Sonic Logging While DrillingShear Answers

Jeff Alford Engineers use acoustic data from sonic logging tools to drill more efciently with
Matt Blyth
Ed Tollefsen greater safety margins and to optimize completions. LWD sonic tools introduced in
Houston, Texas, USA the mid-1990s delivered compressional wave data but were unable to provide shear
John Crowe wave data in all formations. A new LWD acoustic tool measures shear wave data in
Chevron Cabinda Gulf Oil Company Ltd
Luanda, Angola
formations where this was previously impossible, and engineers are using this
information to drill with greater condence, determine optimal directions for drilling
Julio Loreto
Sugar Land, Texas and identify rocks with better completion characteristics.

Saeed Mohammed
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia The downhole drilling environment creates further required to acquire data in a setting inun-
inhospitable conditions for logging-while-drilling dated with noise and vibration.
Vivian Pistre (LWD) tools. The drill bit grinds through layers of Sonic acquisition is challenging while drill-
Sagamihara, Japan rock as the rotating drillstring and BHA continu- ing; however, service companies have worked to
ally slam against the borehole wall, shocking sen- develop LWD sonic tools because they provide
Adrian Rodriguez-Herrera sitive electronic components. Drilling mud surges information that is not readily available from
Bracknell, England
through the drillpipe and exits through the bit, other logging devices while drilling. Measure-
Oileld Review Spring 2012: 24, no. 1. sweeping the hole clean and returning cuttings to ments derived from the propagation of sound
Copyright 2012 Schlumberger.
the surface. Although LWD tools are designed to waves through porous media provide helpful
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Raj Malpani,
Houston; and Utpal Ganguly, Sugar Land, Texas. endure these environments, LWD sonic tools are information about geologic and geophysical
Mangrove, Petrel, SonicScope, Variable Density and
VISAGE are marks of Schlumberger.

