchi L9 orthogonal array method is shown in table. 4.
In the present research work the maximum power efficiency of the Laser Metal Deposition Machine
TRUMPF LASER CELL 1005 is 4000W. We have selected the intermediate Laser Power 2500 W,
Scanning Speed 600mm/min and beam dia of 3 mm. From these parameters we have found the energy
density energy d = 83.33 J/mm2 using equation (1) for good quality of deposition, which is in the
workable range based on review of literature.
60 P
d = J/mm2 (1)
dV
where P is the laser power;

V is the scanning speed or velocity;
D is the laser beam diameter [11].
Using the energy density d = 83.33 J/mm2 we have designed the experiment using Taguchis L9
Orthogonal Array with 3 factors and 3 levels. From the design of experiments result we have selected
the optimum parameters to build the test specimens.
Table 3. Input process parameters and levels.

Level
Sl No. Parameters
Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
1 Laser power (W) 2350 2500 2650

Laser scan speed
2 500 600 700
(mm/min)
Powder feed rate
3 3 4 5
(g/min)
Table 4. Experimental plan based on Taguchi L9 orthogonal array.

Expt. Powder Feed Laser Power Scan Speed
No. Rate (g/min) (W) (mm/min)
1 4 2350 600
2 4 2500 700
3 4 2650 500
4 3 2350 500
5 3 2500 600
6 3 2650 700
7 5 2350 700
8 5 2500 500
9 5 2650 600
Laser Metal Deposition: Laser Metal Deposition of Ti-6Al-4V on Ti-6Al-4V substrate was carried
out using TRUMPF LASER CELL LMD system with 4000W CO2 laser with laser beam diameter of
3mm. The deposition was carried out in argon-controlled atmosphere to avoid oxidation. Test
specimens were prepared with two layer depositions with 1.2 mm layer thickness and 10 x 30 mm size
as shown in Fig.3.

Fig. 3. Ti-6Al-4V deposition on Ti-6Al-4V substrate as per L9 orthogonal array.
After deposition the samples were held in a fixture on SODICK A350 Mark 21 submerge type wire
electric discharge machine (EDM) and cut in transverse direction using brass wire (dia 25m) as a tool
electrode. The sectioned samples were polished with three coarse grits (600, 800 and 1200) and final
polishing media with 0.05 microns alumina powder. The polished Ti-6Al-4V samples were etched
using a mixture of 8 gms KoH (Potassium Hydroxide), 10 ml H2O2 (Hydrogen Peroxide), 60 ml
distilled water and it is immersed for about 20 seconds to reveal the microstructure details.
Microstructure studies were carried out on metallographically polished surfaces using optical
microscope of make: Nikon, Japan and model: Eclipse LV 150. Microhardness tests were conducted
using Vickers microhardness tester of make: CLEMEX, Canada and the indentation was measured
using CLEMEX vision PE image analyzer software. Indentations were made at 5 locations on the
substrate and deposit from the interface, using a load of 100 gms for duration of 10 seconds. Hardness
value of each sample is a result of the average of all five measured readings.
Results and discussions: Microstructure: Fig.4 shows the microstructure of Ti-6Al-4V deposit on Ti-
6Al-4V substrate. The microstructural analysis is the function of combined effect of laser power, scan
speed and powder feed rate, which is depicted by using the series of optical microscope images as
shown in the Fig. 4. All the images are viewed at 200X magnification. It is observed that the
microstructure comprises of combination of acicular phase (martensite) and Widmanstatten structure.
Sample 7 shows that the amount of acicular phase is more when compared to other images, which
have resulted from higher, scan speed; powder feed rate and less laser power. Further, the sample 7
exhibited more hardness as reported in table. 6 due to rapid cooling of the melt pool, which resulted in
formation of acicular , phase and in general produces the martensite microstructure [12]. This
combination is imparting the better cooling effect to have acicular phase (martensite phase). Further,
all the sample reveals least porosities and no evident cracks or incoherence exists.
Hardness: Table. 5 shows the hardness values of Ti-6Al-4V deposit. The minimum and maximum
hardness of the samples obtained are 407.12 and 459.54 HV for the experimental samples 7 & 3
correspondingly. The fine grain size and minimum porosity attributes to the higher hardness and
strength of the material. The presence of interstitial atoms and the density dislocations decides the free
plastic deformation of the material, thereby improving the resistance to plastic deformation, which
leads to higher hardness. [2, 13].
Analysis of S/N ratio: In the current study, hardness was considered as the quality characteristic for
laser metal deposition technology. Higher value of hardness is suitable for deposition of Ti-6Al-4V;
therefore, the concept of larger-the-better is adopted for optimization of process parameters by
Taguchi L9 orthogonal array method.
Table 5. Hardness and S/N values for Taguchi L9 experiments.

Expt. No. Microhardness (HV) S/N ratio
1 407.12 52.1944
2 436.27 52.7951
3 413.47 52.3289
4 420.80 52.4815
5 410.39 52.2639
6 442.11 52.9106
7 459.54 53.2465
8 436.04 52.7905
9 434.22 52.7542
As shown in the above table the best performance of the process is indicated by a higher value of S/N
(Larger is better). Hence, the optimum level of the process parameters is the level of the highest S/N
value.

Fig. 4. Optical micrographs of Ti-6Al-4V deposits as per Taguchis L9 orthogonal array.
(1) 2350 W, 600 mm/min, 4 g/min; (2) 2500 W, 700 mm/min, 4 g/min; (3) 2650 W, 500 mm/min, 4 g/min; (4) 2350 W, 500
mm/min, 3 g/min; (5) 2500 W, 600 mm/min, 3 g/min; (6) 2650 W, 700 mm/min, 3 g/min; (7) 2350 W, 700 mm/min, 5
g/min; (8) 2350 W, 500 mm/min, 5 g/min; (9) 2650 W, 600mm/min, 5 g/min.
Powder feed rate: The effect of powder feed rate on hardness is attributed from the Fig.5 that the S/N
ratio is decreasing with increase in powder feed rate up to 4 g/min and then S/N ratio is increasing with
the further increase in powder feed rate at 5 g/min. Hence the optimum powder feed rate is 5 g/min.
Laser power: The effect of laser power on hardness is as shown in the Fig5. It is observed that the S/N
ratio is increasing with increase in laser power. This shows that the optimum laser power is 2650 W.
Scanning speed: The effect of laser scanning speed on hardness is shown in the Fig.5. It is observed
that S/N ratio is increasing with increase in scanning speed. This shows that the optimum scan speed is
700 mm/min.
Based on the analysis of the S/N ratio, the optimized process parameters for achieving maximum
hardness are powder feed rate: 5 g/min, laser power: 2650 W, Laser scanning speed: 700 mm/min.
Main Effects Plot (data means) for SN ratios

Powder feed rate (g/min) Laser power (W)
53.0
52.8
52.6
Mean of SN ratios
52.4
3 4 5 2350 2500 2650
Scanning speed (mm/min)
53.0
52.8
52.6
52.4
500 600 700
Signal-to-noise: Larger is better
Fig. 5. Main Effects Plot for SN ratios.

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA): The process parameters importance has been studied by analysis of
variance for S/N ratio. Based on analysis of variance, each parameter contribution has been quantified
under column F of Table. 6. From table 6 it clearly reveals that the F value for scan speed is very high
when compared to laser power and powder feed rate. This is a clear indication that the influence of
scan speed is significantly larger than the influence of laser power and powder feed rate for achieving
higher hardness.
Table 6. Analysis of variance for S/N ratio

Source Degrees of Sum of Mean square F ratio P ratio
freedom squares (F) (P)
(DOF)
Powder feed 2 0.36984 0.19842 61.42 0.016
rate
Laser power 2 0.00346 0.00173 0.54 0.651
Scan speed 2 0.55588 0.27794 86.04 0.011
Error 2 0.00646 0.00323

Total 8 0.96264
Optimized process parameter verification test: A design of experiments verification test has been
carried out for laser metal deposition of two layers of Ti6Al4V on Ti6Al4V substrate under optimized
process parameters to study the hardness. The obtained deposition hardness under optimized condition
is 461.22 HV as shown in table. 7. It is noticed that the hardness value of the optimized condition is
considerably higher than that of the deposition experiments carried out corresponding to L9 orthogonal
array. The optimized sample was deposited using 2650 W laser power, 700 mm/min scan speed and 5
g/min powder feed rate. It clearly reveals that fine and consistent martensite microstructure may
attributes to the higher hardness as shown in Fig. 6.
Table 7.Optimized process parameters and Hardness.

Expt. No. Laser Powder flow Laser scan speed Hardness (HV)
Power (W) rate (g/min) (mm/min)
1 2650 5 700 461.22

Fig. 6. Optical micrograph of Ti-6Al-4V deposit under optimum process parameter.
Residual Stresses: Residual stress was measured using X-ray diffraction method. The X-ray
diffraction pattern shown in Fig. 7 (a) & (b) reveals the residual stress result of Ti-6Al-4V deposits.
Residual stress measurement has carried out on L9 test specimen and optimized test specimen of Ti-
6Al-4V deposit. It is observed that the residual stress is compressive in both L9 and optimized Ti-6Al-
4V specimens. The measured residual stress in L9 test specimen is -153.3 21.3 MPa and -277.8
20.2 MPa in optimized test specimen. This shows that the residual stress in optimized Ti-6Al-4V test
specimen is significantly higher with good bonding strength.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 7. Ti-6Al-4V diffraction pattern (a) L9 test specimen 1 (b) optimized test specimen.

Summary. Process parameters for laser metal deposition of Ti-6Al-4V were optimized using Taguchi
L9 orthogonal array method. The optimum process parameters are found to be laser power: 2650 W,
powder feed rate: 5 g/min and scan speed: 700 mm/min. The optimum process parameters have been
confirmed by the verification experiment conducted. X-ray Diffraction residual stress studies clearly
reveal that the residual stress is compressive and significantly higher in parts deposited under optimum
laser power, laser scan speed and powder feed rate. The obtained results from the optimization of
process parameters could be directly used to repair complex aero engine Ti-6Al-4V parts.
References
[1] Imran M.K., Masood S., Brandt M., Bhattacharya S., Mazumder J., Parametric investigation of
diode and CO2 laser in direct metal deposition of H13 tool steel on copper substrate. World Academy
of Science and Technology 2011, 79, 437- 442
[2] R. Keshavamurthy, Padmanav Rashmirathi, A.R. Vinod, C.K. Srinivasa, P.V. Shashikumar,
Optimisation of process parameters for direct metal deposition of H13 tool steel. Advanced Materials
Manufacturing & Characterisation 2013, Volume 3 Issue 2 (2013), doi: 10.11127/ijammc.2013.07.
[3] Kamran Shah, Izhar Ul Haq, Shaukat Ali Shah, Farid Ullah Khan, Muhammad Tahir Khan,
Sikander Khan, Experimental study of direct metal deposition of Ti-6Al-4V and Inconel 718 by using
pulsed parameters, The Scientific World Journal, Volume 2014, doi: 10.1155/2014/841549
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Statistical Study of Corrosion Types in Constructions in South Region of Rio De

Janeiro - Brazil
Carolina Lacerda da Cruz1, Thalita Gonalves de Lima1, Nilo Antnio S. Sampaio1,2, Jos Wilson
de Jesus Silva1,3
1 Asociao Educacional Dom Bosco, AEDB, Resende, RJ, Brazil

2 Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, UERJ, Resende, RJ, Brazil
3 Centro Universitrio Teresa Dvila, UNIFATEA, Lorena, SP, Brazil
DOI 10.13140/RG.2.2.29609.60004
Keywords: corrosion, construction, corrosion inhibitors, corrosion protection, corrosion in south region.
ABSTRACT. Some of the most difficult and troubling problems encountered in construction are those caused by
corrosive processes. The corrosion processes are constituted by some material degradation, generally metallic material,
by means of chemical or electrochemical actions of environment in which the material are and can or cannot be combined
with mechanical stress. Corrosion is present in the materials in general. Their deterioration is caused by such physical-
chemical interaction between the material and the corrosive environment where it causes major problems in several
activities. In order to prevent material losses, anticorrosive techniques are used which include coatings, medium
modification techniques, anodic and cathodic protection, and corrosion inhibitors such as the organic compounds use.
This article analyses the statistical study of corrosion types in construction in south region of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
Introduction. The financial losses by processes of degradation and structures corrosion of metal and
concrete in an engineering work are generally very high. Surveys have found that the annual corrosion
cost in the United States is about 3.1% of GDP, amounting to about 276 billion [1]. While in Brazil,
this cost is about 3.5% of GDP.
Corrosion may be defined as a deterioration process of the material that produces harmful and
undesirable changes in the structural elements, since the corrosion product is an element different of
the original material, making the alloy loses its essential qualities, (such as mechanical strength,
elasticity, ductility, aesthetics) [2].
Corrosion can focus on several materials types, whether metallic or non-metallic and root causes of
this deterioration are different taking into account the material and the medium. All these processes
are of spontaneous nature, which occur with greater or lesser speed and intensity. The speed at which
corrosion proceeds is given by the total mass of material removed in a given area during a given time.
Some factors help to influence this speed, such as corrosive medium, temperature and speed effect
[3].
There are some protection mechanisms whose purpose is to increase the structure life. Corrosion
resistance increase by means of anticorrosive protection practices adopted in the design phase is one
of the most important control forms. This resistance increase can be achieved by adopting practices
that minimize the corrosion problems or using anticorrosive protection techniques [4].
For metal structures protection it is traditional to use organic paints, metallic and non-metallic
coatings, which are usually effective against the corrosion process however this effectiveness will
depend on some factors such as application method, environment, exposure time to weather and more.
For reinforced concrete structures in which their physical properties are result from combination of
resistance to compression of concrete itself and high tensile strength which is given to the steel.
Concrete consists of cement, aggregates, water and additives, therefore the defects of each of these

materials may influence unfavorably on the most important characteristics of the concrete:
mechanical strength, stability and durability. These three characteristics are related to a number of
factors among which we highlight the homogeneity and compactness [5].
In addition to structural advantages that result from combination of both materials, the concrete acts
as a physical barrier of reinforcement in relation to environment and have chemical characteristics
that provide the steel excellent corrosion protection. However, in the course of time it was proved
that reinforced concrete also deteriorated by both degradation process of concrete itself and by
corrosion of its armor.
If the concrete coating on the armor is not maintained in good condition one cannot expect a good
performance of reinforced concrete, Fig. 1. Its deterioration may be caused by cracks, mechanical
erosion, freezing, acid attack, attack by sulfates, alkali-aggregate reaction, biological attack,
desalination [6].
Due to the environment in which it will exercise its activity, a structure can require chemical and
physical protection, produced by a good compact and waterproof coating. Furthermore, a structure
may require additional protections, which can act directly on steel, as in the case of cathodic
protection, electroplating and coating with synthetic resins or on the concrete, as with the corrosion
inhibitors and the resin or asphaltic paints [7].
Fig. 1. Steel structure.
Materials and methods. For metallographic analysis, cylindrical samples of CA 50 rebar were used.
The sample was mechanically polished using SiC paper (80-1200). The electrochemical study was
initiated by analyzing potential measurements on open circuit. For this purpose it was used a
conventional thermostated glass cell, Fig. 2, and a reference electrode of Ag/AgCl KCl sat. As
electrolyte, it was prepared an aqueous solution from sodium chloride (NaCl) 2.0 and 4.0 g/L. The
equipment used was an AUTOLAB coupled with a computer for control and data processing, Fig. 3.
Prior to each measurement the alloy surface had to be finely polished, free of scratches when viewed
under a microscope.
The electrochemical cell used in the test is composed of three electrodes: the polished steel surface
was the working electrode; as an auxiliary electrode it was used a Pt mesh; as a reference electrode
the Ag|AgCl|KClsat. and a beaker where sodium chloride is placed [8].
The equipment used in the experiment was a potentiostat/galvanostat AUTOLAB (brand: Eco Chemie
B.V., Utrecht, Netherlands, model PGSTAT302). The samples were previously sanded with sandpaper
SiC immediately before the test then being washed with distilled water and then were immersed in
the test solution, thereby initiating polarization [9]. The tests were repeated twice per solution.
Fig. 2. Conventional electrochemical thermostatically cell of borosilicate glass.
Fig. 3. AUTOLAB coupled to a computer.
Results and discussion. In this topic it is presented and discussed the experimental results of
corrosion tests of the materials described in this work.
In the figure below (Fig. 4), the curve representing the open circuit potential [10] is presented as a
function of time for the steel samples studied and tested in a NaCl solution, 2.0 and 4.0 g/L at room
temperature. The open circuit potential evaluation provides a comparison of corrosive material in
different media, so that the higher the value of this potential, the greater its corrosion resistance in the
medium considered. It is emphasized that this potential is a thermodynamic factor and is related to
the tendency for corrosion to occur, i.e. with the Gibbs free energy.

According to figures (Fig. 5 and 6), a typical active state behavior was observed by the potential
descending with time. Variation in solution concentration produced a significant difference (~ 0.08
V) between the two measurements when the OCP value approaches the steady state, indicating that
the change in chloride ions concentration turns the medium more oxidizing.
Fig. 4. OCP curves for CA-50 steel in two concentrations of chloride ions.
-0,3
E (v) vs. Ag|AgCl|KClsat.
NaCl 2,0 g/L

-0,4 NaCl 4,0 g/L
-0,5
-0,6
-0,7
-0,8
-0,9
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2
-2
Log (I / A cm )
Fig. 5. Tafel curves obtained after 3 immersion hours of steel in chloride medium.
1,2
E (v) vs. Ag|AgCl|KClsat.
0,9 Tafel
NaCl 2,0 g/L
Curva CP
0,6
0,3
0,0
-0,3
-0,6
-0,9
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2
-2
Log (I / A cm )
Fig. 6. Comparison between potentiodynamic profiles of a Tafel curve and a CP curve obtained in
NaCl 2.0 g/L medium.
For this type of steel, the electrochemical mechanism of corrosion process originates in the form of

localized corrosion (crevice) usually associated with electrolyte stagnation conditions in micro-
environments where there is hindrance or difficulty to the spread of chemical species.
The solution within the crack is deoxygenated due to initial corrosion that consumes, through cathodic
process, the oxygen in solution: O2 + 2H2O + 4e 4OH-. The oxygen diffusion rate into the crack is
not fast enough to replenish the oxygen consumed in the cathodic process. The cathodic process
moves out of the crack where oxygen is plentiful. There is separation of anodic and cathodic regions.
The ferrous ions are formed within the crack (Fe Fe ++ + 2e-) and hydroxyls in oxygenated regions.
The ferrous ions undergo hydrolysis (Fe ++ + H2O Fe (OH) + + H+) and decrease the pH within the
crack. Due to the current flow and mass transport phenomena, aggressive ions migrate under the
influence of electrostatic field into the crack, and are concentrated there, causing great changes in
chemical conditions.
As a result there is the iron hydroxide (II), white color, which due to the oxidation process is turned
slowly into iron hydroxide (III), which has a brown-orange coloration according to the iron content
(III) .When this type of coloring appears in structures (concrete and steel), it indicates that they are
suffering corrosion. The oxidized iron assumes that color and begins to crumble. In the affected areas,
the metal will lose density and, if the process is not contained, it can reach the full degradation.
The curve corresponding to the steel in NaCl 2.0 g/L, Fig. 5, was overlapped with the anode region
of a CP curve obtained under the same experimental conditions as Fig. 6, to verify the repeatability
in the current response during the scan of potentials of electroactive area and also to illustrate the
active steel behavior in chloride medium within a wide potentials range, shown by the presence of
positive hysteresis and the absence of a passivation region in the reverse scan, showing a generalized
corrosion process. In the investigated pH range (between 5.0 and 6.0 before and after corrosion tests)
the anodic reactions involve the formation of complex ions of Fe (II) and Fe (III) and possible
precipitation Fe(III) hydroxide.
Statistical study. Corrosion in civil construction is directly linked to its increase. The civil
construction industry in Brazil grew above GDP in the period 2010-2013, Fig. 7. The civil
construction is a featured segment in south economy in Rio de Janeiro, being responsible for almost
25% of new jobs in recent years [11].
Fig. 7. Civil Construction in Brazil grew above the GDP in the period 2010 to 2013.
This growth was due to the need for improvements in the country boosted, for example, by the World

Cup, 2016 Olympics in Rio de Janeiro with the need for Brazil in infrastructure, the Accelerated
Program for Growth (PAC, in Portuguese) and the program called "My house, my Life" (Minha Casa,
Minha vida - in Portuguese) sponsored by a federal bank.
The State Government, by means of the Department of Highways and Roads (DER, in Portuguese),
made in the last two years important interventions on state roads which have improved the population
routine. Counties of state south were Rio Claro, Miguel Pereira and Barra do Pirai that have received
improvements to their roads (paving, drainage and coasting building and extending bridges). This
year, it was given to paving the RJ-151, between Visconde de Mau and Campo Alegre. With
investments of US$ 2.25 million, the work included paving, drainage, earthworks, rock blasting and
track enlargement of the RJ-151, and an extension of 8.4 km. Even with Brazilian economy
slowdown, the companies located in the South of Rio de Janeiro - region integrated by counties like
Resende, Itatiaia, Porto Real and Volta Redonda - proceeding with their investment plans of more
than US$ 3.75 billion for the period 2010-2016. It is projects like the new Nissan plant in Resende,
of US$ 0.8 billion, and the expansion of the plant of PSA Peugeot Citron, in Porto Real, US$ 1.16
billion. The number does not consider the works of Angra 3, which has received US$ 0.88 billion this
year. The construction industry is one of the sectors of the economy of most impact on employment
and population welfare. Investments in infrastructure and housing demand large volumes of steel
(rebar for reinforced concrete CA60, CA50 and CA25, latticework frames, brackets, etc.)
The civil construction shows its importance also in the economic and social aspect. Thus, the amounts
of activities are part of the construction production cycle that serves the consumer goods and services
for other sectors. In addition, the civil construction, from the social point of view, is a great capacity
to generate jobs and labor, direct labor and indirect absorption mainly little and unskilled. The
performance of construction is influenced directly and strongly by the performance of the economy,
Figs. 8 to 15 [12-15].
Fig. 8. Growth (%) of establishments number by sectors of IBGE (Brazilian Institute of Geography
and Statistics, in Portuguese) in the Mid-Paraba region of Rio de Janeiro (2011).

Fig. 9. Growth of Establishments number by IBGE Sectors in the South Central Region of the State
of Rio de Janeiro (2011).
Fig. 10. Growth (%) of Establishments Number by IBGE sectors in the Costa Verde region of Rio de
Janeiro State (2011).
300%
250%
200%
150%
100%
50%
00%
Porto Real
Itatiaia
Pinheiral
Resende
Quatis
Volta Redonda
Barra Mansa
Rio Claro
Pira
Valena
Rio das Flores
Trs Rios
Sapucaia
Barra do Pira
Paty do Alferes
Paraba do Sul
Engenheiro Paulo de Frontin
Mendes
Vassouras
Miguel Pereira
Paraty
Angra dos Reis
Mangaratiba
Areal
-50%
Comendador Levy Gasparian
-100%
Fig. 11. Establishment numbers in some cities in the southern state.

Fig. 12. Distribution (%) of Employees Number by Counties of Fluminense South Central Region of
Rio de Janeiro State / IBGE Sectors (2011).
Fig. 13. Distribution (%) of Employees Number by Counties of Middle Paraiba Region of Rio de
Janeiro State / IBGE Sectors (2011).
Fig. 14. Distribution (%) of Employees Number by Counties in Costa Verde region in Rio de Janeiro
State / IBGE Sectors (2011).

0,25
0,2
0,15
0,1
0,05
0
Fig. 15. Numbers of employees in some cities in the southern state.
Summary. With the end of the work, it is presented by means of researches and tests, the causes of
corrosion of the studied area, which are directly influenced by the location in which the buildings are,
influenced by salt spray and different climates present throughout southern Rio de Janeiro. With the
construction boom, it tends to be more careful with concrete for durability achieve as much as
possible.
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Influence of the Composition of (TlGaS2)1-(TlInSe2)x Alloys on Their Physical

Properties
Mustafaeva S.N.1,a, Jafarova S.G. 1, Kerimova E.M. 1, Gasanov N.Z. 1, Asadov S.M.2
1 Institute of Physics, National Academy of Sciences of Azerbaijan, AZ1143, G. Javid Pr., 131, Baku, Azerbaijan
2 Institute of Catalysis and Inorganic Chemistry, National Academy of Sciences of Azerbaijan, AZ1143, G. Javid Pr.,
113, Baku, Azerbaijan
a solmust@gmail.com
DOI 10.13140/RG.2.2.29609.600
Keywords: TlGaS2, TlInSe2, alloys physical properties, roentgensensitivity, photoresistors.
ABSTRACT. The single crystals of (TlGaS2)1-(TlInSe2) ( = 00,5) solid solutions have been grown up. The
photoelectric, roentgendosimetric, dielectric and optical characteristics of the (TlGaS 2)1-(TlInSe2) solid solutions with
various compositions have been determined. The maximum and spectral range of photosensitivity were found to redshift
as x increases from 0 to 0.5. Both the photo- and roentgensensitivity of the solid solutions are higher than those of pure
TlGaS2. The nature of dielectric losses and the hopping mechanism of charge transport in the (TlGaS2)1-(TlInSe2) solid
solutions were established from the experimental results on high-frequency dielectric measurements. The temperature
dependences of exciton peak position for various compositions (x = 0-0.3) are investigated in 77-180 K temperature
interval. It was established that with increasing x in (TlGaS2)1-(TlInSe2) solid solutions the width of their forbidden gap
decreases.
PACS: 71.20.Nr; 71.35.Cc; 72.15.Rn; 72.20.Ee; 72.20.Jv; 72.30.+q; 72.40.+w; 73.20.At
Introduction. Ternary layer-chain TlGaS2 and TlInSe2 single crystals exhibit high photo- and
roentgensensitivity making them well-suited for photoresistors and roentgendetectors [1-4]. The
study of physical properties of the TlGaS2, TlInSe2 compounds and solid solutions on their base are
very important for establishing the relations between their compositions and properties. This offers
the possibility of controlling the band gap, energy position of emission bands and electrical
conductivity of such semiconductors. In [5-7] the results of investigation of ac electric and dielectric
properties of TlGaS2, TlInSe2 and diluted (TlGaS2)1-(TlInSe2) solid solutions (x = 0.005 and 0.02)
are given.
The purpose of present work was to investigate the influence of (TlGaS2)1-(TlInSe2) solid solutions
compositions (x = 0-0.5) on their photo- and roentgensensitivity, ac electric, dielectric and optical
properties.
Experiment. The synthesis of (TlGaS2)1-(TlInSe2) solid solutions was carried out in an ampule
evacuated to pressure 10-3 Pa. The ampule was fabricated from a fused silica tube. In this case,
(TlGaS2)1-(TlInSe2) samples were prepared through the interaction of initial components (TlGaS2
and TlInSe2). In order to prevent the ampule filled with reactants from explosion, the furnace
temperature was raised to the melting temperature of selenium (T = 493 K) and the ampule was held
at this temperature for 3h. Then, the furnace temperature was raised to T = 1080 K at a rate of 50 K/h
and the ampule was held at this temperature for 4 h, after which it was cooled to 300 K at a rate of 20
K/h. Phase purity of (TlGaS2)1-(TlInSe2) was established by differential thermal analysis and
powder X-ray diffraction. Each sample was used as the charge for Bridgman crystal growth. The
crystal data for (TlGaS2)1-(TlInSe2) are presented in the Table 1.

Table 1. Crystal data for TlGaS2 and (TlGaS2)1-(TlInSe2).

Solid solution () b() c() , deg Z Sp.gr.
composition
TlGaS2 10.40 10.40 15.17 100.06 16 P21/n
(TlGaS2)0.9(TlInSe2)0.1 10.40 10.40 15.18 100.06 16 P21/n
(TlGaS2)0.8(TlInSe2)0.2 10.41 10.41 15.18 100.06 16 P21/n
(TlGaS2)0.7(TlInSe2)0.3 10.43 10.43 15.181 100.06 16 P21/n
(TlGaS2)0.6(TlInSe2)0.4 10.435 10.435 15.20 100.06 16 P21/n
(TlGaS2)0.5(TlInSe2)0.5 10.452 10.452 15.245 100.06 16 P21/n
The spectral characteristics were recorded with a GIBI-TIBI potentiometer; the samples were
illuminated with a 400-W incandescent lamp through a DMR-4 monochromator.
In roentgendosimetry measurements, we used a URS-55 X-ray generator. The variation in sample
resistance under X-ray irradiation was followed with an R-4053 bridge. X-ray dose rates were
measured with a DRGZ-02 dosimeter.
Measurements of the dielectric properties of (TlGaS2)1-(TlInSe2) (x = 0.1; 0.2) single crystals were
performed at fixed frequencies in the range 51043.4107 Hz by the resonant method using a TESLA
BM560 Qmeter. The single-crystal samples for dielectric measurements had the form of planar
capacitors normal to the C- axis of the crystals, with silver-paster electrodes. The thickness of the
crystal samples was 90120 m, and the area of the capacitor plates was 810-2210-1 cm2. All
dielectric measurements were performed at T = 300 K. The accuracy in determining the resonance
capacitance and the quality factor Q=1/tan of the measuring circuit was limited by errors related to
the resolution of the device readings. The accuracy of the capacitor graduation was 0.1 pF. The
reproducibility of the resonance position was 0.2 pF in capacitance and (1.01.5) scale divisions
in quality factor. The largest deviations were 34% in and 7% in tan .
Optical absorption spectra were measured using samples in the form of platelets 10100 m thick,
cleaved from the single-crystal ingots. Light was incident along the normal to the layers of the
samples, that is, along the crystallographic axis C of the crystals. Optical transmission spectra were
measured as functions of temperature using an experimental setup built around a KSVU-6M system
and UTREKS helium cryostat, which ensured temperature stabilization with an accuracy of 0.01
K. The setup included an MDR-6 double monochromator and FEU-100 photomultiplier tube. The
spectral resolution of the experimental configuration was = 2 .
Results and discussion. We measured the spectral dependences of photoconductivity and
photosensitivity Rd/Rph (Rd is the dark resistance, and Rph is the resistance of the sample under above-
gap illumination) at a steady illumination, as well as the roentgensensitivity and other photoelectric
parameters. Table 2 and fig.1 give the photoelectric properties of the (TlGaS2)1-(TlInSe2) solid
solutions.

Table 2. Photoelectric and roentgendosimetric characteristics of the (TlGaS2)1-(TlInSe2) solid

solutions.
Solid solution composition max, Rd, Ohm Rd/Rph K, min/R
m at 200 lx
TlGaS2 0.46-0.57 (3-5)1010 5-8 0.063-0.159
(TlGaS2)0.9(TlInSe2)0.1 0.50-0.62 (1-2)1010 10-25 0.075-0.178
(TlGaS2)0.8(TlInSe2)0.2 0.55-0.66 (3-4)109 15-30 0.089-0.198
(TlGaS2)0.7(TlInSe2)0.3 0.59-0.71 (2-3)108 21-37 0.098-0.213
(TlGaS2)0.6(TlInSe2)0.4 0.64-0.76 (1-2)107 23-42 0.107-0.219
(TlGaS2)0.5(TlInSe2)0.5 0.69-0.81 (3-5)106 25-46 0.142-0.252
From fig. 1 one can see, that the photosensitivity maximum (max) linearly shifts from 0.50 to 0.73
m as x increases from 0 to 0.5. This shift is associated with a decrease in the band gap with increasing
x. Increasing x leads to a redshift of the sensitivity range and a considerable rise in Rd/Rph at 200 lx.
For example, the Rd/Rph of (TlGaS2)0.5(TlInSe2)0.5 is 5 to 6 times greater than that of pure TlGaS2
(table 2). The rise in Rd/Rph with increasing x is apparently related to an increase in both the lifetime
and mobility of the photogenerated carriers.
Fig. 1. Composition dependence of the photosensitivity maximum in (TlGaS2)1-(TlInSe2) solid solutions.
Roengenosensitivity K of (TlGaS2)1-(TlInSe2) was characterized by relative change in conductivity

per unit dose rate,
E ,0
K (1)
0 E
where 0 is the conductivity of the unirradiated crystal;

E,0 = E 0 is the change in the conductivity under X-ray irradiation with dose rate E
(R/min).

Table 2 lists K values at accelerating voltages from 25 to 30 keV and dose rates from 0.75 to
10 R/min. One can see that the K of (TlGaS2)1-(TlInSe2) solid solutions exceeds that of pure
TlGaS2. As the TlInSe2 content increases, K rises to 0.1420.252 min/R at x = 0.5.
We measured also the electric capacitance of (TlGaS2)0.9(TlInSe2)0.1 and (TlGaS2)0.8(TlInSe2)0.2
samples in the frequency range 51043.4107 Hz. Using the measured capacities of these samples,
we calculate the permittivity at different frequencies. The values of (TlGaS2)1-(TlInSe2) single
crystals vary from 9.5 to 12.7 for x = 0.1 and from 9.8 to 11.6 for x = 0.2 over the entire frequency
range studied, with no significant dispersion (the of TlGaS2 single crystal, as it was shown in [5],
varies from 26 to 30 at f = 51043107 Hz).
In contrast to what was reported for TlGaS2 [5], the frequency dependences of the loss tangent for the
(TlGaS2)1-(TlInSe2) (x = 0.1; 0.2) single crystals have maxima, which points to relaxation losses
[8].
The ac-conductivity of investigated samples varies as f 0.8 at f = 51042106 Hz for x = 0.1 and at
f = 51046106 Hz for x = 0.2. At more high frequencies ac(f) dependence of these crystals was
superlinear (~f 1.4).
The ac~ f 0.8-dependence indicates that the mechanism of charge transport is hopping over localized
states near the Fermi level [9].

4
3
ac ( f ) e 2 kTN F2 a 5 f ln ph (2)
96 f
where e is the elementary charge;

k is the Boltzmann constant;
NF is the density of localized states near the Fermi level;
a = 1/ is the localization length, is the decay parameter of the wave function of a localized
charge carrier, ~ e-r;
ph is the phonon frequency.
Using expression (2), we can calculate the density of states at the Fermi level from the measured
values of the conductivity ac(f). Calculated values of NF for (TlGaS2)1-(TlInSe2) solid solutions (x =
0.1; 0.2) single crystals were given in Table 3 (localization radius is chosen as 14 , in analogy with
the TlGaS2 single crystal [5]).
Table 3. Parameters of (TlGaS2)1-(TlInSe2) single crystals obtained from high- frequency dielectric
measurements.
Crystal composition NF, eV-1cm-3 , s R, Nt, cm-3
TlGaS2 2.11018 210-6 103 4.21017
(TlGaS2)0.9(TlInSe2)0.1 6.81018 9.810-7 98 5.11017
(TlGaS2)0.8(TlInSe2)0.2 7.71018 3.310-7 90 6.51017
According to the theory of hopping conduction we calculate the mean hop distance (R) and mean hop
time () in an applied ac-electric field using the formula [9]:

1 ph exp 2 R (3)
where R is the average hopping distance.
1 ph
R ln (4)
2 f
These values also are presented in the table 3.

Knowing NF and R from [9]:
4 3 E
R NF 1 (5)
3 2
We estimate energetic scattering of trap states near the Fermi level (E): E = 0.075 eV for x = 0.1
and 0.085 eV for x = 0.2. Evaluated concentrations of deep traps determining the ac-conductivity of
(TlGaS2)1-(TlInSe2) single crystals ( N t N F E ) are given in last column of the table 3. It is seen
from the table 3 that with increasing of x from 0 to 0.2 in (TlGaS2)1-(TlInSe2) single crystals the
values of NF and Nt increased, but R decreased.
Optical properties of (TlGaS2)1-(TlInSe2) (x = 00.3) single crystals have been studied in 77180 K
temperature interval. The thicknesses of crystals under study were 2050 m. Light was incident on
the crystals in direction parallel to their crystallographic axis C.
The present data on the optical properties of the (TlGaS2)1-(TlInSe2) demonstrate that, at
temperatures from 77 to 180 K crystals have an absorption band near fundamental absorption edge,
which is due to transitions to a direct exciton state. We examined the temperature dependence of the
energy position of the exciton peak for (TlGaS2)1-(TlInSe2) crystals in the temperature range 77
180 K (fig. 2). It is seen that the peak position of the exciton band of (TlGaS 2)1-(TlInSe2) solid
solutions has a positive temperature coefficient. Given that the exciton energy is a weak function of
temperature, this indicates that the band gap of (TlGaS2)1-(TlInSe2) crystals increases with
temperature.
Fig. 2. Temperature dependences of the energy position of the exciton peak at the absorption edge of
(TlGaS2)1-(TlInSe2) solid solutions: (1) x = 0; (2) x = 0.02; (3) x = 0.1; (4) x = 0.2; (5) x = 0.3.

The temperature variation of the band gap of semiconductors Eg, is known to be determined by a
combined effect of the thermal expansion of their lattice and electron-phonon interaction.
Semiconductors rarely have a positive temperature coefficient of their band gap. In particular, such
an experimental fact in TlGaS2 and TlGaS2-based single crystals [10, 11] is thought to be caused by
the significant contribution of the thermal expansion of their lattice to the temperature variation of
Eg. Thus, the TlGaS2 and (TlGaS2)1-(TlInSe2) crystals were found to be similar in the structure of
their absorption edge, formed by direct interband transitions.
Summary. The results of photoelectric, roentgenodosimetric and high-frequency dielectric
measurements on obtained (TlGaS2)1-(TlInSe2) solid solutions provided an opportunity to increase
photo- and roentgenosensitivity, to determine the mechanism of dielectric losses and charge transport,
and also to evaluate the density of localized states at the Fermi level, the average time of charge
carrier hopping between localized states, average hopping distance, scattering of trap states near the
Fermi level and concentration of deep traps responsible for ac-conductivity. The temperature
dependences of exciton peak position for (TlGaS 2)1-(TlInSe2) solid solutions were investigated in
77180 K temperature interval. It is established that the edge of optical absorption of these solid
solutions is formed by straight line exciton with the positive temperature coefficient.
References
[1] Mustafaeva, S.N., Kerimova, E.M., Ismailova, P.G., and Asadov, M.M., Roentgendosimetric
characteristics of detectors on the base of TlGaS2Yb single crystals, Fizika, 2004, no. 4, p. 108.
[2] E.M. Kerimova, S.N.Mustafaeva, Yu.G.Asadov, R.N.Kerimov. Synthesis, growth and properties
of TlGa1 xYbxS2 crystals, Crystallography Reports, 2005, V.50, Suppl. 1, P.S122S123.
[3] S.N. Mustafaeva, Photoelectric and x-ray dosimetric properties of TlGaS2Yb single crystals
Physics of the Solid State, 47, 2015 (2005), doi:10.1134/1.2131137
[4] S.N. Mustafaeva, E.M. Kerimova, M.M. Asadov, R.N. Kerimov, Roentgenodetectors on the base
of TlInSe <Li+>, Fizika, Vol. 9, 62 (2003).
[5] S.N. Mustafaeva, Frequency dispersion of dielectric coefficients of layered TlGaS single crystals
Physics of the Solid State, Vol. 46, 1008 (2004).
[6] S.N. Mustafaeva, Frequency dependence of real and imaginary parts of complex dielectric
permittivity and conductivity of TlInSe single crystal at relaxation processes, Journal of
Radioelectronics, 7, 8 (2013).
[7] Mustafaeva, S.N. Frequency effect on the electrical and dielectric properties of
(TlGaS2)1- x(TlInSe2)x (x = 0.005, 0.02) single crystals, Inorg Mater (2010) 46: 108.
doi:10.1134/S0020168510020032
[8] V.V. Pasynkov, V.S. Sorokin, Materials of electron techniques, Sankt-Petersburg- Moscow,
2004.368 p.
[9] N. Mott and E. Davis, Electron processes in noncrystalline materials, Clarendon Press, Oxford,
1971. 472 p.
[10] Mustafaeva, S.N., Asadov, M.M., Kyazimov, S.B. et al. T-x phase diagram of the TlGaS2-TlFeS2
system and band gap of TlGa1 xFexS2 (0 x 0.01) single crystals, Inorg Mater (2012) 48: 984.
doi:10.1134/S0020168512090117.
[11] Mustafaeva, S.N., Asadov, M.M., Kerimova, E.M. et al. Dielectric and optical properties of
TlGa1xErxS2 (x = 0, 0.001, 0.005, 0.01) single crystals, Inorg Mater (2013) 49: 1175.
doi:10.1134/S0020168513120121

Enhancement of Optical and Thermal Properties of - Glycine Single Crystal: in

the Presence of 2-Aminopyridine Potassium Chloride
R. Srineevasan1,, D. Sivavishnu1, K. Arunadevi1, R. Tamilselvi1, J. Johnson1, S. M. Ravi Kumar1
1 P. G & Research Department of Physics, Government Arts College, Tiruvannamalai, 606603, India
rsrinee61@gmail. com
DOI 10.13140/RG.2.2.33138.654
Keywords: slow evaporation, single crystal, NMR spectrum, TGA-DTA, SHG efficiency.
ABSTRACT. In this research paper, an overview of polymorph -form glycine single crystal crystallization in the
presence of 2-aminopyridine potassium chloride as an additive at an ambient temperature by slow evaporation solution
growth technique (SEST) has been presented. FTIR and NMR studies confirm the presence of functional groups in the
grown crystal. In the UVVisible NIR optical absorption spectral studies from 200 nm to 900 nm, the observed 0%
absorption with lower cutoff wave length at 240 nm and high band gap (5. 5eV) enabled enhanced linear optical properties
. Powder XRD study confirms crystalline nature of the grown -glycine crystal. The single crystal XRD study shows that
the grown crystal possesses hexagonal structure and belongs to space group P31 with the cell parameters a=7. 09 ; b=7.
09; c=5. 52 ; = = 90; and = 10. Thermal studies have been carried out to identify the elevated thermal stability
and decomposition temperature of the grown sample. Dielectric studies of as grown -glycine crystal exhibit low dielectric
constant at higher frequencies, which is most essential parameters for nonlinear optical applications. Enhanced SHG
efficiency of the grown crystal was confirmed by the Kurtz powder technique using Nd:YAG laser and found 1. 6 times
greater than that of inorganic standard potassium dihydrogen phosphate.
1. Introduction. Highly polarizable conjugated system of organic molecule possesses non-centro

symmetry structure and the inorganic molecule (anion), linking through hydrogen bond with organic
molecule (cation) yields strong mechanical and high thermal stability [1, 2]. Molecular charge transfer
induced in semiorganic complex by delocalized electron, such that moving between electron donor
and electron acceptor which are in opposite sides of the molecules [3, 4]. In the base acid interaction
of organic and inorganic molecules, there is a high polarizable cation derived from aromatic nitro
systems, linked to the polarizable anion of inorganic molecules through hydrogen bond network
yields a noncentrosymmetric structural systems and this hydrogen bonding energy between organic
and inorganic molecules made the dipole moment in parallel fashion ensures the increase of second
harmonic generation activity [5]. The structures of 2-aminopyridine complexes have already been
studied by Chao and his co-workers [6]. In recent years metal organic complexes have been played
reasonable attention in advancement of technology [2,7]. Growth of 2-aminopyridine complex
crystals is widely used in the rapid advancement in technology, such as ultra-fast phenomena, optical
communication and optical storage devices , frequency doublers and optical modulators [8]. Optical
properties of 2-aminopyridine complexes and their suitability for optoelectronic devices have been
reported [9-14]. Metal organic nonlinear optical crystals possess good second harmonic generation
efficiency, hence rich demand in optical storage devices, color display units and optical
communication systems [7]. Recent research focus is on designing of new materials capable of
attaining SHG processes by strong interaction with an oscillating field of light. Amino acids with
ionic salt complex crystals have been investigated and recognized as materials having good nonlinear
optical properties [1,3,15-17]. In this present work, synthesis and crystallization of glycine into -
form glycine in the presence of aqueous solution 2-aminopyridine potassium chloride and their
suitability for device fabrication with various enhanced optical and thermal properties are reported.
2. Experimental Procedure

2. 1 Material synthesis
The title compound was synthesized by taking analytical grade glycine, 2-aminopyridine and
potassium chloride in the stoichiometric ratio (1:1:1) with Millipore water of resistivity 18. 2 mega-
ohm. cm-1 as a solvent.
In this synthesis, protonation of nitrogen in pyridine ring facilitates hydrogen bonding interaction
between potassium chloride and glycine such that 2-aminopyridine is linked to the metal K+ ion
through pyridine ring nitrogen, rather than amino group nitrogen leaving (Cl)- ion [18].
C5 H6 N2 + KCl + NH2 CH2 COOH [(K+) + C5H6N2 COOCH2 NH2 (Cl)]
[(2-aminopyridine) + (potassium chloride) + (glycine)] [( -glycine crystal)]
Amino group hydrogen in 2-aminopyridine coordinates through hydrogen bond with carboxylic
groups of monoprotonated glycinium ion. Stacking of - glycine crystal one over the other is shown
in figure 1.
Fig. 1. Scheme of as grown -glycine crystal.
2. 2 Solubility study of -glycine in the presence of 2-aminopyridine potassium chloride

Solubility is an important parameter, which dictates the crystal growth process. The solubilities of the
title compound in aqueous medium were estimated in the temperature range between 25 and 50C.
Neither a flat nor a steep solubility curve and less viscous solution enabling the faster transfer of the
growth units by diffusion of the title compound, enables the growth of bulk crystals from solution.
Variations in solubility at different temperatures is plotted in figure 2. The moderate variations in
solubility indicate the reasonable growth rate of title compound along all crystallographic directions.