4 Oileld Review
properties. Petrophysicists have developed meth-
ods to use real-time acoustic measurements to
determine formation attributes that include pore
pressure and overburden gradients, lithology and
mechanical properties. Petrophysicists also use
sonic data for gas detection, fracture evaluation
and seismic calibration.
The rst LWD sonic tools, introduced in the
mid-1990s, provided compressional wave measure-
ments, along with shear wave data in some forma-
tions. These data were used for computing sonic
porosity, estimating pore pressure and correlating
downhole depth-based data with surface seismic
time-based data. Wireline sonic tools used differ-
ent sources and, because they could process and
transmit data at higher rates, provided answers
that were beyond the capability of their early LWD
counterparts. These capabilities include measure-
ments of high-quality compressional and shear
wave information to estimate geomechanical prop-
erties in soft formations and the ability to deter-
mine the orientation of rock properties in
anisotropic formations. A recently introduced
LWD sonic tool provides real-time compressional
and shear wave data in formations where this was
not possible with earlier tools.
This article reviews the use of sonic data in oil
and gas operations, with special emphasis on
LWD tools. A discussion of quadrupole sonic mea-
surements is included, along with the process of
deriving mechanical properties from sonic data.
Case studies demonstrate how engineers have
been able to extract shear data in soft formations
using quadrupole sonic modes. These data, along
with compressional data, are then used to opti-
mize drilling practices, monitor real-time pore
pressure while drilling, improve completions and
estimate geomechanical formation properties.
Some Sound Basics
Acoustic logging tools measure the time it takes
for an audible pulse of sound to travel from a trans-
mitter, through the mud, along the borehole, back
through the mud and then to an array of receivers
along the body of the tool. This measured time
equals the cumulative time of travel through the
various media that have been traversed.
The velocity of the sound wave measured
across the receiver array is the speed of sound
through the formations directly opposite the
receivers. Petrophysicists refer to this measure-
ment as slownessthe inverse of velocity; it is
expressed as traveltime per unit length. This
measurement is also referred to as a delta t ( t)
measurement because it is the interval transit
time for the sound wave to travel through 1 m or
1 ft of formation.
Spring 2012
S-wave and Stoneley wave
Transmitter Rayleigh wave arrivals arrivals
pulse
Amplitude
Time
P-wave Mud wave
arrivals arrivals
> Acoustic waves. Sonic tools measure the time it takes for an acoustic
pulse of sound to travel from a transmitter to a receiver array. The sound
wave strikes the borehole, travels through the formation and then arrives
back at the tool where the receivers measure the amplitude of the signal
versus time. As the sound wave passes through rock, different types of
waves are generated. The rst two arrivals are the compressional, or
P-waves, followed by shear, or S-waves. These two are the most important
for oileld applications because they are used to compute porosity and
mechanical properties. Rayleigh, mud and Stoneley waves arrive later.
Sound waves propagate through a solid medium The change in traveltime is related to the volume
in a variety of modes, such as compressional and of uid in the rocks pore space, which is a func-
shear waves, and these modes have different veloc- tion of the porosity. Sonic porosity measurements
ities (above). In addition to these, other modes, were a key driver in the initial development of
including Rayleigh, mud and Stoneley waves, can acoustic logging tools.
be identied in the sonic signal.1 Depending on the physical measurement
Many materials have been characterized by needed, the acoustic logging tool can be designed
their acoustic slowness (below). For instance, a with transmitters, or sources, to generate a par-
compressional sound wave travels through steel ticular type of pressure pulse. The most basic form,
at 187 s/m [57 s/ft]. Compressional waves and the type that is common across all forms of
travel through zero-porosity sandstone at approx- acoustic tools, is the monopole source. Monopole
imately 182 s/m [55.5 s/ft] and through sources produce a radial pressure eld, analogous
limestone at around 155 s/m [47.3 s/ft]. to the wave pattern produced by a pebble dropped
Compressional waves that pass through forma- onto the surface of a pond but in three dimensions.
tion rocks containing water, oil or gas have longer They are used primarily to obtain the compres-
traveltimes than through rocks with no porosity. sional slowness of the formation.
Compressional Shear
Material Slowness Time Slowness Time
t c, s/m [s/ft] t s, s/m [s/ft]
Steel 187 [57] 338 [103]
Sandstone 182 [55.5] 289 [88]
Limestone 155 [47.3] 290 [88.4]
Dolomite 143 [43.5] 236 [72]
Shale 200 to 300 [61 to 91] varies
Freshwater 715 [218] Not applicable
Brine 620 [189] Not applicable
> Characteristic values for compressional wave slowness (tc) and shear
wave slowness (ts).
1. Rayleigh waves, named for Lord Rayleigh, who predicted transmitter through the mud column and are then
their existence in 1885, are frequency-dependent detected at the tool receivers. Stoneley waves, named for
dispersive waves that travel along the surface of the Robert Stoneley, are surface waves that are associated
borehole. Rayleigh waves are used to evaluate velocity with the solid/uid interface along a borehole wall. They
variation with depth. Mud waves are arrivals from the are used to estimate fracture density and permeability.
original sonic pulse that have traveled from the
5
 As part of the process to measure compres-
sional slowness, a monopole source generates a
compressional wave in the borehole uid sur-
rounding the tool. The wave pattern expands
radially, traveling at the compressional slowness
of the uid, until it encounters the borehole wall,
where some of the energy is reected back and
some is refracted into the formation (below).
Snells law denes the relationship between
the angle of refraction and the ratio of sound
velocities in the uid and the formation.2 The
energy that is critically refracted travels along
the borehole wall toward the receivers. The
refracted energy propagates through the forma-
tion as a compressional wave and travels faster
than the uid wave because the formation is
stiffer than the uid.
The critically refracted compressional wave
generates a head wave in the borehole that travels
at the formation compressional velocity.3 Following
Huygens principle, at each point along the bore-
hole wall, the compressional wave acts as a new
source, transmitting waves back into the borehole.
Fast Formation
Wellbore
Head waves
Shear wave
Fluid wave
Monopole
source
P-wave S-wave
Transmitter-receiver distance
The compressional head wave eventually arrives at
the receiver array, allowing computation of the
compressional velocity of the formation.
When the compressional wave from a mono-
pole source is refracted into the formation, some
compressional energy is converted to shear waves
that refract into the formation. Whereas com-
pressional waves propagate through both the
uid-lled borehole and the porous rock matrix,
shear waves are not supported by uids and prop-
agate through uid-lled porous media by travel-
ing from grain to grain through the rock matrix. If
the shear slowness in the formation is less than
the compressional slowness in the borehole
uida situation known as a fast formation
the refracted wave is critically refracted and gen-
erates a shear head wave in the borehole. This
head wave travels at the shear velocity of the for-
mation and may be detected by the receiver
array. In this way, monopole acoustic tools can
provide shear velocities, but only in the case of
fast formations.
Slow Formation
Compressional wave Wellbore
Compressional wave
Head wave
Fluid wave
Monopole
source
Stoneley wave P-wave
If the shear slowness in the formation is
greater than the compressional slowness in the
borehole uida condition known as a slow for-
mationthe compressional wave will still refract
upon reaching the borehole, but the angle of
refraction is such that critical refraction never
occurs, and no head wave is produced in the bore-
hole. Therefore, no shear head wave is detected
at the receivers, and the shear velocity cannot be
determined. This is a fundamental limitation of
monopole sources for acoustic logging.
The ability to measure shear slowness with a
monopole source thus depends on both borehole
uid and formation properties. Borehole uid
slowness values vary from around 620 s/m
[189 s/ft] for water-base muds to 787 s/m
[240 s/ft] or slower for synthetic oil-base muds.
Slow formations are common at shallow well
depths because of a lack of compaction by over-
burden pressure. For the same reason, slow for-
mations are common in deepwater drilling
environments. Shear data, which are crucial for
determining wellbore strength and stability in
slow formations, cannot be extracted from data
acquired with tools that employ only monopole
sources. In wellbore sections where these data
are often most needed, they are unavailable.
Limitations of monopole sources in measur-
ing shear wave data in slow formations led to the
development of dipole logging technology.4 Tools
with dipole sources generate a exural wave that
is analogous to shaking the borehole (next page).
Flexural waves are dispersivetheir speed var-
ies with frequencyand at low frequencies, they
travel at the velocity of shear waves. Tools with
dipole sources have the ability to deliver shear
slowness measurements regardless of the mud
slowness; therefore, they are useful for obtaining
Stoneley wave slowness measurements in slow formations.
The dipole source is also directional in nature,