20
2-APKCG
18
16
Solubility (g/100 ml)

14
12
10
25 30 35 40 45 50
0
Temperature ( C)
Fig. 2. Solubility curve of title compound at different temperatures.
2. 3 Crystal Growth
The prepared mother solution was stirred vigorously for 4h using magnetic stirrer. High degree of
purification of synthesized salt was achieved by successive recrystallization process. Synthesized
saturated solution was filtered using filter paper of micron pore size. The filtered solution was pored
in different petri dishes and covered with porous paper for slow evaporation. After a time span of 15
days, quality crystals of average size 13mm x 12mm x 3mm were harvested. The as grown crystal is
shown in figure 3.
Fig. 3. As- grown -glycine crystal.
3. Results and discussion

The as grown -glycine crystal was subjected to FTIR analysis using PERKIN ELMER SPECTRUM
RX1 Fourier Transform infrared spectrometer. 1H NMR and 13C NMR spectroscopic studies were
done by a Bruker Advance III 500MHz FTNMR spectrometer using D2O as solvent to identify the
functional groups. The transmission behavior was studied by using LAMBDA-35 UV-VIS
Spectrophotometer. Single crystal and powder XRD analysis were carried out on a PHILIPS X PERT
MPD system. TGA and DTA analysis were carried out using NETZSCA STA 409 instrument at a
heating rate of 0C min-1 from ambient to 500C. Dielectric studies were carried out by using HIOKI
3532 HiTESTER LCR meter. The NLO efficiency of the grown crystal was tested by KURTZ powder
technique using Nd: YAG laser of wavelength 1064 nm.

3. 1 Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) analysis

The as grown -glycine crystal was subjected to FTIR analysis by KBr pellet technique in the
wavelength between 4000 and 400 cm-1. The recorded absorption spectrum of title compound
confirms the presence of various functional groups and their frequency assignments are shown in
figure 4. The doublet frequency 928. 06 and 888. 46 cm-1 clearly shows the - glycine formation [19].
The vibrational frequencies are assigned with structure as shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Frequency of the vibrations and their assignment of as grown -glycine crystal.
Frequency in wave number (cm-1) Assignment of vibration
3105. 77 NH3+ Stretching
2887, 2604 Aliphatic CH2 Stretching
2171. 48 NH3+ Stretching
1586. 84 NH2+ Bending
1492. 95 COO - Symmetric Stretching
1327. 82 CH2 Twisting
1126. 21 NH2+Rocking
1041. 67 C-N Stretching
928. 06 CH2 Rocking
888. 46 C-C-N Symmetric Stretching
683. 10 COO - Bending
502. 87 COO - Rocking
100
90
80
Transmittance [%]
50 60 70
40
30
20
3105.77
2887.67
2604.48
2360.74
2171.48
1586.84
1492.95
1393.84
1327.82
1126.21
1041.67
928.06
888.46
683.10
502.87
452.34
412.37
3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500

Wavenumber cm-1
Fig. 4. FTIR spectrum of the grown -glycine crystal.
3.2 NMR spectrum

1
H NMR and 13C NMR analysis of the as-grown -glycine crystal were shown in figure 5 & 6. 1H
NMR spectrum of as-grown -glycine crystal showed multiple peak signals at 3. 461 to 3. 445 ppm
(quartet or triplet) corresponds to protons of methylene group (CH2) and peak at 4. 678 ppm due to
amino group protons (NH2). 13C NMR spectrum of as-grown -glycine crystal showed peaks at 41.

429 ppm and 172. 41 ppm corresponding to methylene carbons and carbonyl carbon respectively.
All the above results support the true chemical reactions in the formation of the -glycine crystal.
Fig. 5. 1H NMR of -glycine crystal.
Fig. 6. 13C NMR of -glycine crystal.
3.3 UV- Visible spectral analysis

The optical properties of the crystals are mainly depends on the interaction between crystal and
components of electric and magnetic fields of the electromagnetic wave. UV-Visible absorption
spectrum of the grown crystal recorded in the wave length range 200-900 nm was shown in figure 7.
The grown crystal has good transmission (100%) in UV, Visible and IR region. This highest
transmission percentage (100%) clearly shows the intrinsic property of amino acid and their defect
less nature of the grown -glycine crystal [20]. The absorption spectrum shows that the grown crystal
has lower cut off wavelength at 240 nm and this characteristic is most favorable for nonlinear optical
materials. Lower cut off wavelength value of the -glycine crystal (240nm) is compared with Glycine
potassium chloride (GPC), Serine sodium chloride (SSC), Bis glycine Maleate, Pure Glycine, Glycine
potassium sulphate (GPS), and Glycine picrate as shown in Table 2. This observed decreasing lower
cutoff wavelength value of the as grown crystal is due to the addition of 2-aminopyridinium potassium
chloride. Hence the lower cut off wave length of as grown crystal can be suitably used for
optoelectronic application in the UV, Visible and IR range.

Table 2. Comparison of cutoff wave length.

Crystals Name Cutoff wave length(nm)
GPC 295
SSC 300
Bis glycine Maleate 330
Pure Glycine 346
GPS 384
Glycine picrate 450
- glycine crystal* 240
*present work
3.5
3.0
Absorbance (a.u)
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900

Wavenumber (nm)
Fig. 7. UV-Visible absorption spectrum of grown crystal of -glycine.
Since optical properties of the crystals are governed by the interaction between the crystal and the
electric and magnetic fields of the electromagnetic wave, transmittance (T) was used to calculate
the absorption coefficient () using the formula:
300
250
2
(alpha.hv) .ev .mm
200
2
2
150
100
50
0 Eg=5.5 ev
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
hv ev
Fig. 8. Plot of h versus (h)2 of as grown -glycine crystal.

Where t is the thickness of the sample. The optical band gap (Eg) was evaluated from the transmission
spectra and the optical absorption coefficient () near the absorption edge is given by [21].
h=A(h-Eg)1/2
where A constant,
Eg the optical band gap, h the Planks constant
the frequency of the incident photons.
The graph drawn between h (E=h) and (h)2 is used to estimate the direct band gap value of the
grown crystal as shown in figure3. 5. The band gap of -glycine single crystal was estimated by
extrapolating the linear portion near the onset of absorption edge to the E=h axis. From the figure 8,
the optical band gap value is calculated to be 5. 5 eV. The wide band gap of the as grown -glycine
crystal confirms the 100% transmittance in the UV-vis-NIR region and less defect concentration of
the grown crystal [22]. The observed lower cutoff wavelength 240 nm of the as grown -glycine due
to the addition of 2-aminopyridinium potassium chloride leads to an increase in the band gap of the
grown -glycine crystal 5. 5 eV.
Intraction of electromagnetic wave with high band gap materials ( 1 eV known as Wide-bandgap)
create a bound electronhole pair, which can permit devices to operate at much higher voltage,
temperature and frequency applications. Also this high band gap material brings the electronic
transition in the range of the energy of visible light as light-emitting diodes even blue LEDs or even
produce ultraviolet LEDs with wavelengths down to 200250 nm and lasers.
3. 4 Powder XRD studies
The grown -glycine crystal crushed to a uniform powder and subjected to powder x-ray
diffractrometer with CuK (=1. 540598 ) radiations for structural analysis study. The powder form
sample was scanned over the range 10-45 at the rate of /min. The indexed powder XRD pattern of
grown crystal is shown in figure 9. Peaks in the XRD without any broadening confirm that the grown
sample is higher order of crystalline nature.
(102)
600
2-APKCG
(031)
500
400
Intensity (a.u)
(011)
(001)
(010)
300
(201)
(002)(201)
(110)
(200)
(210)
200
(111)
(100)
(101)
(012)
(120)
(211)
(002)
(002)
(112)
(300)
(112)
100
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Diffraction angle,2 (deg)
Fig. 9. Powder XRD pattern of as grown crystal -glycine.

3. 5 Single crystal XRD analysis

Single crystal X-ray diffraction analysis confirms the hexagonal structure of the -glycine crystal
with space group P31. The unit cell parameters of the grown -glycine are a = 7. 09; b = 7. 09; c
= 5. 5; = = 90; = 10 and volume of the unit cell was found to be 78 3. These values are
in-line with the literature values [23-25]. Further, it is evident that the presence of 2-aminopyridine
potassium chloride in the aqueous solution, without enter into the grown crystal lattice, yields the
polymorph form -glycine, as a physical change.
3. 6 Thermal analysis
Thermo gravimetric (TG) and Differential thermal analysis (DTA) gives information regarding phase
transition, water of crystallization and different stages of decomposition of the crystal. Samples of -
glycine crystals were weighed in an Al2O3 crucible with a microprocessor driven temperature control.
TGA and DTA curves of grown crystals were recorded in nitrogen atmosphere between ambient
temperature to 500C shown in figure 10. There is no weight loss up to 216. 6C indicating that there
is no inclusion of solvent (water) in the crystal lattice. The thermogram reveals that the major weight
loss (42. 4%) starts at 216. 6C and continues up to 484. 4C with 1. 255mg (57. 6%) as residue. The
nature of weight loss indicates the decomposition of the material. Below 484. 4C no weight loss was
observed.
40.00
100.0
216.6Cel 1.583m
2.800
2.838mg
95.0 55.4%
30.00 484.4C
2.600
2.838m
90.0
85.0
2.400
20.00
80.0
2.200
75.0
DTA uV
TG mg
10.00
TG %
70.0 2.000
609uV.s/mg
65.0
0.00 1.800
60.0
1.600
55.0
-10.00
50.0
1.400
45.0
-20.00
484.4C
1.200
1.255m
100.0 200.0 300.0 400.0 500.0
Temp Cel
Fig. 10. TGA& DTA graph of as grown -glycine crystal.
DTA curve shows that the decomposition point of as grown -glycine crystal is 70C. This
decomposition point was compared with the decomposition point of pure -glycine crystal (46C)
and -glycine synthesizes in the presence of different additives are shown in Table 3.

Table 3. comparison of decomposition point.

-glycine crystal Decomposition point
In the presence of CoCl 116. 86 C [6]
In the presence of CaCl2 65 C [7]
In the presence of AgNO3 08 C [8]
In the presence of Li NO3 195 C [9]
In the presence of LiBr 00 C [0]
In the presence of NH3 145. 7 C [1]
In the presence of NaNO3 56 C []
In the presence of MgCl2 1 C []
In the presence of KCl 170 C [4]
In the presence of KF 59 C [5]
In the presence of HF 40 C [5]
In the presence of H3PO3 & 51 C [6]
In the presence of H3PO3 + Urea 155 C [36]
In the presence of C5H6N2+KCl 270 C
(present work)
3. 7 Dielectric studies
Cut and polished samples were used as a dielectric material, which is placed between two copper
electrodes of parallel plate capacitor. To ensure the good electrical conductivity to electrodes graphite
was coated on opposite side of the sample.
The capacitance of the grown crystal was measured in the frequencies range between 500H Z to 5MHZ
for different temperatures. The formula used to calculate dielectric constant is,
r= Ct/OA
Where C is the capacitance; t-thickness of the sample;

o the permittivity of the free space and A-the area of cross section.
The graph shown in fig 8, shows the variation of r Vs frequency for the grown -glycine crystal at
different temperature. The dielectric constant value increases at low frequency region and then
dielectric constant value decrease with the increasing frequency. The r value reached the least value
of about 250 at the applied frequency of 2 KHZ and the value remains constant for further frequency.
A similar trend was observed for all the recorded temperatures and is compared with previous
research report which is shown in table 4. Among the all four polarizations, electronic and space
charge polarizations are predominant in the low- frequency region. The characteristic of low dielectric
constant at higher frequency evident that the -glycine possesses an improved optical quality with
lesser defects and this dielectric property is most important for nonlinear optical materials and their
applications.

7000
o
40 C
o
6000 45 C
o
50 C
o
5000 55 C
o
Dielectric Constant r
60 C
4000
3000
2000
1000
2 4 6 8
Log f
Fig. 11. Dielectric behavior of -glycine crystal.
Table 4. Comparision of dielectric constant.

Crystal Dielectric constant
2APTZS 2. 5[37]
2APKSNG 3. 5[38]
3. 8 NLO studies
In order to confirm the NLO property, powdered sample of grown crystal was subjected to KURTZ
and PERRY powder technique, which is a powerful tool for initial screening of the materials for
second harmonic generation (SHG) [39]. The beam of wave length =1064 nm from Q-switched
Nd:YAG laser was made to fall normally on the prepared powdered sample of grown -glycine
crystal, which was packed between two transparent glass slides. Suitable solution (CuSO4) was used
to absorb the transmitted beam and the optical second harmonic signal was detected by a
photomultiplier and displayed on CRO. Here powder form of KDP crystal of identical size to grown
-glycine crystal powder particles were used as standard in the SHG measurement. The SHG behavior
was confirmed from the emission of bright green radiation (532nm) by the sample. The measured
amplitude of second harmonic green light for as grown -glycine crystal was 14. 9mJ as against 8.
8mJ of KDP and 8. 9mJ of UREA.
The enhanced powder SHG efficiency of as grown -glycine crystal is about 1. 65 times that of KDP
and 1. 63 times of UREA. This value is relatively high when compared to the SHG values reported
for -glycine crystals grown with other additives and comparision is given in Table 5. This enhanced
lasing performance of as grown -glycine crystal is due to the additive influence of 2-
aminopyridinium potassium chloride. The good second harmonic generation efficiency of as grown
-glycine crystal in the presence of 2-aminopyridine potassium chloride attests, that the grown crystal
is a potential candidate for nonlinear optical applications.

Table 5. Comparision of SHG efficiency of -glycine crystals.

-glycine crystal # SHG efficiency
In the presence of NaF 1. 3[40]
In the presence of NaOH 1. 4[40]
In the presence of NaCl/KCl 1. 5[41]
In the presence of NaCH2COOH 1. 2[41]
*In the presence of C5H6N2+KCl 1. 65
*Present work, # With reference to KDP
Summary. We have successfully grown polymorph -form of glycine single crystals by slow
evaporation solution growth technique at ambient temperature. FTIR & NMR spectral studies confirm
that 2-aminopyridine potassium chloride not entered into the crystal structure, but they inhibit the
growth of polymorph form -glycine. UV Visible spectral studies show that it has the wide range of
transmission from 240nm to 900nm with cut off wave length 240 nm and the observed high
transmittance percentage (100%) from 240 nm clearly indicates that the grown crystal possessing
good optical transparency for second harmonic generation of Nd:YAG laser and attests the
enhancement of optical prpperties. Powder and single crystal XRD studies reveal that the grown -
glycine crystal is having higher order of crystallinity. Thermal studies show the sample is thermally
stable up to 70C (elevated temperature) and this makes the grown crystals suitability for possible
application in laser, where the material is required to with stand high temperatures. Dielectric studies
of grown crystal confirm the improved optical quality. NLO studies of the grown sample show that
the enhanced SHG efficiency is greater than KDP (1. 65 times) and Urea (1. 63 times) crystals. The
grown title compound was possessing various enhanced properties such as wide transparency range
with 100% transmission, low dielectric constant value at higher frequency and hence improved
optical quality with lesser defects and elevated decomposition temperature (70C) with greater SHG
efficiency as that of KDP suggest that the grown -glycine crystals in the presence of 2-aminopyridine
potassium chloride is a promising materials for optoelectronic applications.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Professor Dr. R. Jayavel, Director, Academic Research and Professor,
Centre for Nanotechnology, Anna University, Chennai, for their providing facilities and the
corresponding author thanks the UGC for providing financial support through Minor Project (No: F.
MRP-5978/15/(MRP/UGC-SERO)).
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of ranges (subranges) and complex mechanical parts [2]. However, the problem of defining
optimum clutches location place in HSMTs of wheeled tractors is not covered.
The problem solving. Series of perspective tractor schemes have been developed on the basis of
the complex statistic analysis of HSMTs [10]. Maximum transmission efficiency is 0.82-0.88
depending upon a scheme. They served as a basis for defining optimum clutches location place in
HSMTs. The research was done on the basis of emergency braking of the wheeled tractors case
when engine is kinematically broken from the drive wheels in different alternatives of clutch
location places: right behind the engine (alternative 1); within mechanical branch of closed circuit
of HSMT (alternative 2); within hydraulic branch of closed circuit of HSMT in front of HSD
(alternative 3); within hydraulic branch of closed circuit of HSMT behind HSD (alternative 4)
(Figures 1 and 2). Emergency braking has been considered as it is the case when release of drive
portions and loose portions of clutches (that is power flow break off) takes place. Specifically area
of power flow break off effects on values of angular velocities of HSMT chains having certain
limitations (angular velocity of satellites gears, shafts of hydromachines etc.).
) b)
c) d)
Fig. 1. Alternatives to locate clutches within structural HSMT schemes with input differential: ) is
alternative 1; b) is alternative 2; c) is alternative 3; d) is alternative 4; 1 is internal combustion
engine; 2 is a clutch; 3 is planetary gear set (k is transmission ratio of planetary gear set); 4 is
HSD; 5 are wheels; 6 are reduction units (i is transmission ratio of reduction unit).
Optimization problem is solved to determine optimum location place for clutches in HSMT and
rules to change relative parameters to control HSD (e(t)) in the context of emergency braking
exercising a significant influence on operating ability of transmission.
To estimate braking efficiency in the process of optimization it is expedient to use braking path as a
factor. It is recommended to estimate trajectory controllability according to deviation of tractor from
predetermined trajectory. To estimate performance figures of HSMT it is expedient to use power
parameters (working pressure difference in HSD P max ) and kinematic ones (angular velocity of
satellites s max , angular velocity of hydraulic pump shaft 1 max and hydromotor as well as
difference between values of angular velocities of driving clutch shaft and driven clutch shaft
max ). Boundary values P max , 1 max , and 2 max depend mainly on design features of HSD;
they are listed in specifications of hydromachines being indicated as P* , 1* , and 2* . P* means

Determining Optimum Location Places for Clutch Couplings in Hydrostatic and

Mechanical Transmissions of Wheeled Tractors
Taran I.O.1,a, Bondarenko A.I.2
1 Department of Transport Management, National Mining University, Dnipro, Ukraine

2 Department of Automobiles and Tractor Industry, National Technical University "Kharkiv Polytechnic Institute",
Kharkiv, Ukraine
a taran_70@mail.ru
DOI 10.13140/RG.2.2.35672.90888
Keywords: wheeled tractor, hydrostatic and mechanical transmissions, clutch coupling, emergency braking.
ABSTRACT. Using a technique of Hooke-Jeeves, constructed partial criteria, and determined generalized criterion in
terms of emergency braking of wheeled tractors the paper determines optimum location place for clutch couplings in
hydrostatic and mechanical transmissions of wheeled tractors operating by means of input differential and output
differential schemes. Recommendations concerning changes in relative parameter to control hydraulic machines with
hydrostatic and mechanical transmission in the process of emergency braking of wheeled tractors to maintain working
capacity of transmissions have been formulated.
Introduction. Agroindustrial complex is among the most important economic sectors; food safety
of any country depends heavily on its level of development and functioning. Constant increase in
overall agricultural production and violent annual fluctuations in transport needs are those
prerequisites stipulating rural use of wheeled tractors.
Striving for stepless speed variation and moving force and improving ergonomic properties while
performing various technological operations have become the key reasons to increase world output
of wheeled agricultural tractors with hydrostatic and mechanical transmissions (HSMT).
Statement of the problem. Acceleration of wheeled tractors has extremely aggravated the problem
of safety maintenance in braking mode. Despite the sufficient popularity of HSMTs in tractor
industry current designs of transmissions of the type require further improvement. In the first
instance it concerns the following: load reduction on both hydraulic portion and components of
mechanical portion in the process of braking as incorrect location place of coupling will result in
sharp increase of values of angle velocities of HSMT chains in the process of emergency braking
and neglecting rules of changes in parameters to control hydrostatic drive (HSD).
Analysis of the research and publications. The problem of positive-displacement hydromachines
and HSDs design, development and analysis of HSMTs for both wheeled and crawler tractors,
lorries, combines, road-building machines, and mine diesel locomotives is highlighted in papers by
world and domestic scientists [1-10]. The majority of the papers proposes structure and design
parameters for two-flow HSMTs. They formulate recommendations concerning the choice of
service braking and emergency braking implementation technique for wheeled tractors with stepless
transmissions; however, authors appeal to their own designing experience only and use heuristic
approach [4, 8].
Recently there is a tendency to use standard two-flow HSMTs in agricultural tractors. Range of
their application increases as well as in the number of tractor models as in the power to be
transmitted. Designs of HSMTs have a tendency to raise power transmitted mechanically and to
decrease the number of frictional multidisk clutches. As a result, there is a decrease in the number

maximum pressure within induction pipe of HSD. Allowable value of angular velocity of satellites
does not depend upon transmission parameters. However, it has its own limitation (i.e. 600 rad/s to
be s max 600 ); it is indicated as s* . Maximum allowable difference between angular velocities of
driving clutch shaft and driven clutch shaft indicating as * depends on clutch type, its design
parameters etc.
) b)
c) d)
Fig. 2. Alternatives to locate clutches in structural schemes of HSMT with output differential
(symbols are similar to those in Fig. 1).
Then, if tractor applies the brakes within curved road section (driven wheels are fixed at the level of
50 right after the start of braking process), generalized criterion is
S g (e(t )) (e(t )) P(e(t )) max Pp 1 (e(t )) max

K (e(t )) Z1 1 Z 2 1 max * Z3 1 Z 4 1
*
Sg P *
1*
(1)
2 (e(t )) max s (e(t )) max (e(t )) max
Z5 1 Z 6 1 Z 7 1 Z P ( ) Z V PV (V ),
2 *
s
*
*
where i and j are weight coefficients ( i is a value before partial criteria, j is a value before
penalty functions);
S g (e(t )) and S g* are real value of braking path and its allowable value;
max (e(t )) is a value of maximum tractor deviation from predetermined trajectory after full
braking;
* is boundary value of deviation of tractor from predetermined trajectory;
P(e(t )) max is maximum of real value of working pressure difference in HSD;
Pp is intake pressure; its value is equal to that one produced by delivery pump;
P* is allowable pressure value within induction pipe of HSD;

1 (e(t )) max , 2 (e(t)) max , and s (e(t )) max are maximums of real value of angular velocity of
hydraulic pump shaft, hydraulic motor, and satellites respectively;
1* , 2* , and s* are allowable values of angular velocity of hydraulic pump shaft, hydraulic
motor, and satellites respectively;
(e(t )) max is maximum of real difference value between angular velocities of driving
clutch shaft and driven one;
* is allowable difference value between angular velocities of driving clutch shaft and
driven one;
P ( ) is penalty function reducing generalized criterion value when rotational directions
of driving clutch shaft and driven clutch shaft differ;
PV (V ) is penalty function reducing generalized criterion value if difference being greater
than allowable value between real velocity of tractor V and its ideal velocity Ve (which should be
available at the moment relying on e value) is appeared.
Penalty function P ( ) is defined as follows
(e(t )) max
1 , if z1 z 2 0 and z1 z 2 ** ;
P ( ) **
(2)
0, if 0 and ** or 0 ,
z1 z2 z1 z2 z1 z2
where ** is difference value between angular velocities of driving clutch shaft and driven
clutch shaft being compensated at the expense of damping fluid properties and discharges to HSD;
z1 , z 2 are angular velocity of driving clutch shaft and driven clutch shaft.
Penalty function PV (V ) is defined as follows
Ve V
1 , if Ve V V ;
PV (V ) V (3)
0, if V V V ,
e
where V is allowable difference between real tractor velocity V and Ve velocity, which should
be available at the moment relying on e value.
Value of weight coefficient is very important for generalized criterion value. Considering that
partial criteria are equivalent and vary within almost comparable ranges, values of all weight
coefficients are taken equal to 1/7. Expediency of such choice has also been confirmed by basic
research. Rule of e(t ) variation in the process of emergency braking is perfect when K (e(t )) is
maximally close to 1.
In turn, penalty functions P ( ) , PV (V ) are equivalent and vary within comparable ranges;
however when and V are out of allowable range it is proposed to take values of all weight
coefficients as equal to 105 before penalty functions. Thus, while determining and V within

determined range effect on a value of generalized criterion is equal to zero

( Z P () ZV PV (V ) 105 0 105 0 0 ); and in the process of leaving the range a value
of penalty function together with weight coefficient experiences jump-type decrease. In this context
a value of generalized criterion is decreased as well.
While determining e, error is 0.01 (in the braking process, simulation interval was taken as 0.005
sec and determination of e optimum value took place; its correction was performed within the next
stage). In this context not maximum but current values of indices were substituted into numerators
of expression (1). That made it possible to obtain new K (e(t ))ti values after each 0.005 sec and
finally optimum rule of e(t ) change. However, value K (e(t )) from expression (1) is more
informative as it takes into consideration not current values but maximum ones from the whole
braking process; that is why obtained optimum rule of e(t ) change for the given braking case was
given not maximum K (e(t ))ti max value from the whole obtained set K (e(t ))ti , but
K (e(t )) involving maximum values of factors which had been determined after full stop of tractor
as complete situation concerning changes in each parameter during braking process was available.
Optimization process is limited by consideration of tractor braking from the velocity of 60 km/h on
a road surface with dry asphalt and snow.
In the process of emergency braking when kinematic separation of engine from driving wheels
takes place, operating ability of transmission is possible if only correct area of power stream
breakage is selected to be correct area of engine separation from driving wheels. As a result of
optimization problem (1) (3) solution involving Hooke-Jeeves technique it has been determined
that from the viewpoint of braking process dynamics and generalized criterion values clutching in
HSMD is:
in terms of input differential it is recommended to locate it either behind engine or within
hydraulic branch of closed HSMD circuit before HSD (neither alternative has evident advantage);
in terms of output differential it is preferable to locate clutch within hydraulic branch of closed
HSMD circuit before HSD, another alternative being less advantageous is its location within
mechanical branch of closed circuit. If the requirements cannot be met (depending upon design
features) it is located behind the engine.
Use of optimization theory in the process of basic research made it possible to determine that each
HSMD scheme has its own optimum rule of changes in relative parameters of HSD control in terms
of emergency braking of wheeled tractors with stepless HSMDs when kinematic separation of
engine from driving wheels takes place. Braking process when values of control parameters
correspond to changes in real velocity of tractor is the closest to optimum one. The analysis of the
proposed rule in comparison with optimum one (for the schemes considered) has proved that
difference in values of generalized criteria is not more than 6.9%.
It has been identified that in case of emergency braking of tractor in terms of kinematic
disconnection of engine from driving wheels changes of HSD control parameters to improve
operating ability of HSMD should be performed automatically meeting the requirements of real
tractor velocity changes. Moreover, application of the rules allows a driver stopping emergency
braking at any stage and continuing movement or acceleration of tractor to execute the manoeuvre
without any negative consequences; that will make it possible to improve sufficiently traffic safety
level.
The implementation technique is permitted to be used in terms of service braking: kinematic
disconnection of engine from driving wheels is maintained and rule of brake pedal pressing may be
in any form without time limits, however a driver will have extra stress which cannot favour his
intensive and long-term employability. As a rule, the technique is not applied as service one in the
context of current tractors with HSMT.

If in terms of emergency braking when kinematic disconnection of engine from driving wheels it is
technically impossible to change parameters to control HSD according to changes in real tractor
velocity (as it is connected with considerable complication of transmission control system)
following requirements shall be subject to compulsory implementation:
braking of tractor lasts up to full stop;
parameters of HSD control while braking remains invariable; moreover, they correspond to the
value they had at the initial braking stage;
when full stop of a tractor takes place, HSMT control system should provide automatically
changes in HSD control parameters to be in accordance with zero velocity of tractor movement.
Summary. It has been proved that in the process of emergency braking when kinematic
disconnection of engine from driving wheels takes place, operating ability of transmission is
maintain if only correct area of power stream breakage has been chosen, i.e. correct area of
disconnection of engine from driving wheels. The optimization problem solution has helped
determine that from the viewpoint of braking process dynamics and generalized criterion values, it
is recommended to locate HSMT clutch with input differential either behind engine or within
hydraulic branch of short circuit in front of HSD (neither alternative is advantageous); in the
context of HSMT with output differential it is preferable to locate clutch within hydraulic branch of
closed circuit behind HSD.
It has been determined that in case of emergency braking of tractor when engine is disconnected
from driving wheels, changes in parameter values to control HSD to maintain operating ability of
HSMT should be performed automatically meeting changes in real tractor velocity. Use of the
recommendations helps a driver stops emergency braking at any stage without any negative
consequences and continues movement or acceleration of tractor to execute the maneuver; that will
make it possible to improve sufficiently traffic safety level.
References
[1] Bondarenko, A.I. (2015) Scientific Basis of the Theory of Vehicles Braking With Stepless
Hydrostatic Mechanical Transmissions // Austrian Journal of Technical and Natural Sciences, East
West Association for Advanced Studies and Higher Education GmbH. Vienna (Austria). # 1 2.
Pp. 124 127.
[2] Bondarenko, A.I. (2014), Samorodov, V.B. Features of Power Flow Distribution in a Closed
Circuit of Hydrostatic Mechanical Transmissions // Zbior Raportow Naukowych. Wykonane na
Materiaach Miedzynarodowej Naukowo-Praktycznej Konferencji Inynieria i Technologia.
Osigni, Projekty Hipotez, 29 30 December 2014, Krakow, Poland / Sp. z o.o. Diamond
Trading Tour. Warszawa: Wydawca: Sp. z o.o. Diamond Trading Tour, 2014. Pp. 59 70.
[3] Bondarenko, A.I. (2014), Mittsel, M.O., Kozhushko, A.P. Laboratory Stand for Research of the
Workflow in Hydrostatic Mechanical Transmissions // Materials of the IX International Research
and Practice Conference European Science and Technology, 24 25 December 2014, Munich,
Germany / Strategic Studies Institute. Munich: Strategic Studies Institute, 2014. Vol. II.
Pp. 289 295.
[4] Bondarenko, A.I. (2015) Dynamics of the braking process wheeled tractors with
hydrovolumetric-mechanical transmission: Monograph. Kharkiv: published by Fedorko. 220
pp.
[5] Samorodov, V.B., Taran, I.A. (2012) Analysis of the distribution power flow considering the
efficiency of hydraulic continuously variable two-flow hydrovolumetric-mechanical transmission
with differential output // The bulletin of the National Technical University "KhPI". Vol. 64. Pp.
3 8.

[6] Taran, I.O. (2012) Laws of power transmission on branches of double-split hydrostatic
mechanical transmissions // Naukoviy visnyk NGU. Dnipropetrovsk: SHEI NMU. #2. Pp.
69 75.
[7] Taran, I.O. (2013) System of integral stochastic criteria for transmissions of transport vehicles //
Naukoviy visnyk Khersonskoi derzhavnoi morskoi akademii. Kherson: Kherson state maritime
academy. # 2 (9). Pp. 277 283.
[8] Taran, I.O. (2012) Transmission of mine locomotive: Monograph. Dnipropetrovsk: published
by SHEI NMU. 256 pp.
[9] Taran, I.O. (2013) Automated analysis of the distribution of power flow transmission
locomotive // Ugol Ukraine. #12. Pp. 34 38.
[10] Samorodov, V.B., Bondarenko, A.I. (2014) synthesis of hydrostatic mechanical transmission
of wheeled tractors for agricultural purposes // Eastern European Scientific Journal: Dsseldorf
(Germany): Auris Verlag. # 6. Pp. 280 284.
[11] Taran I.O., Kozhushko A.P., Substantiating of Rational Law of Hydrostatic Drive Control
Parameters While Accelerating of Wheeled Tractors with Hydrostatic and Mechanical
Transmission, Mechanics, Materials Science & Engineering Journal, Vol. 6, Magnolithe GmbH,
Austria, DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.3590.9362
[12] Hao Sun, Harald Aschemann, Robust Inverse Dynamics Control for a Hydrostatic
Transmission with Actuator Uncertainties, 6th IFAC Symposium on Mechatronic Systems, IFAC
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2034.00032
[13] Horst Schulte, Control-oriented modeling of hydrostatic transmissions considering LEAKAGE
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Volume 40, Issue 21, 2007, Pages 103-108, DOI: 10.3182/20071029-2-FR-4913.00018

The Evaluation of Torsional Strength in Reinforced Concrete Beam
Mohammad Rashidi1, Hana Takhtfiroozeh2
1 Department of Civil Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran

2 Department of Civil Engineering, Building and Housing Research Center, Tehran, Iran
DOI 10.13140/RG.2.2.16568.75521
Keywords: torsional strength, concrete beam, transverse and longitudinal bars, reinforcement.
ABSTRACT. Many structural elements in building and bridge construction are subjected to significant torsional
moments that affect the design. A simple experiment for the evaluation of the torsional strength of reinforced concrete
beams as a one of this structural elements is presented in this research. The objective of this experiments would be the
role of transverse and longitudinal reinforcement on torsion strength. Four beam test samples has been tested with the
same length and concrete mix design. Due to the fact, that the goal of this experiment is to determine the effect of
reinforcement type on torsion strength of concrete beams; therefore, bars with different types in each beam have been
applied. It was observed that the ductility factor increases with increasing percentage reinforcement from the test results.
It should be also noted that transverse bars or longitudinal bars lonely would not able to increase the torsional strength of
RC beams and both of them can be essential for having a good torsional behaviour in reinforced concrete beams.
Introduction. The interest in gaining better understanding of the torsional behaviour of reinforced
concrete (RC) members has grown in the past decades. This may be due to the increasing use of
structural members in which torsion is a central feature of behaviour such as curved bridge girders
and helical slabs. The achievements, however, have not been as much as those made in the areas of
shear and bending. Dealing with torsion in todays codes of practice is also very primitive and does
not contain the more elaborate techniques. Predictions of current standards for the ultimate torsional
capacity of RC beams are found to be either too conservative or slightly risky for certain geometry,
dimensions and steel bar sizes and arrangements.
Torsional moments in reinforced concrete are typically accompanied by bending moments and
shearing forces. However, simplified methods in design codes are based on a simple combination of
the pure shear methods and pure torsion methods. In the ACI code [1], the effects of the torsional
moment are accounted for by superimposing the amount of transverse and longitudinal steel and the
intensity of the shearing stresses required for torsion resistance to those required for shear resistance.
The Canadian code [2] assumes a similar interaction and further superimposes the effects of torsion
and shear on the longitudinal strain indicator required in the design solution. Moreover, interaction
surfaces between shearing and axial forces and bending moment such as those suggested by Elfren et
al. [3] and Ewida and McMullen [4] are still of practical importance. The use of such interaction
surfaces and the use and development of the code equations require knowledge of the pure torsional
strength of reinforced concrete.
Rahal and Collins [5] assigned the methods available for computing the torsional capacities to two
main categories. Methods in the first category use semi-empirical equations chosen to fit available
experimental data. The strength of these methods comes generally from their simplicity.
Methods in the second category use procedures based on more rational models such as the space truss
model. These models are generally more time demanding, but their strength comes from their
rationality and their ability to give the engineer a feel for the behavior of the structural member
designed.

A recently developed simplified model [6] was shown to be an accurate and rational tool for
calculating the shear strength of membrane elements subjected to shear. Similar to the General
Method [7], this model is based on the equations of the MCFT. The MCFT is a powerful rational
model capable of calculating the full response of sections subjected to shear, axial load, and bending
and torsional moments [8, 9, and 10]. The new model was able to cast the results of the rational MCFT
into a simple procedure. The applicability of the model was extended [11] to cover beams subjected
to shearing and axial forces and bending moments. The effects of axial forces and bending moments
on the shear strength were accounted for by a simplified superposition procedure.
This paper extends the effect of reinforcement type on torsion strength of concrete beams. The
objective of this experiments would be the role of stirrups and longitudinal reinforcement on torsion
strength. Four beam test samples has been tested with the same length and concrete mix design. The
reinforcement of this samples has been different ranging from without reinforcement to complete
reinforcement.
Materials and methods. Four experimental beam samples, without reinforcement, with just
transverse reinforcement, with just longitudinal reinforcement, and both transverse and longitudinal
reinforcement, has been tested to gain bending moment, cracking moment and ultimate bending
moment. Appropriate torsional results originated from this experiment give us an information about
the effect of reinforcement on Reinforced Concrete Beams.
The considered mix for the samples has been shown in table 1 below. According to the instructions,
coarse aggregates have been sieved via a 2-cm sieve. Also, the samples considered in construction
are three cylindrical samples in 3015 cm dimensions and four beams samples in 601010 cm
dimensions.
Table 1. The considered mix for the samples.
Weight Ratio
Part
(kg/m3)
Cement 500
Sand 800
Gravel 800
Water 220
Total 2320
Due to the fact, that the goal of this experiment is to determine the effect of reinforcement type on
torsion strength of concrete beams; therefore, bars with different types in each beam have been
applied. The ends of the beam has been used metal cube to avoid crunch of beams end [12]. In
addition, in ends of beam, longitudinal as well as transverse reinforcement has been used to a distance
of 10 cm. After reinforcement of samples according to figures 1 to 4, the stages of concreting and
curing of concrete shall be conducted and then the samples shall be examined after 28 days of curing.
Dimensions of cylindrical samples and beam samples are also shown in table 2 and 3 respectively.

Fig.1. Samples No. 1, without longitudinal and transverse reinforcement.
Fig.2. Samples No. 2, just longitudinal reinforcement.
Fig.3. Samples No. 3, just transverse reinforcement
Fig.4. Samples No. 4, both longitudinal and transverse reinforcement
Table 2. Dimensions of Cylindrical Samples.

The Average The Average Height
Sample No.
Diameter (Cm) (Cm)
1 15.1 30.3
2 15.2 30.1
3 15.0 30.2

Table 3. Dimensions of the Beam Samples.

Sample No. Length (Cm) Width (Cm) Height (Cm)
1 60.10 9.99 10.11
2 60.05 10.02 10.03
3 60.30 10.01 10.02
4 60.25 9.98 10.08
It should be noted, that the compressive strength test of the samples shall be conducted after capping-
the goal of which is to create a flat surface on the sample.
All the beams, which were experimented on, were 60 centimetres long, they were placed on a 55-
centimetre- wide support and were loaded and tested. Two concentrated symmetrical loads, which
were 25 centimetres away from each other were used for loading purposes. The weight of the rods,
which are placed on the beam, was 37.8 kg. The used bars in this experiment are of type A2 and the
current strength of 300 MPa. The loading model of the beams can be seen in figure 5.
Fig. 5. The loading model of the beam.
Torsion in the international Standards.
Provisions for torsional design of reinforced concrete members appear in majority of international
standards of concrete design. While these provisions are conceptually similar, they contain variations
that produce different results. Provisions of some of the more well-known standards are reviewed
here in this section.
Australian Standard (AS3600). According to the Australian standard for concrete structures,
AS3600, the ultimate strength in pure torsion, Tuc, for a beam without closed ties can be calculated
as
Tuc = J t (0.3 f'c) (1)

where f'c is the compressive strength of concrete at 28 days;
Jt is the torsional rigidity of the cross-section.
This torsional rigidity for a rectangular cross-section with dimensions xy (where x<y) can be
determined as 0.4 x2 y. For beams with closed ties, the ultimate torsional strength, Tus, is
Tus = f ys (Asw / s) 2 At cot t (2)
where At is the area enclosed by the centre lines of longitudinal bars Figure 6;
s is the centre-to-centre spacing of stirrups,
fys is the yield strength of stirrups,
Asw is the cross-sectional area of stirrups,
t is the crack angle which can be taken as 45 or can vary linearly between 30 when T=Tuc
and 45 when T =Tu.max.
There are T is the factored design torque, Tuc is the ultimate torsional strength of a beam
without torsional reinforcement, and is equal to 0.7.
The term Tu.max is the ultimate torsional strength of a beam limited by web crushing failure and
can be obtained from Tu.max=0.2f'cJt. This is a simple equation to evaluate Tu.max. Other more
complicated equations have been presented in the literature but not adapted by the standard. For
example, Warner et al. [13] present Tu.max as
Fig. 6. The cross-section of a rectangular reinforced concrete beam
(3)

Where Aoh is the area enclosed by the centre line of the exterior closed ties and ph is the perimeter.
AS3600 suggests that the total longitudinal steel area, As, shall be obtained by
As = (f ys / f y) (Asw / s ) ut cot2 t (4)
Where ut is the perimeter of At (in Eq. (4));
f y is the yield strength of longitudinal reinforcement.
Furthermore, according to this standard, the spacing of stirrups shall not be greater than the
lesser 0.12ut and 300 mm.
British Standard (BS8110). The British standard for reinforced concrete structures, BS8110,
indicates that the additional stirrups required to resist torsion in addition to what is required for shear
shall be calculated from
Asv / s > Tus / 0.8 x 1 y 1 (0.87 f ys ) (5)
Where Asv is the area of the two legs of stirrups at a section;

x1 and y1 are the centre to center of the shorter and longer legs of stirrups, Figure 1.
Moreover, BS8110 suggests that additional longitudinal reinforcement As due to torsion should be
provided as calculated by
As > Asw f ys (x 1 + y 1) / s f y (6)
This standard emphasises that the spacing of stirrups should not exceed the smallest of x 1, y1 / 2 or
200mm. BS8110 only allows the use of its provisions for torsional design when the yield stress of
reinforcement is not more than 460MPa.
ACI Standard (ACI318-02). ACI318-02 calculates the ultimate torsional strength of reinforced
concrete beams as
Tus = f ys (Asw / s) 2 Ao cot t (7)
Where Ao is the gross area enclosed by the shear flow path, which can be taken equal to 0.85Aoh,
where Aoh is the area enclosed by the centre of stirrups.
ACI allows the crack angle t of non-prestressed or low-prestressed members to be taken as 45. Eq.
(8) is based on the assumptions that all of the external torque is resisted by reinforcement and concrete
resistance is negligible; that the concrete carries no tension; that the reinforcement yields, and that

the concrete outside the stirrups is relatively ineffective. The standard also indicates that the additional
longitudinal reinforcement (As) required for torsion shall not be less than the value obtained from the
following equation
As = (f ys / f y) (Asw / s) u t cot2 t (8)
ACI318-02 recommends that the transverse torsional reinforcement (stirrup) shall be anchored by a
135 standard hook around a longitudinal bar and the spacing of transverse torsion reinforcement
shall not exceed the smaller of ph/8/8 or 12'' (304mm).
European Standard. According to the European Standard (Eurocode 2), three different ultimate
values should be calculated and the minimum chosen. The first value is related to the stirrups
contribution to the torsional resistance which can be calculated as
Tu (1) = f ys (Asw / s) 2 Ak cot t (9)
Where Ak is the area enclosed by the centre-lines of the effective wall thickness. The effective wall
thickness, tef, can be calculated as A/u where A is the total area and u is the perimeter of the cross-
section. The second value of the torsional strength corresponds to the longitudinal bars as
Tu (2) = f y (As /uk) 2 Ak tan t (10)
Where uk is the perimeter of the area Ak.
Torsional capacity of the concrete struts is the third value. It can be derived from
Tu (3) = 2v fck Ak tef sin t cos t (11)
Where fck is the compressive strength of concrete, and can be taken as 0.6(1 fck / 250).
The least of these three values is the torsional strength of the member. The European Standard also
indicates that the variation of crack angle is in the order of 2.5 cot t 1 but can be taken as t =45.
Canadian Standard. The method of calculating torsional strength of reinforced concrete beams in
the Canadian Standard, CSA, is similar to ACI. In addition, CSA advises that the stirrups must be
anchored by 135 hooks, the nominal diameter of the bar or tendon shall not be less than s/16, and
the total area of longitudinal bars required around the section, Al, (with a spacing not exceeding 300
mm) shall be calculated from At ph / s, where At is the area of a stirrup, ph is the perimeter of the centre
line of the stirrups, and s is the spacing of stirrups.