Transmitter-receiver distance

and by using directional receiver arrays and two

such sources separated by 90, engineers are
able to derive oriented shear data from around
the wellbore. This cross-dipole measurement pro-
vides information such as maximum and mini-
mum stress azimuths, radial velocity proles with
distance away from the borehole wall and the
orientation of anisotropic shear data.
Traveltime Traveltime
Wireline acoustic logging tools that combined
> Sonic waves from monopole sources. Monopole sonic tools generate a pulse of energy that strikes
a monopole source for compressional and shear
the formation and then travels along the borehole as a compressional head wave. In hard, or fast, data in fast formations and cross-dipole sources
formations (top left), the compressional wave, or P-wave, generates shear waves, or S-waves, that for oriented shear data in slow formations were
arrive later in time than P-waves (bottom left). Soft, or slow, formations (top right) sustain shear introduced in the 1980s. Service companies con-
waves, but they are refracted into the formation and may not arrive at the receivers (bottom right). tinue to use tools of this type, although current
Current tools have multiple receivers, and the sonic signal arrives later as the transmitter-receiver
distance increases. Although the signal amplitude diminishes with distance between transmitter and wireline tools with these sources can deliver a
receiver, data can be time shifted and stacked to improve coherence and signal-to-noise ratio.
Stoneley waves (green) arrive later in time than the P- and S-waves.

6 Oileld Review
 Borehole Cross Section Radial Displacement Radiation Patterns

Monopole mode Nondeformed Compressional wave

cross section

displacement
Radial
90 180 270 360
Azimuth

Flexural wave 1
Flexural wave 1 Flexural wave 2
Dipole mode

displacement
Radial
Flexural wave 2
90 180 270 360

Azimuth

Quadrupole wave

Quadrupole mode
displacement
Radial

90 180 270 360

Azimuth

> Acoustic sources. Three types of acoustic sources are used in well logging: monopole (top), dipole (center) and quadrupole (bottom).
Monopole sources generate sound waves that radiate from the tool and travel through the formation as compressional waves. Dipole
sources generate directional exural waves. Cross-dipole sources emit two exural waves that are oriented 90 apart. Quadrupole sources
generate complex waveforms that are frequency dependent. At very low frequencies, they travel at velocities that approximate the velocity
of shear waves. The blue stars represent the approximate location along the borehole of the wave represented in the cross section.