In the above mentioned standards, the method of evaluating the ultimate torsional capacity of
reinforced concrete beams is similar. ACI standard for this experiment which is more prevalent in the
vast majority of countries has been used .
Discussion of test results. A simple test for calculating the torsional strength of reinforced concrete
beams was experimented with two concentrated symmetrical loads presented in figure 5. As can be
seen in figure 6 the failure of beams is shown and subsequently the results of tests including sample
rotation, momentum of the cross-section, crack momentum and ultimate momentum of the cross
section is presented in table 5.
Fig. 6. Failure of beams.
Table 5 indicates that the crack momentum of all samples was 5870 Kg.cm according to equation 12.
Tcr = 4 fc Ac2 / Pc (12)
Where Ac is the area of beam cross-section;
Pc is the perimeter of the beam.
Ultimate momentum of the cross-section in sample No. 1 is equal to its crack momentum because
this sample was not reinforced by longitudinal and transverse bars. However, this amount has been
increased with the enhancement of reinforcement especially in the sample of 4. Moreover, the
ductility of beams, if the rotation of samples increase in results, will grow. It was observed that the
ductility factor increases with increasing percentage reinforcement. As can be seen in the test results
in sample No. 4 with transverse and longitudinal bars the torsional strength and ductility of beam
have been increased 95% and 50% respectively in comparison with sample No. 1.
In addition, it was noticed that sample No. 3 with just transverse bars had a more torsional strength
compared to sample No. 2 with just longitudinal strength and it was concluded that transverse bars
play an important role in torsional strength of Reinforced Concrete Beams. The results of experiment
shows that the momentum of cross-section in sample No. 3 is 11500 Kg.cm, while this amount for
sample No.2 would be 8500 Kg.cm.
It should be also noted that transverse bars or longitudinal bars lonely would not able to increase
enough the torsional strength of RC beams and both of them can be essential for having a good
torsional behaviour in reinforced concrete beams.

Table 5. The Results of the Experiment

Sample No. Sample rotation Momentum of the Crack Ultimate Momentum of the
(Degree) Cross- Section (Kg.cm) Momentum Cross- Section (Kg.cm)
(Kg.cm)
1 8.16 7850 5870 5870
2 8.78 8500 5870 6500
3 9.16 11500 5870 8320
4 12.20 15250 5870 10200
Summary. A simple experiment for the evaluation of the torsional strength of reinforced concrete
beams is presented in this research. The following conclusions were drawn from the studies on
reinforced concrete beams:
It was observed that the ductility factor increases with increasing percentage reinforcement. The
torsional strength and ductility of the sample with transverse and longitudinal bars have been
increased 95% and 50% respectively in comparison with sample without reinforcement.
The transverse bars play an important role in torsional strength of Reinforced Concrete Beams
compared to longitudinal bars.
It should be also noted that transverse bars or longitudinal bars lonely would not able to increase
the torsional strength of RC beams and both of them can be essential for having a good torsional
behaviour in reinforced concrete beams.
References
[1] ACI. Building code requirements for reinforced concrete (ACI 318-95) and commentary (ACI
318 R-95). Committee 318, American Concrete Institute (ACI), Detroit, Mich. 1995.
[2] CSA. Design of concrete structures for buildings. Standard A23.3-94, Canadian Standards
Association (CSA), Rexdale, Ont. 1994.
[3] Elfren, L., Karlsson, I., and Losberg, A. Torsionbending shear interaction for concrete beams.
ASCE Journal of the Structural Division, 100(8): 16571676, 1974.
[4] Ewida, A.A., and McMullen, A.E. Torsionshearflexure interaction in reinforced concrete
members. Magazine of Concrete Research, 23(115): 113122, 1981.
[5] Rahal, K.N., and Collins, M.P. Simple model for predicting torsional strength of reinforced and
prestressed concrete sections. ACI Structural Journal, 93(6): 658666, 1996.
[6] Rahal, K.N. Shear strength of reinforced concrete: Part I: Membrane elements subjected to pure
shear. ACI Structural Journal, 97(1): 8693, 2000a.
[7] AASHTO. AASHTO LRFD bridge design specifications, SI units, first edition, American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO), Washington D.C. 1994.
[8] Vecchio, F.J., and Collins, M.P. The modified compression field theory for reinforced concrete
elements subjected to shear. ACI Journal, 83(2): 219231, 1986.
[9] Collins, M.P., and Mitchell, D. Prestressed concrete structures. Prentice Hall, Inc., Englewood
Cliffs, N.J. 1986.

[10] Rahal, K.N., and Collins, M.P. The effect of cover thickness on the shear and torsion
interaction An experimental investigation. ACI Structural Journal, 92(3): 334342, 1995a.
[11] Rahal, K.N. Shear strength of reinforced concrete Part II: Beams subjected to shear, bending
moment and axial load. ACI Structural Journal, 97(2), 2000.
[12] Mohammad Rashidi & Hana Takhtfiroozeh. Determination of Bond Capacity in Reinforced
Concrete Beam and Its Influence on the Flexural Strength. Mechanics, Materials Science &
Engineering Vol.6, 2016. doi: 10.13140/RG.2.2.18300.95361
[13] Warner, R.F., Rangan BV, Hall AS, Faulkes KA. Concrete structures. Longman, South
Melbourne, 1998.

Process Modeling for Energy Usage in Smart House System with a Help of
Markov Discrete Chain
Victor Kravets1,a, Vladimir Kravets2, Olexiy Burov3
1 National Mining University, Dnipro, Ukraine.

2 Dnipropetrovsk National University of Railway Transport, Dnipro, Ukraine.
3 Jack Baskin School of Engineering, University of California-Santa Cruz, CA, USA.
a prof.w.kravets@gmail.com
DOI 10.13140/RG.2.2.34948.32643
Keywords: smart house, Markov discrete chains, possible states, transition probabilities matrix, transition costs matrix,
mathematical expectations of transitions costs, cost of Markov random process.
ABSTRACT. Method for evaluating economic efficiency of technical systems using discrete Markov chains modelling
illustrated by the system of "Smart house", consisting, for example, of the three independently functioning elements.
Dynamic model of a random power consumption process in the form of a symmetrical state graph of heterogeneous
discrete Markov chain is built. The corresponding mathematical model of a random Markov process of power
consumption in the "smart house" system in recurrent matrix form is being developed. Technique of statistical
determination of probability of random transition elements of the system and the corresponding to the transition
probability matrix of the discrete inhomogeneous Markov chain are developed. Statistically determined random
transitions of system elements power consumption and the corresponding distribution laws are introduced.
The matrix of transition prices, expectations for the possible states of a system price transition and, eventually, the cost
of Markov process of power consumption throughout the day.
Introduction. The issue in question relates to the problem of smart house engineering for establishing
controlled process of energy usage. In this research area, there are such works as [1-3].
In this problem, the leading role belongs to establishing a mathematical model of random processes
of energy usage by essential appliances, the model being adequate to physical picture. In order to
establish a mathematical model for the problem in question, fundamental results of probability theory
and mathematical statistics [4-6], operational research [7], especially Markov random processes
theories [8,9] are used. Exploring dynamics of energy usage process in residential house implies also
working out an appropriate dynamic model, process scheme, method for modeling process,
computation algorithm and an appropriate software package.
Dynamic model for energy usage process. Typical residential house (set of rooms) is being
explored. Its essential services are provided with a help of several electrical appliances. It means that
a technical system consists of N independently functioning subsystems (elements). For example, let
us suppose for the sake of simplicity the in the considered household there are three ( N 3 ) elements:
refrigerator ( e1 ), microwave oven ( e2 ), light source ( e3 ). It is to mention that generalizing the
problem with bigger number of elements ( N 3 ) is trivial and is related only to the mathematical
formulation volume.
It is evident that the energy usage process is periodical, its period ( T ) being set objectively as twenty-
four hours. Thus, for the initial approximation it is logical to set the step volume ( t ) of discrete time
as equal to one hour ( t 1 ). That is, discrete moments of time when random system transition from
one stage to the other one are found as:

tk k 1, where k 1, 2,3,..., 24.
It is to mention that during the period t there should be no more than one switching on or off for
systems elements. It is evident that for the periodic random process of switching on and off t must
not exceed the period or be the periods multiple. It may be that, depending on the statement of
technical problem being solved, it is appropriate to select the volume of step t depending on discrete
time k , i.e., t k . Step volume grounding constitutes a problem apart being solved depending on
a particular technical problem, either heuristically or with a help of mathematical estimation [10]. In
total, the step volume is defined by the problems solutions precision and the calculations volume.
We assume that each of three elements can be in one of two possible states:
on-mode denoted with ;
off-mode denoted with .
In a process of independent functioning of each v th element of engineering system in discrete
moments of time k the following random transitions are taking place:
On-mode is kept, that is
r k
.
This random event is defined with the probability r k .

From on-mode to an off-mode, that is
r k
.
This opposite random event is defined with a probability r k and, consequently,
r k r k 1.
From off-mode to an on-mode, that is

v k
.
This random transition is defined with the probability v k . An off-mode is kept, that is
v k
.
This opposite random event is defined with the possibility of non-recovery v k , and, consequently,
v k v k 1.

Quantitatively, the probabilities of random transitions r k , r k , v k , v k are found as a

result of statistical processing the possessed experimental data:
n k n k
r k ; r k ;
N k N k
m k m k
v k ; v k .
M k M k
Here n k a number of transitions of element on k stage from on-mode to an on-mode;

n k a number of transitions of element on k stage from on-mode to an off-mode;
m k a number of transitions for element on k stage from an off-mode to an on-

mode;
m k a number of transitions of element on k stage from an off-mode to an off-mode;
N k a number of cases when element at the beginning of k stage is found in an on-

mode;
M k is a number of cases when element at the beginning of k stage is found in an
off-mode.
Here at the beginning of k th and the following (k 1) stage, there are evident equities:
N k n k n k ;
M k m k m k ;
N k 1 n k m k ;
M k 1 n k m k .
It is to mention that the volume of the main entity or the survey scope, i.e., the number of days when
the genuine experiment was conducted, does not depend on discrete time k , element number and
is a defined, whole number, constant:
N k M k const.
In the process of energy usage by engineering system in general, each of three independently
functioning elements is passing randomly from an on-mode to an off-mode and vice versa.
Possible states for engineering system are found with a help of states diagram or with generating
function [6] in quantity found as 23 :

S1 S8
S2 S7
S3 S6
S4 S5
The sequence of random events related to the abrupt transitions of engineering system throughout the
mentioned eight possible discrete states in defined discrete time moments is a random process which
happens in Markov discrete chain [8, 9]. To illustrate the dynamics of engineering systems
transitioning throughout probable states, the states symmetric graph is convenient:
Fig. 1. Symmetric graph of probable states.

Here the number of peaks and curves (transition probabilities) on the graph is found as 23 8;
223 64.
The provided graph and an appropriate nonhomogeneous Markovian discrete chain constitute the
dynamic model of energy usage process for the examined engineering system.
Mathematical model for Markov random process of energy usage. Mathematical model for
Markov random process of energy usage is made in conformity with provided above graph of
conditions of nonhomogeneous Markovian discrete chain and has the form of recurrent matrix
formula:

P81 k 1 P(88) k P(81) k , k 1, 2,3,..., 24.
Here a column matrix of probability P81 S j k 1 of eight conditions S j j 1, 2,3,...,8 for

engineering system on the following k 1 stage is defined according to the column matrix
P81 S j k of systems states probability on the previous k stage and square matrix P88 k of
transitional probabilities. It is to mention that the iteration process can begin with any reliably known
step k0 : P81 S j k0 . The elements of transitional probabilities square matrix P88 k , relevant to
the curves of graph of Markov discrete chain's states, are defined as transitional probabilities with the
use of statistically obtained probabilities of systems elements transitions r k , r k , v k ,
v k , i.e.,
p11 r1 r2 r3 p21 r1 r2 v3 p31 r1 v2 r3 p41 v1 r2 r3

p51 r1 v2 v3 p61 v1 r2 v3 p71 v1 v2 r3 p81 v1 v2 v3

where on each k step of discrete time the following conditions are met:
8
p k 1, i 1, 2, 3, 4,...,8 ,
j 1
ij
8
and also P S k 1 ,
j 1
j
i.e., the totals of matrix columns P88 k , P81 S j k , P81 S j k 1 are normalized.

Thus, a random process of energy usage by the examined engineering system is modeled with the
nonhomogeneous Markovian discrete chain described with a recurrent matrix formula represented in
detail in the following way:
P1 k 1 P1 k
p11 p21 p31 p41 p51 p61 p71 p81
P2 k 1 p12 p22 p32 p42 p52 p62 p72 p82 P2 k
P3 k 1 p13 p23 p33 p43 p53 p63 p73 p83 P3 k
P4 k 1 p14 p24 p34 p44 p54 p64 p74 p84 P4 k
.
P5 k 1 p15 p25 p35 p45 p55 p65 p75 p85 P5 k
P6 k 1 p16 p26 p36 p46 p56 p66 p76 p86 P k
6
P7 k 1 p17 p27 p37 p47 p57 p67 p77 p87 P k

7
p18 p28 p38 p48 p58 p68 p78 p88
P8 k 1 P8 k
Energy usage transitional chains of Smart house system
In a similar way, with a help of statistical method, random prices of energy usage by th element
on k th step with a time period t (depending on discrete time) are found:
n k n k
c k ; c k ;
t n k t n k
m k m k
l k ; l k .
t m k t m k
Here n k is a cost of energy usage by th element in cases when there are random transitions
from on to on state statistically found as n k ;
n k is a cost of energy usage by th element in cases when there are random transitions
from on to off state statistically found as n k ;
m k is a cost of energy usage by th element in cases of random transitions from off

to on state statistically found as m k ;
m k is a cost of energy usage by th element in cases of random transitions from off

to off state statistically found as m k .
Random transitional chains of turning energy supply on C and off L for the system Smart house
constitute the following discrete laws of distribution:

C k c k c k L k l k l k
; ;
R k r k r k V k v k v k
1, 2,3 .
Respective mathematical expectations of discrete random transitions for energy usage on time
interval t depend on discrete time k and are found as:
M C k c k r k c k r k ;
M L k l k v k l k v k .
The elements of square matrix C88 k for expected transitions of Smart house system throughout
possible states S1, S2 , S3 , S4 , S5 , S6 , S7 , S8 are found according to a worked out square matrix of
transitional probabilities P88 k and are the following:
c11 k r1 k r2 k r3 k c1 k c2 k c3 k ;
c12 k r1 k r2 k r3 k c1 k c2 k c3 k ;
c13 k r1 k r2 k r3 k c1 k c2 k c3 k ;
c14 k r1 k r2 k r3 k c1 k c2 k c3 k ;
c15 k r1 k r2 k r3 k c1 k c2 k c3 k ;
c16 k r1 k r2 k r3 k c1 k c2 k c3 k ;
c17 k r1 k r2 k r3 k c1 k c2 k c3 k ;
c18 k r1 k r2 k r3 k c1 k c2 k c3 k ;
c21 k r1 k r2 k v3 k c1 k c2 k l3 k ;
c22 k r1 k r2 k v3 k c1 k c2 k l3 k ;
c23 k r1 k r2 k v3 k c1 k c2 k l3 k ;
c24 k r1 k r2 k v3 k c1 k c2 k l3 k ;
c25 k r1 k r2 k v3 k c1 k c2 k l3 k ;
c26 k r1 k r2 k v3 k c1 k c2 k l3 k ;

c27 k r1 k r2 k v3 k c1 k c2 k l3 k ;
c28 k r1 k r2 k v3 k c1 k c2 k l3 k ;
c31 k r1 k v2 k r3 k c1 k l2 k c3 k ;
c32 k r1 k v2 k r3 k c1 k l2 k c3 k ;
c33 k r1 k v2 k r3 k c1 k l2 k c3 k ;
c34 k r1 k v2 k r3 k c1 k l2 k c3 k ;
c35 k r1 k v2 k r3 k c1 k l2 k c3 k ;
c36 k r1 k v2 k r3 k c1 k l2 k c3 k ;
c37 k r1 k v2 k r3 k c1 k l2 k c3 k ;
c38 k r1 k v2 k r3 k c1 k l2 k c3 k ;
c41 k v1 k r2 k r3 k l1 k c2 k c3 k ;
c42 k v1 k r2 k r3 k l1 k c2 k c3 k ;
c43 k v1 k r2 k r3 k l1 k c2 k c3 k ;
c44 k v1 k r2 k r3 k l1 k c2 k c3 k ;
c45 k v1 k r2 k r3 k l1 k c2 k c3 k ;
c46 k v1 k r2 k r3 k l1 k c2 k c3 k ;
c47 k v1 k r2 k r3 k l1 k c2 k c3 k ;
c48 k v1 k r2 k r3 k l1 k c2 k c3 k ;
c51 k r1 k v2 k v3 k c1 k l2 k l3 k ;
c52 k r1 k v2 k v3 k c1 k l2 k l3 k ;
c53 k r1 k v2 k v3 k c1 k l2 k l3 k ;
c54 k r1 k v2 k v3 k c1 k l2 k l3 k ;

c55 k r1 k v2 k v3 k c1 k l2 k l3 k ;
c56 k r1 k v2 k v3 k c1 k l2 k l3 k ;
c57 k r1 k v2 k v3 k c1 k l2 k l3 k ;
c58 k r1 k v2 k v3 k c1 k l2 k l3 k ;
c61 k v1 k r2 k v3 k l1 k c2 k l3 k ;
c62 k v1 k r2 k v3 k l1 k c2 k l3 k ;
c63 k v1 k r2 k v3 k l1 k c2 k l3 k ;
c64 k v1 k r2 k v3 k l1 k c2 k l3 k ;
c65 k v1 k r2 k v3 k l1 k c2 k l3 k ;
c66 k v1 k r2 k v3 k l1 k c2 k l3 k ;
c67 k v1 k r2 k v3 k l1 k c2 k l3 k ;
c68 k v1 k r2 k v3 k l1 k c2 k l3 k ;
c71 k v1 k v2 k r3 k l1 k l2 k c3 k ;
c72 k v1 k v2 k r3 k l1 k l2 k c3 k ;
c73 k v1 k v2 k r3 k l1 k l2 k c3 k ;
c74 k v1 k v2 k r3 k l1 k l2 k c3 k ;
c75 k v1 k v2 k r3 k l1 k l2 k c3 k ;
c76 k v1 k v2 k r3 k l1 k l2 k c3 k ;
c77 k v1 k v2 k r3 k l1 k l2 k c3 k ;
c78 k v1 k v2 k r3 k l1 k l2 k c3 k ;
c81 k v1 k v2 k v3 k l1 k l2 k l3 k ;

c82 k v1 k v2 k v3 k l1 k l2 k l3 k ;
c83 k v1 k v2 k v3 k l1 k l2 k l3 k ;
c84 k v1 k v2 k v3 k l1 k l2 k l3 k ;
c85 k v1 k v2 k v3 k l1 k l2 k l3 k ;
c86 k v1 k v2 k v3 k l1 k l2 k l3 k ;
c87 k v1 k v2 k v3 k l1 k l2 k l3 k ;
c88 k v1 k v2 k v3 k l1 k l2 k l3 k .
Mathematical expectations for costs of Smart house systems transitions from different
states. Mathematical expectations of Smart house systems transitions from eight possible states
are found with a help of mathematical expectations for energy usage transitional costs M C k ,
M L k for each of three elements [6]:
M S1 k M C1 k M C2 k M C3 k ; M S5 k M C1 k M L2 k M L3 k ;
M S2 k M C1 k M C2 k M L3 k ; M S6 k M L1 k M C2 k M L3 k ;
M S3 k M C1 k M L2 k M C3 k ; M S7 k M L1 k M L2 k M C3 k ;
M S4 k M L1 k M C2 k M C3 k ; M S8 k M L1 k M L2 k M L3 k ,
or with a help of transitional prices matrix C88 k , as a total of its columns elements:
8 8
M S1 k c1 j k ; M S5 k c5 j k ;
j 1 j 1
8 8
M S2 k c2 j k ; M S6 k c6 j k ;
j 1 j 1
8 8
M S3 k c3 j k ; M S7 k c7 j k ;
j 1 j 1
8 8
M S4 k c4 j k ; M S8 k c8 j k .
j 1 j 1
The obtained mathematical expectations of costs for Smart house systems transitions from each
possible state constitute a row matrix:
M 18 k M S1 k M S2 k M S3 k M S4 k M S5 k M S6 k M S7 k M S8 k ,

corresponding to a column matrix P81 k of these states probabilities.
Smart house systems states identification in discrete time according to the energy usage
level.
Mathematical expectations for the cost of Smart house systems wandering throughout possible
states depending on discrete time k are found as:
M k M 18 k P81 k .
Then, the cost of energy usage by Smart house system on time interval t is found with a help of
formula
k M k t.
The total value of Markov energy usage process on finite set of steps k0 , constituting twenty-four
hours is estimated as a total of
k0
k0 k .
k 0
Summary. The mathematical models of stochastic processes of failures, recoveries of a broad class
of systems described by discrete asymmetric Markov chains were developed. The algorithms to assess
the economic efficiency of systems modeled by discrete asymmetric Markov chains are proposed.
Mathematical models of stochastic processes and algorithms for evaluation the economic efficiency
of systems are presented in matrix dorm and adapted to use of computer technology.
Generalization of the offered algorithm for bigger number of elements in the system is a trivial one.
The difficulties related to the awkwardness of the required mathematical operations are overcome
with a help of advanced software development and modern computing hardware usage.
References
[1] G. W. Hart, Nonintrusive appliance load monitoring, Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 80, no. 12,
Dec. 1992, pp. 1870-1891.
[2] M. Weiss, A. Helfenstein, F. Mattern, T. Staake, Leveraging smart meter data to recognize home
appliances, Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Pervasive Computing and
Communications (PerCom 2012), Lugano, Switzerland, March 2012, pp. 190-197.
[3] Alan P. Rossiter (Editor), Beth P. Jones (Editor), Energy management and efficiency for the
process industries, AICHE Inc., John&Sons Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey, 2015, 400 p., ISBN: 978-1-
118-83825-9.
[4] B. Ayyub, R. Mccuen, Probability, statistics & reliability for engineers, CRC Press, New York,
1997, 663 p.
[5] A. Birolini, Quality and Reliability of Technical Systems: Theory, Practice, Management, Edition
Springer, 2004. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-97983-5.
[6] V. Kravets, Vl. Kravets, O. Burov, Reliability of Systems. Part 1. Statics of Failures. Lap Lambert
Academic Publishing, Omni Scriptum GmbH & Co. KG., 2016.
[7] E.S. Ventcel', Issledovanie operacij [Operations research], Moscow, Sovetskoe radio Publ., 1972,
552 p. [in Russian].