wider range of measurements for petroleum
applications than the earlier tools could.5
A third acoustic source, which was recently
introduced for oileld applications, generates
quadrupole waves. At very low frequencies, these
waves travel through the formation at a speed
comparable to that of shear waves. As with dipole
shear data, the quadrupole data converge asymp-
totically to the shear wave velocity.6 Although
somewhat similar to dipole waves, they exhibit a
different propagation pattern, which is more dif-
cult to conceptualize. Another term applied to
themscrew wavespresents an image of how
they travel along the borehole. At present, ser-
vice companies use quadrupole sources in LWD
tools only.
2. Dutch mathematician Willebrord Snellius is credited with
formulating the laws of refraction of waves. Snells law
states that the ratio of the sines of the angles of
incidence, i, and refraction, R, is equivalent to the ratio of
phase velocities, V, in the two media. In this case, the
media are the mud, m, and the formation, . The
relationship can be written as follows:
sin i V
= m .
sin R V Directions in Sonic Logging, Oileld Review 10, no. 1
Critical refraction occurs when the angle of refraction is
greater than or equal to 90, meaning the wave travels
along the borehole wall.
The Rise of LWD Acoustic Tools
Wireline acoustic tools deliver high-quality mea-
surements in a relatively low-noise environment,
but they have shortcomings. The lag between
drilling and logging, along with conveyance meth-
ods needed to deploy wireline tools, presents
complications. Delivering tools to TD in extended-
reach horizontal wells can also be complicated
and time consuming, although a number of con-
veyance techniques have evolved over the years.7
Furthermore, wireline sonic tools should be cen-
tralized, and tool weight can make this problem-
atic in high-angle and horizontal wellbores. In
addition, shutting down drilling operations while
logging dramatically increases the incremental
cost of the logging operation, particularly in
deepwater drilling operations where rig spread
3. Named for Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens, the
Huygens principle states that every point of a wavefront
may be considered the source of secondary wavelets
that spread out in all directions with a speed equal to the
speed of propagation of the waves.
4. For more on cross-dipole sonic tools: Brie A, Endo T,
Hoyle D, Codazzi D, Esmersoy C, Hsu K, Denoo S,
Mueller MC, Plona T, Shenoy R and Sinha B: New
(Spring 1998): 4055.
ratesthe total daily operating costroutinely
reach US$ 1 million.
For many applications, including pore pres-
sure prediction and wellbore stability analysis,
the ability to acquire data during the drilling pro-
cess, and use the data as soon as possible, signi-
cantly increases the value of the data. Wireline
measurements are obtained days or even weeks
after a formation has been drilled, and therefore
may be useful only for problem review or for plan-
ning future wells.
Acoustic data are also affected by borehole
conditions and challengessuch as mud ltrate
invasion and rugositythat may introduce mea-
surement errors, the severity of which tends to
increase with time after an interval has been
drilled. Additionally, in settings involving damaged
5. For more on advances in sonic logging: Arroyo Franco JL,
Mercado Ortiz MA, De GS, Renlie L and Williams S:
Sonic Investigations In and Around the Borehole,
Oileld Review 18, no. 1 (Spring 2006): 1433.
6. A dispersion plot of shear slowness from dipole data
versus the frequency of the acoustic wave will converge
asymptotically on the formation shear slowness.
7. For more on logging tool conveyance methods:
Billingham M, El-Toukhy AM, Hashem MK, Hassaan M,
Lorente M, Sheiretov T and Loth M: Conveyance
Down and Out in the Oil Field, Oileld Review 23, no. 2
(Summer 2011): 1831.

Spring 2012 7
 Wireline Dipole LWD Dipole collars. Sound waves propagate easily through
these collars and their arrival at the receivers
Wellbore Wellbore overwhelms the signals from the formation.
Eliminating collar arrivals was a considerable
Tool Tool problem for early generation tools.
Tool flexural
response Slotted tool housings and materials designed
to attenuate tool arrivals for wireline sonic tools
are not an option for LWD tools, so engineers had
Weak interference
to develop other methods to limit the energy
Formation flexural
response Strong interference coupled directly from the collar. Early generation
Slowness

Slowness
LWD sonic tools featured heavily grooved collars,
Formation shear which were successful in limiting the effects of
slowness tool arrivals on the measured data. This design,
Shear asymptote however, resulted in a collar that was more exi-
LWD dipole sonic
tool response ble than the rest of the BHA, which increased the
tools susceptibility to shock, vibration, tool tilt
Frequency Frequency between receivers and eccentering.
One of the most crucial shortcomings that
engineers sought to address was the inability to
> Dipole sources in wireline and LWD tools. Flexural waves from dipole sources are dispersive. A
obtain shear data in all formations, which mono-
wireline tool (left) in the borehole is designed so that the exural signal (blue line) passing through the
body of the tool does not interfere with the formation exural slowness data (red). Slowness data pole sources could not do. Engineers rst
plotted versus frequency on a dispersion plot will approach the formation shear slowness value at the attempted to replicate the physics upon which
asymptote (horizontal dashed line). To withstand the rigors associated with drilling, LWD sonic tools wireline tools are based. Experimenting with
(right) are built into a stiff drill collar. The exural wave (green) that propagates through an LWD tool
dipole sources, they discovered that at precisely
interferes with and distorts the measurement (heavy dashed black line) such that it does not follow
the shear slowness asymptote of the formation exural response (red). For this reason, service the frequency range needed to acquire shear
companies have adopted quadrupole sources rather than dipole sources for LWD sonic tools. information in most formations, there was inter-
ference between the dipole collar exure signal
and the formation signal (above left). Therefore,
instead of dipole measurements, Schlumberger
or unstable boreholes, wireline tools may not be avoid hazards such as drilling into overpressured and other service companies adopted a quadru-
able to reach TD, or operators may choose to forgo zones and can optimize drilling mud density. For pole technique for LWD sonic tools.9
logging operations out of concern for tool sticking. advanced processing, such as extracting shear As with dipole waves, quadrupole waves are
These concerns led, in part, to the development of data in fast formations, full waveforms for each dispersive, meaning their velocity depends on
LWD acoustic tools. transmitter ring were available, but were frequency. At low frequencies, the velocity
The LWD sonic tools introduced in the stored in memory and retrieved when the tools approaches an asymptote equal to the shear
mid-1990s used monopole sources and measured returned to surface. velocity of the formation. Processing and an
formation compressional slowness.8 These mea- Over the years, LWD sonic tools have evolved inversion technique extract shear slowness val-
surements were made available in real time by through several stages, primarily focusing on ues from the measured quadrupole dispersion
sending the acoustic data, along with other LWD enhancing reliability and consistency of mono- data. However, because the low-frequency com-
measurements, to the surface using mud pulse pole-derived answers and increasing the amount ponents of the quadrupole signal attenuate
telemetry systems. of data available in real time. One hurdle to the quickly, the quadrupole dispersion prole does
Engineers could monitor pore pressure development of LWD sonic tools was accounting not reach the asymptote of formation shear speed
trends and compute sonic porosity from com- for the energy from the transmitter that arrived as clearly as the dispersion data from exural
pressional data, and geophysicists could relate at the receiver array after passing through the waves created by dipole sources.
depth-derived borehole events with time-based body of the tool. For integrity during drilling and The more dispersive prole of quadrupole
surface seismic events. Using pore pressure because they must be as strong as the rest of the data may result in a wave velocity that falls below
trends measured while drilling, engineers can drillstring, LWD tools are built into steel drill the actual formation shear speed. Quadrupole
data are affected by formation properties, bore-
8. Degrange J-M, Hawthorn A, Nakajima H, Fujihara T and 10. Scheibner et al, reference 9.
Mochida M: Sonic While Drilling: Multipole Acoustic 11. The SonicScope tool can also generate cross-dipole hole conditions, drilling mud properties, tool
Tools for Multiple Answers, paper IADC/SPE 128162, exural waves but they are not currently used. characteristics and the tools presence and posi-
presented at the IADC/SPE Drilling Conference and
12. Bulk density is usually provided by a density porosity tion in the wellbore. It is crucial that engineers
Exhibition, New Orleans, February 24, 2010.
measurement.
9. For a detailed explanation of quadrupole modeling and
13. Named for 17th century British physicist Robert Hooke, understand these effects, which can be tool spe-
processing: Scheibner D, Yoneshima S, Zhang Z,
Izuhara W, Wada Y, Wu P, Pampuri F and Pelorosso M:
this law states that the strain within an elastic material cic, to extract shear slowness from quadrupole
is proportional to the applied stress. For anisotropic
Slow Formation Shear from an LWD Tool: Quadrupole
media, the law can be expressed as a second-rank data. In addition, the processing of quadrupole
Inversion with a Gulf of Mexico Example, Transactions
of the SPWLA 51st Annual Logging Symposium, Perth,
stiffness tensor. data is more complex than the processing of
Western Australia, Australia, June 1923, 2010, paper T. 14. Zoback MD: Reservoir Geomechanics. New York City: dipole data.10
Cambridge University Press, 2007.