[8] E.S. Ventcel', L.A. Ovcharov, Theory of random processes and its engineering application,
Moscow, Nauka Publ., 1991, 384 p.
[9] V. Kravets, Vl. Kravets, O. Burov, Reliability of Systems. Part 2. Dynamics of Failures. Lap
Lambert Academic Publishing, Omni Scriptum GmbH & Co. KG., 2016.
[10] V.A. Kotelnikov, R.A. Silverman, Theory of optimum noise immunity, New York, Dover Publ.,
1968, 140 p.
[11] Victor Kravets, Vladimir Kravets & Olexiy Burov (2016). Matrix Method for Assessing
Economic Efficiency of Systems Simulated with Asymmetric Markov Discrete Chains, Automation,
Software Development & Engineering Journal, ISSN 2415-6531

Statistical Control of the Technological Process Stability to Manufacturing

Cylindrical Parts into High Series
Viorel-Mihai Nani1, 2, a, b
1 Research Institute for Renewable Energy, Politehnica University of Timisoara, G. Muzicescu Street, no. 138, 300774,
Timisoara, Romania
2 Faculty of Engineering, University Ioan Slavici of Timisoara, Paunescu Podeanu Street, no. 144, 300568, Timisoara,
Romania
a viorelnani@yahoo.com
b viorel.nani@upt.ro
DOI 10.13140/RG.2.2.33528.65284
Keywords: statistical control limits, arithmetic mean, standard deviation, fraction of probable defective parts,
technological process stability.
ABSTRACT. This paper presents a calculation algorithm for verifying on-line of the manufacturing process stability in
large and mass series of some cylindrical parts from axes type. Through experimental investigations, we conducted a
statistical control on a sample parts batch to determine the machining accuracy of some checking turret lathes.
In the first phase, we performed a statistical analysis of the technological process preceding the manufacture of cylindrical
parts in large and mass series. For checking the normality assumption of the deviations for parts machined, we established
the main statistical parameters as being arithmetic mean and standard deviation. With these parameters, I could calculate
the fraction of probable defective parts.
In the second phase, we determined the control limits for the arithmetic mean and standard deviation. With these
parameters I could pursue in chronological order the actual achievement of the workpiece size. In this way, I could check
the technological process stability on-line for well-defined periods time, between two successive adjustments of the
machine-tools.
Introduction. Following the actual technological manufacturing process of the cylindrical parts from
the axes type, these will have deviations from the dimensional accuracy and geometric shape [2 and
7]. The main factors contributing to the processing deviations emergence are [1, 6, 8 and 9]: the
geometrical inaccuracy of machine-tools; the imprecision of the measuring instruments used; the
fastener imprecision of workpiece and of the cutting tools; the wear of cutting tools; the variation and
modification during the cutting process the thermal parameters for machine tools, fastener devices,
workpiece and cutting tools; the elastic deformation of the technological system; the unevenness of
cutting depth; the variation of internal stresses into the processing material.
The manufacture type and the causes producing these deviations, determine the check method for the
machining process stability. Into the large and mass series production case, it uses exclusively a
statistical analysis [1, 3, 5, 6, 11 and 12]. Being a section of this analysis, the statistical control is
carried out on a sample of representative parts, considered as a standard. Thus, both during the
manufacturing process and after its completion [2, 4, 6, 7, 8 and 13], batches of 100 pieces are taken
to be checked individually. The statistical analysis of the measurement results provides information
about the technological process stability. But the timeframes needed to process the experimental data
can adversely influence the productive capacity, with negative effects on manufacturing costs.
In paper we propose an active statistical control of the machining accuracy, conducted on-line during
the technological process. The experimental investigations demonstrated the supercomputing
capacity of relevant information in connection with possible trends of disturbance/impairment or

decreasing the manufacturing accuracy [9, 10, 12 and 14]. In this way it was possible to correct
operative the technological process without interrupting the manufacturing cycle, for it to be stable
over time and to avoid the emergence of non-conforming parts.
Investigations were conducted over some cylindrical parts of the axes type which have been
manufactured in high series on a checking turret lathe. The schematic diagram is shown in Figure 1.
2
III A B
II
1
IV1
3 IV
V1 4
I
V
E CHexagon turret
is rotated to 900 in
8 vertical plan
D
5
7 6
Fig. 1. The principle scheme of the testing plant.
The blank denoted by A has the shape of a long cylindrical bar. This one it is operated in a primary
rotational movement I with the help of a gripping device D. The metal cutting of the blank takes place
in a sequential cycle of movements II - III - IV/IV1 - V/V1, using tools which are adjusted to
dimension. A positioning device B includes a running center 1, and a buffer brake 2 as a plug. Another
device C as a hexagon turret contains a specified number of tools for each technological operation.
Thus: a necking tool 3 for grooving; a facing tool 4 for frontal lathing one end; a center drill 5; a hook
tool 6 for exterior lathing; an angle cutting tool7 for beveling at 450 and a parting tool 8. Another
device E ensures the working advance of the blank A for processing new parts.
The technological itinerary it is: (1) the blank is fixed into D by movements II; (2) the blank into the
rotation movement I is actuated; first, are processed the clean-frontal one end and the centering hole,
with the help of the tools 4 and 5; (3) the device D releases the blank A which it is driven by device
E up to contact with the buffer (plug) 2; (4) the device B, through the movements IV - IV1, ensures a
supplementary support for the blank A by the means of running center 1, after which it takes place
processing the exterior cylindrical surfaces with the help of the hook tool 6, through the movements
V - V1; (5) is continue processing of the two channels by means of the necking tool 3, after which the
edges are beveled at 450 with the angle cutting tool 7; (6) the workpiece fall off by means of the
parting tool 3 and the technological cycle stands ready to start again.
The main statistical parameters. The main statistical parameters that characterize a certain size X
from a controlled parts series [1, 4, 6 and 15], can be grouped as follows:
1 Parameters of general trend, giving information on adjustments made:

1.1 The unweighted arithmetic mean of the sampling fraction string x ; for a discrete distribution, it is
calculated using the relationship:
n
xi
x
i 1 n
(1)
where xi the actual size of the controlled parts in their manufacturing order I from the sampling
fraction string n;
n number of parts constituting the controlled sample size
1.2 The median of the sampling fraction string M e , i.e. the value for which the frequencies having
smaller or higher values than herself are equal, and calculate with the relationship:
- For an uneven number n of ordered parts ascending, n = 2k + 1:
M e xk 1
(2)
- For an even number n of ordered parts ascending, n = 2k
xk xk 1
Me
2 (3)
where k = 1, 2, 3,
1.3 The modal value of the sampling fraction string M 0 , which is the characteristic value with the
highest frequency, and calculate with the relationship
M 0 x 3 (M e x )
(4)
1.4 The central value of the sampling fraction string x c , which calculate with
xmax xmin
xc
2 (5)
2 The parameters of scattering, giving indications about the processing accuracy:

2.1 Dispersion of the sampling fraction string 2 , which is calculated for the discrete distributions
using formula:

k f j .(x j x )2
2

j 1 n
(6)
where fj the frequency values the same rank j

2.2 The standard deviation of the sampling fraction string , which is given by the square root of
dispersion:
k f j .( x j x ) 2
n
j 1
(7)
2.3 The amplitude of the sample fraction string D, is calculated as the difference between highest and
the lowest value measured:
D xmax xmin (8)
Statistical control of processing accuracy. We supposed that on the dimensional dispersion of the
measured semi-products, acts only random variables as accidental factors [1, 5, 7, 9 and 15].
Moreover, we supposed that a predominant influence no factor hasnt; in this case, the random
variable it is subject to a normal distribution law (Laplace and Gauss) and its function has the form:
( x x)2
1
F ( x)
2
e 2 2
dx
, (9)
where x and are distribution parameters (arithmetic mean and standard deviation).
Statistical control was performed during the technological process and includes the following
sequence: (1) statistical analysis of the technological process before application the control; (2)
development of data sheet for control; (3) performing the proper statistical control;
1 Statistical analysis it applies before using statistical control [1, 9, 12, 14 and 15]. Statistical
analysis aims evaluation of the technological process stability as well as the statistical parameters
determination. With the help of these parameters it will perform control in the event that
manufacturing process is stable and is conducted normally. The analysis steps are the following: (1)
conducting the survey on a representative group of parts (usually 100 pcs, processed successively);
(2) the preparation of the time graphic; (3) the variability study of the technological process; (4)
independence checking of results achieved; (5) checking of the normality assumption; (6) calculating
the fraction of probable defective parts and drawing conclusions about technological process.
2 The control data sheet practically, here are identified the nonconformities and it is detected the
time of onset of perturbations in the technological process by recording and interpreting the variations
statistical parameters as well the values characteristic compared to some control limits [2, 5 and 13].
Mainly, are used two statistical parameters: one for tendency (when adjustments are made), and the
other for scattering (when accuracy repairs are made). According to these parameters, the following

more common methods are used: (1) method of arithmetic mean and the standard deviation; (2)
method of arithmetic mean and the amplitude; (3) method of the median and of the amplitude.
3 Performing the proper statistical control - according to the chronological criterion, to well-defined
timeframes, samples of parts are taken. After that, the two select statistical parameters should be
determined [2, 3 and 13]. If they it falls between the established control limits, the technological
process takes place normally and can it continue. When one of the parameters is outside the control
limits, means the technological process is unstable (adjustments and/or repairs are needed) and
requires stopping the machine-tools for detecting and removing the causes. The parts which were
processed during the timeframe from the preceding sample verification they will be rigorously
controlled, piece by piece, because appeared rejects. The technological process can continue after
remedying the nonconformities.
Statistical control of the technological process stability. Application to manufacturing
cylindrical parts. The work drawing of the cylindrical parts is shown in Figure 2. These parts are
used for the closure devices of the tarpaulins on TIR-s. Heat treated at 28-32 HRC, the parts are made
from quality steel 3C45 (SR EN 10083-1.2). The market demands require machining some axes in
batches of 40 000 pcs/month. From functionally, is important to ensure the assembly quota of
120 0.045 mm. The sharp edges are beveled to 0.5 x 450.
12+0.045
7.4
7.4
9.8
10
10
9.8
1.2 0.8 20 45 0.8 1.2
90
Fig. 2. The work drawing of the axes.
The experimental tests were based exclusively on the active control of the assembly quota during
processing (12 0 0.045 mm). The statistical parameters used were the arithmetic mean x and standard
deviation . With the help of these parameters, we calculated the specific control limits, valid for
machining of the cylindrical parts indicated in Figure 2. The sampling on-line to well defined
timeframes, the measuring of the functional quota and the automatic processing of the values effective
measured provides important information about the stability of the technological process.
1 Statistical analysis of the technological process before application the statistical control
1.1 Conducting the survey - we determined actual values xi of the controlled size N 1200.045 for a
number n = 100 pcs, in the order of their processing. The measurement results were recorded in the
data sheet which is shown in Table 1. For measurements, we used a micrometer with dial comparator
heaving a measuring field 0 25 mm and 0.002 mm division value.

Table 1. The effective values measured for a batch n = 100 pcs in the successive processing order.
No. xi No. xi No. xi No. xi
crt. /mm/ crt. /mm/ crt. /mm/ crt. /mm/
1. 12.010 26. 12.016 51. 12.022 76. 12.014
2. 12.006 27. 12.018 52. 12.024 77. 12.022
3. 12.008 28. 12.022 53. 12.020 78. 12.024
4. 12.004 29. 12.012 54. 12.020 79. 12.016
5. 12.012 30. 12.026 55. 12.018 80. 12.020
6. 12.016 31. 12.014 56. 12.022 81. 12.020
7. 12.002 32. 12.008 57. 12.016 82. 12.028
8. 12.008 33. 12.014 58. 12.018 83. 12.018
9. 12.016 34. 12.016 59. 12.022 84. 12.022
10. 12.014 35. 12.010 60. 12.020 85. 12.026
11. 12.010 36. 12.018 61. 12.030 86. 12.024
12. 12.006 37. 12.022 62. 12.024 87. 12.020
13. 12.012 38. 12.012 63. 12.014 88. 12.018
14. 12.004 39. 12.020 64. 12.020 89. 12.030
15. 12.010 40. 12.012 65. 12.022 90. 12.022
16. 12.008 41. 12.014 66. 12.018 91. 12.028
17. 12.016 42. 12.028 67. 12.028 92. 12.020
18. 12.014 43. 12.020 68. 12.020 93. 12.024
19. 12.012 44. 12.026 69. 12.024 94. 12.034
20. 12.020 45. 12.022 70. 12.016 95. 12.018
21. 12.026 46. 12.018 71. 12.022 96. 12.026
22. 12.018 47. 12.016 72. 12.024 97. 12.020
23. 12.002 48. 12.020 73. 12.018 98. 12.022
24. 12.014 49. 12.020 74. 12.020 99. 12.032
25. 12.010 50. 12.012 75. 12.020 100. 12.024

1.2 The time graphic - allows the formulation some comments on the dynamic stability of the
technological process. The measurement results are shown in Figure 3 in a rectangular axis system.
xi
(10-3 mm)
35
30
25
20
15
10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Order number
Fig. 4. The time graphic of the measurement results.
On the ordinate is plotted the effective value of the controlled size N denoted xi, and on abscissa is
the order number of the measured piece, of 5 in 5 in the strict order of processing.
Analyzing the time graphic, it can be noted a slight upward trend in the effective size of the measured
quota. This we explain by the pronounced wear of the tool edge, when is freshly sharpened, and due
to thermal instability of the technological system in the beginning period of the machining.
1.3 Variability study of technological process - consists into determining the distribution law of actual
values N 12 00.045 of the measured parts. From statistically, is identifies the effective values
measured xmax and xmin and then it calculate the amplitude D, using equation (8). In this case:
D = 12.034 12.002 = 0.032 mm
The amplitude D it is divided into k = 5 equal intervals, and the effective values of the measured parts
contained in each interval, form a class; we highlight that each class includes and the values which
are equal to the lower limit of interval. For each class, it determine the mean value x j and the absolute
frequency mj, where j = 1, 2, , 5 represents the order number of class.
The distribution parameters ( x and ) is calculated, where the measured values are grouped in classes
of equal amplitudes, with the following relationships:
5 xj c
m j

d

xcd
j 1
(10)
n
Respectively
2
5 xj c
m j
c x
2
d
j 1 d n

n 1 n 1 d
(11)

where d the amplitude of class (d = 0.007);

c the mean value with the greatest frequency (c = x10= 12.020)
To simplify the calculation for determining the distribution parameters, Table 2 was prepared.
Table 2. The items for calculating the statistical distribution parameters (arithmetic mean and
standard deviation).
No. Class limits xj mj xj c xj c xj c
2
m j . m j .
class d d d

I 12.000- 12.0035 6 - 2.357 - 14.142 33.332
12.007
II 12.007- 12.0105 16 - 1.357 - 21.712 29.463
12.014
III 12.014- 12.0175 45 - 0.357 - 16.065 5.735
12.021
IV 12.021- 12.0245 25 0.643 16.075 10.336
12.028
V 12.028- 12.0315 8 1.643 13.144 21.595
12.035
= - 22.70 = 100.461
Substituting the values obtained into above relations (10 and 11), we obtain the following distribution
parameters:
22,70
x 12.020 0.007 x 12.020 0.007 x 0.227 12.018 mm
100
Respectively
2
100.461 100 12.020 12.018
0.007 x 0.007 1.01475 0.08245 0.00676
99 99 0.007

The histogram of distribution in a system of rectangular axis, where on ordinate is the absolute
frequency of class mj, j = 1, 2, , 5 and on abscissa the order number of the class, is shown in Figure
4.
mj
40
30
20
10
0 I II III IV V
No. class
xmin = 12.002 D = 0.032
xmax = 12.034
Fig. 4. Histogram of the absolute frequencies.
1.4 Checking of the normality assumption

To check the concordance between the experimental distribution and a certain theoretical distribution,
we calculated [9, 10, 11 and 15]:
k (m j n p j ) 2
2

j 1 n pj
(12)
and we compared this value with the critical value established into statistical tables, where pj is the
probability calculated on basis of the theoretical distribution so that the characteristic size to have a
value within the interval j.
For this purpose, for simplify the analytical calculations, we drawn up Table 3. In this table, the
minimum number of classes was originally 10. But, by merging with the adjoining classes [1 and 10]
we reached 8 classes because absolute frequency of the values from extreme classes was lower than
5 (we had 4 in first class, respectively 2 in the tenth class).
Values of function (zj) can be found into mathematical tables and the probabilities pj are set as
follows [2, 7, 12, 13 and 14]:
p1 ( z1 ) 0.5
p j ( z j ) ( z j 1 )
p k 0.5 ( z k 1 ), (13)
where k the class number (k = 1, 2, , 8);

( z j ) - Laplaces function.

Table 3. Items for calculation of the parameter 2.

No. Class limits xi mj
zj
xi x ( z j ) pj m j n p j 2 m j n p j 2
crt. d n pj
1. - - 12.0084 12.0084 10 - 1.37 - 0.0853 2.1609 0.2533
0.4147
2. 12.008412.0116 12.0116 5 - 0.91 - 0.0961 2.2521 2.2114
0.3186
3. 12.0116-12.0148 12.0148 15 - 0.46 - 0.1414 0.7396 0.0523
0.1772
4. 12.0148-12.0180 12.0180 9 0 0 0.1772 76.0384 4.2911
5. 12.0180-12.0212 12.0212 28 0.46 0.1772 0.1772 105.6784 5.9637
6. 12.0212-12.0244 12.0244 20 0.91 0.3186 0.1414 34.3396 2.4285
7. 12.0244-12.0276 12.0276 5 1.37 0.4147 0.0961 21.2521 2.2114
8. 12.0276- + + 8 + 1 0.0853 0.2809 0.0329
= 100 =1 = 17.4446
If the actual and theoretical statistical distribution are into accordance, the calculated size calc will
2
not exceed a critical value crit . The critical value is appropriate to risk of order I() and to the degrees
2
number of freedom . The risk of order I() is determined in such a way that P calc crit .
2 2

Really, for the degrees number of freedom = 10 - 3 = 7 (its was determined in accordance with the
extreme classes that have mj<5, as well the statistical parameters - arithmetic mean x and standard
deviation 2 - which were calculated based on observed data) and for the risk of the order
0.001 p 0.0024 0.02 with = 0.01, we obtained crit2
18.5 . This value is obviously greater
than the size calculated calc
2
17.446 .
Therefore, for experimental data resulting from measuring the functional quota of the axes N, we
admit the normality assumption and we accept that the statistical distribution unfolds normally.
1.5 Calculating the fraction of probable defective parts
The fraction defective or the percentages of probable rejected parts, represent probability that the
characteristic value xi to exceed the limits of tolerance field and it is calculated with [3, 4, 9, 11, 12
and 14]:
p 1 ( z s ) ( z i ) (14)
where:
Ts Tc Ti Tc
zs and z i (15)

where Ts and Ti upper respectively lower limit of the specified tolerance field;
Tc center of the specified tolerance field;
(zs) and (zi) Laplaces function values.
Substituting the known values, both those provided in the work drawing, and those obtained by
effective measurements, we obtain:

0.045 0.0225 0 0.0225

zs 3.33 , respectively z i 3.33
0.00676 0.00676
Substituting the values for the arguments, zs and zi, and knowing that (-z) = (z), we obtain the
following values for Laplaces function:
( z s ) ( zi ) 0.4988
Consequently, the fraction of probable defective parts it is:
p 1 0.4988 0.4988 1 0.9976 0.0024
Since 0.001 p 0.0024 0.02, the scattering field of the random variables xi is approximately equal
to the specified tolerance field in the work drawing. Under these conditions, the technological process
is carries out normally and it is controllable in statistical terms.
2 Statistical control based on arithmetic mean and standard deviation
For the checking efficiency of manufacturing process stability of the parts type axes, it is accepted
that the further controlled sample, is n = 5 pcs. The timeframe between two successive samples,
depending on the production volume, is [2, 10. 11 and 14]:
60
It nM / min/ (16)
pm
where pm production rhythm /pcs/hour/;

M the mean number of parts processed between two successive adjustments /pcs/
From technical documentation resulted that the time norm to the axes processing on turret lathes is
1.25 min/pcs and the average number of machined parts between two successive adjustments is 500
pcs. With this information, the timeframe between two successive adjustments of the machine-tool
is:
60
It 5 x 500 62.5 min
45
Thus, at intervals of 62.5 minutes, are taking samples how many 5 pcs. For each sample, we calculate
the arithmetic mean and standard deviation, with relations:
x
5 5
1 1

2
xi xij , respectively i ij xi (17)
5 j 1 5 j 1

where i represent the samples rank;

j the part number in the order of processing (j = 1, 2, , 5)
Under these conditions, the control limits for arithmetic mean was calculated depending on the
standard deviation for the fraction of probable defective parts 0.001 p 0.0024 0.02 using the
relationships [1, 7, 10, 11 and 14]:
Lci x Tc A , respectively Lcs x Tc A (18)
where Tc center of the specified tolerance field;

A coefficient calculated from statistical tables for risk of the order I() and the argument z
Therefore, the effective values of the control limits for arithmetic mean are:
Lci x 0.0225 1.431 x 0.00676 0.013 , respectively
Lcs x 0.0225 1.431 x 0.00676 0.032
In order that the machined parts to be accepted, the first time it is need that each tool be adjusted to
dimension, so that the scattering field center of errors to overlap with the middle of the tolerance field.
Namely, by software, the tool edges are adjusted to quota 12.0225 mm. If for each sample of 5 pcs
consecutive machined, the arithmetic mean is located within the limits of 0.013 mm and 0.032 mm,
then the machine tool is properly adjusted and the technological process is stable.
Control limit for the standard deviation is established in function by the size of the fraction of probable
defective parts so that the risk of order I() to be as small as:
Lc G (19)
where G coefficient calculated from statistical tables for risk of the order I()
Consequently, the effective value of the control limit for standard deviation is:
Lc 2.12 x 0.00676 0.014
If for each sample of 5 pcs consecutive machined, the standard deviation is less than the control limit
Lc 0.014, then tool ensures the processing accuracy, and the technological process is stable.
3 Performing the proper statistical control
During the manufacturing process of each batch of 40 000 pcs, at time intervals of 62.5 minutes, it is
extract on-line a sample of 5 pcs successively processed under practically identical conditions. With
these samples values, we can calculate the arithmetic mean and standard deviation for the functional
quota N, using relationships (17). The calculated values are then compared with control limits
established by relations (18) and (19).

If the calculated statistical parameters fall between the control limits, then technological process is
stable and the machined parts are appropriate.
Discussions and conclusions. The experimental researches have constituted the background of a
verification algorithm on-line of the technological process stability for manufacturing cylindrical
parts on turret lathes. Has been designed a predictive model for operating data and/or technological
parameters, which was based on the evolution analyze of statistical parameters. It is not important
how was made the sampling of operative data. The parts can be actively controlled, during processing
or manually, at certain timeframe.
Thus, based on the anticipated results determined by calculating the arithmetic mean and standard
deviation on samples of 5 pcs collected to preset timeframes, we can formulate the following
conclusions:
- if x i and i are in the established control limits, it is considered that the technological process is
carried out normally and the processed parts are appropriate with the technical documentation;
- if x i exceeds one of limit but i is below the limit established, means that the adjustment of
machine-tool has been affected; in this case, it stops the turret lathe for restoring the adjustment, and
the processed parts in the timeframe from the previous control they will check piece by piece;
- if i exceeds the limit established, regardless the arithmetic mean position toward its control limits,
means that was affected the precision of machine-tool; the checking turret lathe it stops and by the
appropriate maintenance program (current repairs and/or major repairs) it is brought to normal
parameters of geometric precision; the processed parts in the timeframe from the previous control
they will check piece by piece, also;
The importance of verification algorithm lies in that enables, among others, determination on-line of
the instability trend of the technological process. In this way, we can take action to prevent any
disturbances of machine-tool leading to the appearance of defective parts and stop the production
(small adjustments, compensation the tool's wear or changing some worn parts of machine-tool etc.).
References
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Conceptual Model of Lapwing Amphibious Aircraft
Iftikhar B. Abbasov1, Viacheslav V. Orekhov1
1 Southern Federal University, Nekrasovskyi lane, 44, Taganrog, Russia
DOI 10.13140/RG.2.2.12856.14081
Keywords: conceptual model, amphibious aircraft, bionics, 3D model, method of polygonal extrude, shading and
rendering.
ABSTRACT. The paper is dedicated to computational modelling of conceptually new amphibious aircraft. Based on the
analysis of bionical forms of operational medium there provided are the visual and graphical solutions of the developed
model. Sketch drawings considering the requirements of ergonomics are provided, sketch of amphibious aircraft 3D
model is created. Based on sketch projects the stage-by-stage 3D modelling of amphibious aircraft structural parts was
performed. Modelling has been provided by methods of polygonal extrude. Materials shading and rendering provided at
sub-object level. There provided are the scenes of rendering of shaded 3D model of amphibious aircraft.
Introduction. Today hydroaviation is actively used in different fields, starting from fire-fighting and
effective-rescue operations up to passenger traffic. The issues of applying modern technologies of
modelling for aircraft designing are challenging. The most important stage is the development of
preliminary concept of transportation means. Let us review some of the modern literary sources in
this field. The article [15] is dedicated to conceptual designing of aircraft, where aerodynamic
properties of bird wings are considered. The works [14], [18] study the issues of designing economical
passenger aircraft.
The article [7] is dedicated to conceptual designing of passenger aircraft of flying wing type. There
provided and analysed are the different variants of aerodynamic configurations. The work [8] contains
the peculiarities of conceptual designing of new generation of supersonic aircraft with original
arrangement of landing gear and fuel tank. Article [9] describes the peculiarities of implementing
modern program tools for the purposes of designing. There described are the possibilities of new
program for aircraft structure development. The issues of conceptual designing initial stage are
described in detail in book [13]. There provided is the methodological base of idea generation stages,
determination of initial requirements for future structure. The book [23] contains the peculiarities of
preliminary and conceptual designing of aircraft. Modern systems of automated designing are
described in detail.
This work is dedicated to three-dimensional computer-aided modelling of new concept of amphibious
aircraft. It is supposed that the developed model will be in the middle segment of hydroaviation
market. In the result of amphibious aircraft market review we can remark the following aircraft of
low passenger capacity up to 25 persons: Be-103 produced by Beriev Aircraft Company [21], flying
amphibious boat Airmaster Avalon-680 produced in the USA, amphibious aircraft Do-24 produced
by German company Dornier Seastar [20]. For the developed model the crew will consist of 2 persons,
the passenger compartment can contain up to 24 passengers.
It is necessary to note, that the issues of computer-aided modelling of aircraft were studied by the
authors in the works [3-4]. The work [3] provides conceptual visual and graphical solutions of new
aircraft based on bionical forms analysis.

Concept development. In every field of our life, everything in our environment is the product of
human thought. The manufacturing of these subjects and objects starts from concept development,
creation of prototype of future item [11], [12]. If earlier rather large expenses and materials were
required for this purpose, then today in the era of computer-aided technologies this task is simplified,
there is no limit for the designers ideas and imagination.
The process of conceptual development and modelling of transportation means takes several stages.
At the first stage the sketch was created, the general view of future model is drawn: compositional
solution; proportion of component parts relatively each other; main style solutions [17], [10]. Based
on the analysis of natural shapes rendering the concept of future prototype is selected.
In the course of concept development a method of designing based on bionical forms was used.
Mammals, fish and birds can provide the designer with interesting visual solutions. At that aircraft
fuselage, and mainly flying boat one, shall meet the requirements of aero- and hydrodynamics at the
same time. That is why the designers have the task of searching for a compromise. In the course of
creative search of aircraft outlines, some visual and graphical solutions were found, the base of which
became natural biological forms living in this environment (Fig.1-4).
Fig. 1. Blue whale and sketch of amphibious aircraft fuselage.

Fig. 2. Finback whale and sketch of amphibious aircraft fuselage.
Fig. 3. Mackerel and sketch of amphibious aircraft fuselage.

Fig. 4. Flying fish in natural living conditions and sketch of amphibious aircraft fuselage.
Based on the analysis of natural forms rendering of off-shore strips the bird lapwing (northern
lapwing) has been selected. Northern lapwing (vanellus vanellus - in Latin) is a small bird of dotterel
family, it lives in water ponds, has good flying properties, during mating season the males attract the
females by air games (Fig.5) [22]. Black-and-white colour of its coat will be used for three-
dimensional model shading in future. Fig.6 provides preliminary design, sketches of the future item
forms.
Fig. 5. Lapwing bird.

Fig. 6. Preliminary sketch.
Then the model is drawn in detail with reference to medium dimensions, in which the item is planned
for operation, biometric parameters of a man considering the requirements of ergonomics (Fig.7, 8)
[19], [2].
Fig. 7. Left board view of prototype.
Fig. 8. Prototype reference to anthropometric and ergonomic requirements.
The base of future hydro-aircraft Lapwing concept is water-borne wing capable of glissading on
three points (step, left and right rear edges of centre wing). Such scheme is very advantageous for
stable movement on the water at taking-off and landing regimes and increase of seaworthiness. Low
location of the wing relatively the boat creates increase of elevating force due to ground effect at
taking-off and landing, allows simplifying and lightening the structure of aircraft (Fig.9).

Fig. 9. Front view and top view of amphibious aircraft prototype.
The dimensions of prototype body shall consider the requirements of future interior and tasks on
cargo containers arrangement. Wing span is 18.5 m, aircraft length is 16.9 m, and height is 4.87 m.
Fuselage structure can be done from aluminium alloys with the application of composite materials.
In the top part of fuselage there are power elements on the base of solar batteries for partial power
supply to aircraft on board network. Aircraft wing has all-metal structure, it has trapezoidal shape
with root extensions; it consists of centre wing and two removable panels. On the wing end there are
winglets and tips that are designed for increasing effective wing span and lifting force. For the
provision of resistance to flooding the wing is separated by water-proof partitions to sections.
Vertical tail fins are single-fin, cantilever. In the top part of the fin there is controllable stabilizing
fin. Landing gear is three-leg type, the diameter of rear leg tires is larger than the front one. Power
unit consists of two turbojet engines located on the pylons close to fuselage tail part.
For cargo-carrying variant, the increase of fuselage length by 1 m is provided with the help of insert.
It aims to locate cargo door with dimension 17001700 mm along the right board. The crew consists
of 2 persons (as for business class variant one steward is added). The passenger compartment can
contain up to 26 passengers, in cargo-carrying variant 4 LD2 containers are provided.
Fig.10 provides shaded sketch of three-dimensional model of amphibious aircraft. The aircraft is
designed for use at short-distance lines in different regions of the world, in regions with large number
of rivers, lakes, shallow water ponds that are hard-to-reach for other types of transport. It can be used
for transportation of passengers, cargos, fire-fighting supervision, patrolling, ecological control of
water areas, provision of emergency medical care, rendering emergency-rescue works, rest and
tourism.
Fig. 10. Shaded sketch of three-dimensional model of amphibious aircraft.
3D modelling of amphibious aircraft Lapwing

Modelling of amphibious aircraft structure shall be done with the help of graphic system of three-
dimensional modelling 3ds Max. The graphic system 3ds Max allows working with drawings made
in other graphic packages, thus extending the possibilities of the designer [1]. Three-dimensional
model of amphibious aircraft can be created by different methods, one of which is the method of
polygonal extrude. For this method, the modelling starts from creating three perpendicular planes with
aircraft projections located on them.
For fuselage modelling created using the polygon based on Plane primitive element with the number
of segments at and Y axes equal to 1. Later this primitive element shall be transferred into Editable
Poly object. According to fuselage projection the object surface is created by sequential duplication
of one of polygon planes (Fig.11). At that body half is created for construction convenience with
consideration of model longitudinal symmetry.

Fig. 11. Sequential extrude of fuselage polygons.
In the course of planes extruding it is necessary to maintain constant number of polygons along the
whole fuselage in order to prevent problems with geometry and further modification of model. Then
the aircraft body is created by method of sequential extrusion of group of polygons followed by
projects adjustment (Fig.12).
Fig. 12. Model control in front view.
The received result is the base for fuselage, the other structural parts of the aircraft are extruded by
similar method: tail fins, wing, engine pylon, engine body, lifting propeller (Fig.13, 14, 15) [24], [16].
The wing has complicated profile, because it plays the lifting role for the aircraft in glissading mode
and works as the screen increasing the lifting force in the moment of taking-off from water surface.
At the next stage the model geometry is modified. Fuselage modification supposes modelling of
transparency and side windows. The wing together with steering control and horizontal stabilizer is
also designed in detail.

Fig. 13. Fuselage body blank.
Fig. 14. Creation of tail fins.
Fig. 15. Engine body with carrying pylon.
Initially all model component parts are faceted. The capabilities of 3ds Max graphic system allow
smoothing faceted objects by different methods. One of the variants is the application of smoothing
method NURMS (Non Uniform Rational Mesh Smooth). When surfaces are smoothed the second
mirror-like longitudinal half of the aircraft is constructed (Fig.16).

Fig. 16. Assembly of aircraft body half.
Shading and rendering of 3D model of Lapwing amphibious aircraft

The next step of designing is shading and rendering of constructed model. The process of materials
rendering to fuselage separate parts is done at the level of polygons.
After all performed operations we can obtain finished model for further rendering with the help of
realistic models of lighting (Fig.17). Integrated V-Ray module is used for scene rendering. Fig.18 a,
b, c, shows final rendering scene of shaded model of Lapwing amphibious aircraft.

Fig. 17. Assembled three-dimensional model with rendered materials.
As a result, we can note that the developed three-dimensional conceptual model of amphibious
aircraft is performed from creative idea to photorealistic rendering.
Fig.18, a

Fig.18, b
Fig.18, c. Rendering of Lapwing amphibious aircraft conceptual model.
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Cost Reduction of Taxi Enterprises at the Expense of Automobile Fleet

Optimization
Novtski .V. 1, Melnikova Yu. I. 1
1 Department of Transport Management, National Mining University, Dnipropetrovsk, Ukraine
DOI 10.13140/RG.2.2.24945.89447
Keywords: taxi service, queuing system, probability of service denial, cost
ABSTRACT. Results of taxi service operation using techniques of queuing system theory have been demonstrated. It has
been shown that probability of service denial is the key quality criterion of transport services for taxi services. It is expedient to
use total expenditures of queuing system as target function to estimate the efficiency of taxi service. It has been determined that
application of queuing theory techniques makes it possible to identify optimum value of the number of operating motor vehicles
for specific environment. The value is optimum according to minimum-cost criterion.
Introduction. Cost saving to provide services under the conditions of competitive indicators of
quality is one of the most important problems for any transport enterprise. The problem becomes
topical in the context of excessive supply. On the one hand, customer acquisition involves
improvement of quality indicators which results in extra costs; on the other hand, economic situation
requires cost cutting. Taxi enterprises should operate under those conditions.
Currently more than 200,000 motor vehicles of various ownership forms operate in the market (data
by the Trade Union of taxi drivers of Ukraine). That is an obvious excess of supply. Except that the
figure experiences constant expansion due to private car owners engaged in private cabbing to repay
loans. In this context, increase in the number of taxi supply is followed by quality degradation. That
depends chiefly on poor skills of staff of taxi enterprises resulting in protraction of waiting period
and travel time, nonoptimal delivery routes, and high-cost transportation. Analysis of operation of
taxi enterprises in Ukrainian cities shows that the majority of organizational decisions are made
relying upon the experience of prior periods. Even if economic and mathematical substantiation is
performed, it is based upon simplified techniques using averaged values of influencing parameters.
The authors have analysed six enterprises in Dnipropetrovsk region. Four of the six enterprises keep
records of the number of orders according to oral information by drivers. No enterprise accumulates
and analyses information concerning the period of bringing the order to effect, the number of
unexecuted orders etc. Moreover, in many cases the number of motor vehicles operating during a
shift depends on the availability of serviceable motor vehicles. As a result, there is no necessary
information to develop transportation scheme of transport services.
The number of service denials is one of the most important qualitative indicators in the process of
taxi service management. To attract clients, transport operators put up considerable capital. According
to eperts research, acquisition of a ne client costs a compan si times more than retention of
available one. If however a client leaves unsatisfied, her/his return will cost twenty-five times more
[1]. Practically the number of service denials or their possibility is controlled by the number of
operating motor vehicles: the more motor vehicles operate during certain period, the higher is the
probability to execute order and the less is probability of denial. In the context of favourable economic
situation, cost escalation is covered with extra income from executed orders. However, in the context
of purchasing power erosion and increase in expenditures connected with maintenance of road
transport vehicles such a solution not always results in expected outcomes.

Currently techniques of queuing theory are often used to solve a problem concerning substantiation
of transport service parameters. The techniques are more advantageous to compare with traditional
modelling methods as they consider random nature of inflow of orders and time to service them [2].
This very fact transforms queuing theory into powerful tool to model various processes including a
process of transport service. Use of queuing theory techniques makes it possible to determine
probability parameters of inflows of orders, operating parameters, and qualitative indicators
concerning service of orders by taxi enterprise.
Objective. Identification of rules to change expenditures of taxi enterprise in the context of varying
parameters of inflows of orders and services to substantiate optimum number of car park.
Data for the analysis.
Taxi service Elit taxi operating in the town of Novomoskovsk (Dnipropetrovsk region) and
neighbouring districts has been analysed. The enterprise renders services within 24 hours operating
by means of three 8-hour shifts. The accepted practice covers service denial if vacant motor vehicles
are not available. Hence, it is possible to consider the enterprise as multichannel queuing system with
denials.
Automobile park consists of 27 units. According to data by finance department of the enterprise,
specific expenditures connected with motor vehicle movement are 136 UAH/(motor vehicleshour),
expenditures connected with unproductive time of motor vehicle are 41 136
UAH/(motor vehicleshour), and ependitures connected ith service denials are 176 UAH/(motor
vehicleshour).
Average number of inflowing orders is taken to be equal to: shift 1 32.33 orders per hour, shift 2
20.11 orders per hour, shift 3 11.15 orders per hour. The enterprise normalizes average time to
execute order as follows: shift 1 0.7 of hour (intensity of service flow is 1 = 1.42 orders per hour),
shift 2 0.47 of hour ( 2 = 2.12 orders per hour), and shift 3 3 = 0.34 of hour (2.96 orders per
hour).
Stage one of the research involved accumulation of information and its analysis concerning the
number of orders and average service time (Fig.1). Results of data processing according to technique
[2] have helped determine that values of intensity of flow of orders taken at the enterprise are valid;
values of service flow intensity differ greatly. Thus, for shift 1 actual average time to execute order
is 0.64 of hour, for shift 2 it is 0.54 of hour, and for shift 3 it is 0.41 of hour. Thus, relying upon
comparison of eperimental values and critical values of Pearson criterion ith = 0.05 significance
level it has been determined that the both flows are described by means of Poisson distribution law
with following intensities:
For flow of orders: 1 = 32.33 orders per hour, 2 = 20.11 orders per hour, 3 = 11.15 orders per
hour;
For service flow: 1 = 1.56 orders per hour, 2 = 1.85 orders per hour, 3 = 2.44 orders per hour.
Comparison of information obtained at the enterprise with experimental data has shown that gaps are
as follows: 9% for shift 1; 15% for shift 2; and 19% for shift 3 (Fig.1).

0,80
0,70
0,60
0,50
0,70 0,64
Basic scenario
0,40 0,54
t
Design scenario

0,47
0,30
0,34 0,41
0,20
0,10
0,00
1
Shift 2
Shift
Shift 3
Fig. 1. Results of data processing.
It is evident, that use of averaged data introduces significant errors into determination of flow
parameters preventing from adequate evaluation of queuing system.
Stage two of the research involved determination of basic parameters of queuing system for basic
scenario and design scenario to organize service of orders. Key indices of multichannel queuing
systems with denials are [3]:
The number of service channels, i.e. total number of motor vehicles operating during a shift;
Probability of service denial, i.e. probability that order will not be completed and will leave queuing
system.
Besides substation of optimum number of motor vehicle operating during every shift using criterion
of minimal total expenditures of queuing system is one of the research tasks.
General costs of queuing system with denials are determined by formula [4]:
C n n p ,
where is specific cost connected with unproductive time of motor vehicle, UAH/(motor
vehicleshour);
is specific cost connected ith motor vehicle movement, UAH/(motor vehicleshour);
is specific cost connected ith service denial, UAH/(motor vehicleshour);

n , n is average number of vacant and motor vehicles under service respectively;
p is probability of service denial. Thus, target function is expressed as
n n p min .
Basic scenario used data obtained at the enterprise under study. On the ground of cost saving every shift
involves minimum quantity of operating motor vehicles to achieve predetermined load intensity.
According to information by the enterprise, shift 1 involves 23 motor vehicles; shift 2 involves 10 motor

vehicles, and shift 3 involves 4 motor vehicles. Table 1 demonstrates calculation results of key indices
of queuing system operation.
Table 1. Calculation results concerning queuing system operation (basic scenario).

Index Shift 1 Shift 2 Shift 3
The number of operating motor vehicles, units 23 10 4
Probability of service denial 0.143 0.235 0.212
Currenc lost /income 0.167 0.307 0.269
Expenditures, connected with motor vehicle
movement, UAH per hour 2745 986 402
Expenditures, connected with unproductive time of
motor vehicle, UAH per hour 145 113 43
Expenditures, connected with service denial, UAH per
hour 902 832 414
Queuing system expenditures, UAH per hour 3792 1931 859
Analysis of the results demonstrates poor efficiency of queuing system operation in terms of basic
scenario of transport service management. During every shift the enterprise uses minimum possible
number of motor vehicles being geared to load intensity and trying to cut expenditures connected
with movement of motor vehicles. That very time, possibility of service denial is 23.5%, and
currenc lost /income inde is 0.307 to be invalid under the conditions of competitive market.
Following calculations were performed with the help of identical technique. However, the
calculations were required to determine optimum number of operating motor vehicles providing a
condition for minimum aggregate expenditure. To do that, basic parameters of multichannel queuing
system were calculated. The calculations involved denials in the context of various numbers of
operating motor vehicles. Taking into account the fact that actual values of order service flow
intensity differ greatly from those taken before, in terms of design scenario, load intensity of the
system will be as follows: I 20.69 orders per hour for shift 1; II 10.86 orders per hour for shift
2; and III 4.55 orders per hour for shift 3.
Table 2 demonstrates an example of calculation results.
Table 2. Calculation results of queuing system operation indices (design scenario, shift 2).
The number of motor vehicles
Index
11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Probability of service denial 0.2002 0.1534 0.1136 0.0810 0.0554 0.0362 0.023
Average number of busy channels 8.69 9.20 9.63 9.98 10.26 10.47 10.62
Expenditures, connected with
movement, UAH per hour 1181 1251 1309 1357 1395 1424 1444
unproductive time, UAH per hour 95 115 138 165 194 227 262
denial, UAH per hour 709 543 402 287 196 128 80
Total expenditures of queuing
system, UAH per hour 1985 1908 1850 1809 1786 1779 1786

As analysis of the results has shown in terms of increase of the number of operating motor vehicles,
possibility of service denials decrease according to exponential law; average number of motor
vehicles engaged in order servicing also increases nonlinearly resulting in proportional growth of
expenses connected with movement of motor vehicles and their unproductive time. Dependence
graph (n) has its minimum when n = 16 ( = 1779 UAH per hour). It has been determined
analogously that in the context of concerned conditions, optimum number of motor vehicles operating
during shift 3 is 9 automobiles and for shift 1 the number is 27 automobiles. That is, minimum
expenses will involve increase in 4 motor vehicles (shift 1) and 5 motor vehicles (shifts 2 and 3)
(Table 3).
Table 3. Comparison of efficiency indices of queuing system for basic scenario and design one.
Shift 1 Shift 2 Shift 3
scenario
scenario
scenario
scenario
scenario
scenario
Design
Design
Design
Basic
Basic
Basic
Index
Intensity of influent flow of orders 32.33 32.33 20.11 20.11 11.10 11.10
Average service time 0.70 0.64 0.47 0.54 0.34 0.41
Intensity of order servicing 1.42 1.56 2.12 1.85 2.96 2.44
Intensity of queuing system load 22.72 20.69 9.48 10.86 3.75 4.55
The number of motor vehicles 23 27 10 16 4 9
Probability of service denial 0.143 0.034 0.235 0.036 0.212 0.025
Expenditures, connected with movement 2745 2817 986 1424 402 603
Expenditures, connected with unproductive
time 145 288 113 227 43 187
Expenditures, connected with probability of
service denial 902 216 832 128 414 50
Total expenditures of queuing system, UAH
per hour 3793 3321 1931 1779 859 840
Changes in queuing system expenditures,
-472 -152 -19
UAH per hour
Increase in the number of operating motor vehicles is favourable for service quality as probability in
service denial decreases (Fig. 2) to be particularly relevant for taxi enterprises. Meanwhile it should
be noted that in terms of the number of motor vehicles increase, deviation of shiftable value of denial
probability from daily average one is 14.3 %, while it is 21.2% for basic scenario. Minor spread of
denial probability makes it possible to control quality of passenger service.

0,250
0,200
Possibility of service denial
0,150
0,235
0,212
0,100
0,143

0,050
0,034 0,036 0,025

0,000
23 27 10 16 4 9
of motor vehicles
Amount
Fig. 2. Probability of service denial in the context of different number of operating motor
vehicles.
Analysis of changes in queuing system has shown that increase in the number of operating motor
vehicles results in escalation of costs connected with movement (up to 50%) and unproductive time
(up to 100%). That very time expenses connected with service denial decrease proportionally to
increase in service denial probability (by 80%); as a result it compensates cost escalation for
movement and unproductive time. It should also be noted that shift 1 demonstrates the greatest
reduction of general costs when demand is the most intensive (Fig. 3).
4000
3500
3000
Expenditures, UAH per hour
/
2500
,
2000
1500

1000
500
0
23 27 10 16 4 9
vehicles amount
Motor

Motor , operational costs
vehicles , connected with service denial
Expenditures
, for unproductive time
Expenditures
Fig. 3. Changes in queuing system expenses.
Summary. Results of order servicing modelling process by taxi enterprise with the help of queuing
system have helped determine the following:
1) To provide high-level passenger service and effective use of motor vehicles it is required to perform
constant (automated if possible) on-line collecting and processing of parameters of inflow of orders
and service. Along with collecting and analysing information concerning the number of transportation
orders, constant control over the order execution time is required. Otherwise, considerable deviations
of the obtained parameters from optimum values are possible;

2) Substantiated choice of rational parameters of technological scheme of taxi transportation involves

queuing system theory as it fives ability to consider random nature of inflowing orders and service
time;
3) Reduction of total expenses of taxi enterprise is possible owing to attraction of extra motor vehicles
to serve orders. It allows reducing costs connected with transportation denials at the expense of
increase in service possibility;
4) Effect resulting from the use of queuing system theory is the most evident in terms of sharp
shiftable variations in inflow order intensity and service as well as in terms of loads on a system close
to maximum ones.
References
[1] Kleinrock L. (1979). Queueing theory: translation from English [Teoriia massovogo
obsluzhivaniia]. Mosco, Mashinostroeniie, 432 pp.
[2] Wentzel E. S. (1991). Theory of random processes and its engineering applications [Teoriia sluchaynykh
protsessov i eio inzhenernyie prilozheniia]. Mosco, Vsshaia shkola. 384 pp.
[3] Koroliuk V. (1985). Reference book on the theory of probability and mathematical statistics
[Spravochnik po teorii veroiatnostei i matematicheskoi statistike]. Mosco, Nauka. 640 pp.
[4] Khinchin A. Mathematical methods of queuing theory [Matematicheskie metody teorii massovogo
obsluzhivaniia]. Mosco, Nauka. 248 pp.
[5] Ruibin Bai, Jiawei Li, Jason A. D. Atkin, Graham Kendall. A novel approach to independent taxi
scheduling problem based on stable matching, Journal of the Operational Research Society, (2014)
65: 1501. doi:10.1057/jors.2013.96

Factor Analysis of Passenger Cars Using as a Taxi
Deriugin O.V.1, Novikova ..1, Cheberyachko S.1
1 National Mining University, Dnipropetrovsk, Ukraine
DOI 10.13140/RG.2.2.31977.90721
Keywords: taxi, tariff, velocity, comfort, transportation safety
ABSTRACT. A procedure to select passenger cars has been proposed. The procedure helps substantiate choice of
effective transportation means in accordance with taxi class to meet consumption requirements of those taking part in
transportation process from the viewpoint of comfort, safety, and minimum expenditures in the context of such
transportation type.
Introduction. Taxi transportations are the integral segment of urban passenger transportations. Over
the recent years, the segment has demonstrated increase in demand. The fact promotes to rash
emergence of a number of motor transport enterprises with various property categories in the market
of transport services. Total satisfaction of consumer demands providing the fastest arrival during short
period of time in terms of adequate comfort and safety as well as reasonable tariff is topical task for
such transportations.
Statement of the analysis task. In the total volume of urban passenger transportation, a share of taxi
services is up to 10% of the whole traffic flow [1]. According to data by All-Ukrainian Association
of Transportation Organizations (AATO), 130-140 thousand drivers provide regular taxi services in
Ukraine. Roughly speaking, it is almost every 50 th car owner [2]. Annual returns of taxi driver are
almost UAH 120,000 in Kyiv, almost UAH 80,000 in multi-million-strong cities, and almost UAH
56,000 in regional centers. Altogether, annual returns of Ukrainian taxi market are UAH 1.5 - 2 bln
[3].
Analysis of research sources has shown that following problems are burning ones for taxi services:
inadequate legal acts specifying demands concerning taxi services; inadequate legal acts specifying
use of corresponding type of motor vehicles to provide taxi services; inadequate legal acts specifying
demands concerning driver proficiency [3, 4].
The above helps conclude that regulation of corresponding norms aimed at improvement of quality
indices concerning transportation management, motor vehicles, and proficiency of drivers engaged
in the type of passenger transportations are quite important.
Objective of the analysis and its task. The performed analytical studies pursued an objective to
determine a procedure of making managerial decision concerning choice of motor vehicle, which will
meet the requirements of consumers.
Following problems should be solved for pursuing the objective:
- Determination of the most important indices of passenger cars taking into consideration their
priority to improve quality as well as comfort and safety of taxi services;
- Determination of passenger car for taxi services having the best indices in terms of consumer
demands of those taking part in transportation process.
Results of the research. Determination of effective passenger car to be used as a taxi should involve
the analysis of a number of factors. Moreover, solution of the problem should take into consideration

basic requirements of the main participants of transportation process, namely a driver and a passenger.
Marketing research was carried out with the help of questionnaire. In the context of passengers it
covered various population segments with different income levels, social statuses, and ages. In the
context of drivers it covered their places of employment including relevant taxi type driving.
Current laws do not govern standards concerning certain passenger car and its use as a taxi. Thus, the
process is supposed in terms of available types of passenger cars. For example, following passenger
cars of C class (where minimum perimeter is 11002mm) can be considered as taxis: Renault Logan,
Daewoo Lanos, Citroen Berlingo, Chevrolet Aveo, Geely CK, Kia Ceed, Volkswagen Polo, and VAZ
2111. In terms of Business class following passenger cars of D class (where minimum perimeter
is 12006mm) can be considered as taxis: Chevrolet Lacceti, Hyundai Elantra, Toyota Corolla,
Peugeot 308, Skoda Octavia, and Renault Fluence. Elite class of taxis involves following passenger
cars of Eclass where minimum perimeter is 12664mm: Volkswagen Passat, Toyota Camry, Nissan
Teana, Mazda 6, Skoda Super B, and Ford Mondeo.
Diversity of the listed taxi classes has a number of negative factors. Deficiency of unified standards
to provide adequate comfort and safety of passenger; various transportation tariffs; availability of
illegalized drivers in the market of transportation services are among them.
The market research carried out by the Department staff has helped determine following advantages
of consumer demands: economic (tariff), operating (velocity), ergonomic (comfort), and safe (safety).
Modern passenger car is characterized by a variety of quality indices. Thus, it is expedient to unite
them into above groups determined by consumers (Fig. 1). That makes it possible to select the most
efficient passenger cars for corresponding operational environment or to create appropriate
comfortable and safe conditions for those taking part in transportation process as well as to replace
road transport vehicles of enterprise effecting such type of transportation.
The determined indices for every car class helped calculations of weighing coefficient. For this
purpose, a matrix to compare groups according to corresponding quality indices has been developed
depending upon consumer demands of those taking part in transportation process (Table 1). The data
adequacy was evaluated relying on consistency of results of different experts. To do that, consistency
index was determined [5]. Calculations of weighting coefficient according to the indices have shown
that the consistency index is 0.05; it is less than critical value 0.1.
Fig. 1. Indices of advantages of effective passenger car selection for taxi services.
Profile method is the optimum approach to solve the problem. Its principle is to unite set of indices
without weighing into integral quality index. Ease of use and possibility to integrate a great variety
of indices are advantages of the method. Then, different characteristics of passenger car can be
grouped on the assumption that they are equivalent in one group. Analysis of group properties should

be performed using weighing approach. That will help structure them basing upon effect on
components of requirements of those taking part in taxi services. The algorithm is described
appropriately in [5]. The method was applied to assess quality of fifteen models of passenger cars to
determine the most effective taxi for certain class.
Table 1. Matrix of pairwise advantages of group of quality indices for taxis.

Component Weighing
Criteria Tariff Velocity Safety Comfort
assessment coefficient
Economy-class
Tariff 1 2/1 4/1 4/1 0.06 0.5
Velocity 1/2 1 3/1 3/1 0.03 0.3
Safety 1/4 1/3 1 1/1 0.05 0.1
Comfort 1/4 1/3 1/1 1 0.05 0.1
Business-class
Velocity 3/3 1 3/2 3/2 0.08 0.3
Comfort 2/3 2/3 1/1 1 0.06 0.2
Tariff 1 3/3 5/3 3/2 0.08 0.3
Safety 3/5 2/3 1 1/1 0.05 0.2
Elite-class
Comfort 1 3/5 5/1 3/3 0.84 0.4
Velocity 3/2 1 5/3 1/2 0.28 0.2
Safety 5/3 2/1 1 1 0.41 0.3
Tariff 3/5 2/3 1/5 3/5 0.13 0.1
Calculations were performed basing upon the data from the sites of companies dealing with certain
car makers. The calculations were carried out with the help of Microsoft Office MS Excel 2010
software. The software was also used to calculate complex quality index according to the assumed
four groups of properties determining the efficiency of passenger car use during transportation. Tables
2-4 demonstrate calculation results for integral quality coefficient in terms of the selected cars.
Table 2. Summary table of the determined advantages of Economy-class taxis.

Renault Daewoo Geely Chevrolet
Priority Weighing VAZ 2111
Logan Lanos CK Aveo
Index Coefficient (1.6 I)
(1.6 i) (1.5 i) (1.5 i) (1.6 i)
Tariff 0.5 0.057 0.033 0.053 0.049 0.042
Velocity 0.3 0.211 0.215 0.215 0.219 0.205
Safety 0.1 0.068 0.061 0.068 0.046 0.047
Comfort 0.1 0.073 0.072 0.070 0.067 0.065
Integral index 0.800 0.798 0.785 0.786 0.774
Rating position 1 2 4 3 5

Table 3. Summary table of the determined advantages of Business-class taxis.

Skoda Hyundai Chevrolet Toyota
Priority Weighing Renault Fluence
Oktavia Elantra Lacceti Corolla
Index Coefficient (1.6 i)
(1.8 i) (1.8 i) (1.8 i) (1.8 i)
Velocity 0.3 0.221 0.195 0.205 0.202 0.178
Comfort 0.2 0.165 0.153 0.136 0.153 0.169
Tariff 0.3 0.044 0.030 0.038 0.005 0.032
Safety 0.2 0.193 0.193 0.108 0.122 0.193
Integral index 0.888 0.870 0.835 0.833 0.870
Rating position 1 3 4 5 2
Analysis of the calculations shows that in terms of Economy class and according to integral quality
index value, passenger car Renault Logan (1.6 i) ranks first. Passenger car Daewoo Lanos (1.5 i)
ranks second, and Chevrolet Aveo (1.6 i) ranks third. In terms of passenger Business-class taxis,
Skoda Oktavia (1.8 i) is the best one while Toyota Corolla (1.8 i) and Renault Fluence (1.6 i) rank
second and third respectively. In terms of Elite class, passenger car Toyota Camry (2.4 i) ranks first
as it is characterized by maximum level of comfort, safety, and velocity features as well as minimum
economic indices of operating expenses in comparison with the listed passenger cars.
Table 4. Summary table of the determined advantages of Elite-class taxis

Toyota Nissan Mazda Skoda Ford
Priority index Weighing coefficient Camry Teana 6 Super b Mondeo
(2.4 i) (2.5 i) (2.5 i) (2.0 i) (2.5 i)
Comfort 0.4 0.342 0.333 0.316 0.328 0.285
Velocity 0.3 0.215 0.214 0.219 0.208 0.201
Safety 0.2 0.193 0.193 0.193 0.193 0.121
Tariff 0.1 0.006 0.007 0.014 0.017 0.005
Integral coefficient 0.932 0.930 0.928 0.930 0.884
Ranking position 1 3 4 2 5
Thus, the selection has helped determine the belonging of passenger cars to certain classes, which
relatively correspond to consumer demands of transportation process. It should be noted that the
determined integral quality indices of passenger cars differ slightly. The objective of the research is
to demonstrate advantages of one passenger car over another one irrespective of the differences in
their components. Such problem solving makes it possible to substantiate selection of effective
passenger car according to criteria of consumer demands of those taking part in transportation
process.
Summary. The proposed indices of consumer properties of passenger cars help substantiate choice
of effective passenger car belonging to certain taxi class to meet consumer demands of those taking
part in transportation process and to improve quality of transport services, comfort, and safety. The
above also involves minimum expenses in the process of the type transportation.
References
[1] Fatkhutdinov R.A. (2000), Konkurentosposobnost: ekonomika, strategiya, upravlenie
[Competitiveness: business, strategy, management.]. Fatkhutdinov, R.A. // .:INFRA-, 2000.
312 pp.
[2] Petukhov D.V. (2013) Pidsumki diyalnosti Departamentu avtomobilnogo transportu
Ministerstva infrastruktury Ukrainy [Outcomes of activities by the Department of Road Transport

of the Ministry of Infrastructure of Ukraine [Text]]. Petukhov, D.V. // Pereviznyk UA, ## 1-2.
pp. 4-6.
[3] Geiets V.M. (2006) Innovatsiyni perspectyvy Ukrainy [Innovative challenges of Ukraine
[Text]: Monograph]. Geiets, V.M., Seminozhenko, V.P. // Kh. :Konstanta, 2006. 272 pp.
[4] Shyriaeva C. V. (2012) Zarubizhnyy dosvid podatkovogo stimulyuvannya dla zabezpechennya
tekhnologichnogo onovlennya pidpryemstv pasazhyrskogo avtomobilnogo transportu [World
practice of tax stimulation to provide technologic renovation of motor transport enterprises engaged
in public conveyance [Text]]. Shyriaeva, C. V., Tolchanova, Z. , Valiullina, Z.V. // Project
management, system analysis, and logistics: academic periodical. .: NTU. 2012. Publication
10. pp. 302-307.
[5] Deryugin .V. (2015) Obgruntuvannya vyboru vantazhnogo avtomobilya za kriteriyem
minimizatcyy psykhofiziologichnogo navantazhennya na vodiya [Substantiation of load-carrying
vehicle selection in the context of criterion of minimization of psychophysiological stress of a driver].
Deryugin, .V., Cheberyachko, S.. // Eastern European journal of advanced technologies. 2015.
#3/3 (75). pp. 15 22.
[6] Novytskyi .V., Melnikova Yu. I. (2016) Cost Reduction of Taxi Enterprises at the Expense of
Automobile Fleet Optimization, Mechanics, Materials Science & Engineering Journal, Vol. 7,
Magnolithe GmbH, DOI 10.13140/RG.2.2.24945.89447

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An Effective Way of Obtaining Bainite Structure in Alloyed

1 Associated professor, Dr., Azerbaijan Technical University, Baku, Azerbaijan

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Laser Metal Deposition Repair Applications for Ti-6Al-4V Alloy

L. Jyothish Kumar 1, a & C.G. Krishnadas Nair 2

1 doctoral scholar, Jain University, Bangalore 560078

Fig. 1. Scanning electron micrograph of Ti-6Al-4V powder at 2000 X Magnification.

Fig. 2. SEM image and EDAX pattern of elemental composition.

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Table 1. Chemical composition of Ti-6Al-4V powder

Table 2. Chemical composition of Ti-6Al-4V substrate

where P is the laser power;

Table 3. Input process parameters and levels.

1 Laser power (W) 2350 2500 2650

Table 4. Experimental plan based on Taguchi L9 orthogonal array.

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Fig. 3. Ti-6Al-4V deposition on Ti-6Al-4V substrate as per L9 orthogonal array.

Table 5. Hardness and S/N values for Taguchi L9 experiments.

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Fig. 4. Optical micrographs of Ti-6Al-4V deposits as per Taguchis L9 orthogonal array.

Main Effects Plot (data means) for SN ratios

Fig. 5. Main Effects Plot for SN ratios.

Table 6. Analysis of variance for S/N ratio

Error 2 0.00646 0.00323

Table 7.Optimized process parameters and Hardness.

1 2650 5 700 461.22

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Fig. 6. Optical micrograph of Ti-6Al-4V deposit under optimum process parameter.

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NaCl 2,0 g/L

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Fig. 15. Numbers of employees in some cities in the southern state.

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Influence of the Composition of (TlGaS2)1-(TlInSe2)x Alloys on Their Physical

Keywords: TlGaS2, TlInSe2, alloys physical properties, roentgensensitivity, photoresistors.

PACS: 71.20.Nr; 71.35.Cc; 72.15.Rn; 72.20.Ee; 72.20.Jv; 72.30.+q; 72.40.+w; 73.20.At

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Table 1. Crystal data for TlGaS2 and (TlGaS2)1-(TlInSe2).

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Fig. 1. Composition dependence of the photosensitivity maximum in (TlGaS2)1-(TlInSe2) solid solutions.