8 Oileld Review
 Engineers have performed extensive modeling
and testing to conrm the validity of quadrupole
source technology and of the processing technique
used to extract shear data in slow formations.
Because of these efforts, quadrupole sources are
the common mode used by service companies for
extracting shear data in slow formations using
LWD tools, although the methods of extracting the
answers differ from company to company.
Quadrupole LWD sonic tools offer answers
that were not available from monopole tools.
However, they do not yet fully replace the capa-
bilities of cross-dipole wireline tools because
quadrupole sources are not directional. But this
newly acquired ability to deliver shear data for
fast and slow formations in real time greatly
increases the value of LWD sonic tools.
The Scope of LWD Tool Design
To address the need for a quadrupole LWD tool,
Schlumberger developed the SonicScope multi-
pole sonic while drilling tool. The SonicScope
tool has a wide spectrum of applications because
it can acquire data in several modes. Although
the answers depend on the type of data acquired
and how it is processed, drillers, geophysicists,
geologists, petrophysicists, reservoir engineers
and completion engineers can all use the infor-
mation it provides.
The SonicScope tool acquires monopole and
quadrupole measurements using a powerful broad-
band transmitter that excites the borehole in both
modes over a frequency range from 1 to 20 kHz.11
There are 48 receiver sensors with 10-cm [4-in.]
spacing mounted on the outside of the tool in pro-
tected grooves positioned 90 apart (above right).
The receivers are arranged in four arrays that pro-
vide 12 axial and 4 azimuthal measurements. Each
array contains 12 digitizers, one for each sensor.
The transmitter-to-receiver spacing is optimized
to maximize the signal-to-noise ratio. The tools
1-GB memory capacity enables the recording of all
modes even with data recording rates of up to once
per second. The current version of the tool has a
43/4-in. diameter; larger tools, with diameters of 63/4,
81/4 and 9 in., are in development.
Generally, the tool is programmed in the eld
to record high-frequency monopole measure-
ments for compressional slowness and shear
slowness in fast formations, low-frequency mono-
pole data for Stoneley waves and quadrupole data
for shear acquisition in slow formations. For the
quadrupole mode, data are acquired in a fre-
quency range down to 2 kHz. From dispersion
analysis, which uses an inversion algorithm to
Spring 2012
Wideband multipole transmitter
> SonicScope LWD tool. Built into a stiff drill collar that is about 9 m [30 ft] in length, the SonicScope
tool has a wideband multipole transmitter and can be programmed to acquire data in several modes.
The 48 receivers located on the outside of the tool are 4 in. apart and provide high-resolution data at
high spatial density.
best t modeled responses, engineers can extract
shear slowness values lower than 2,000 s/m
[600 s/ft]. The SonicScope tool is fully combin-
able with other MWD and LWD tools. When com-
bined with other measurements, such as density
data, the acoustic data offer solutions for applica-
tions that include seismic correlation, pore pres-
sure determination, log interpretation in complex
lithologies and geomechanical rock properties.
Using the Data
In situ geomechanical properties cannot be mea-
sured directly; however, they can be computed
using compressional and shear slowness values
in combination with the bulk density of the
rock.12 For the case of isotropy, in which mate-
rial properties are the same in every direction,
geomechanics specialists apply Hookes law of
elasticity to derive simple equations that use
log-derived measurements to calculate several
elastic moduli (right).13 The compressional
modulus, M (also referred to as the P-wave or
longitudinal modulus), is computed from com-
pressional wave data. Similarly, the shear modu-
lus, G, a measure of a materials ability to
withstand shearing, is computed from the shear
wave data. Once these two values are deter-
mined, the bulk modulus, K; Youngs modulus, E;
and Poissons ratio, , can be calculated.
The bulk modulus is the ratio of average nor-
mal stress to volumetric strain and is the extent
to which a material can withstand isotropic
compressive loading before failure. Youngs
modulus relates strain to stress in one direction
48 wideband digital receivers
and is a measure of the stiffness of a material.
Stiffer rocks have higher Youngs modulus val-
ues and are easier to fracture than rocks with
lower values. Poissons ratio, which is the ratio
of transverse strain to axial strain, is related to
closure stress; rocks with higher Poissons ratio
values are more difcult to fracture and prop
open than those with lower values.14 Targeting
intervals for hydraulic fracturing that have
higher Youngs modulus values and lower
Poissons ratio values may improve stimulation
performance and well productivity.
a b a b
M= . G = .
(tc ) 2 (t s ) 2
4G . 9KG .
K =M E =
3 3K + G
3K 2G .
=
6K + 2G
> Hookes law and isotropic elastic moduli. For
the case of isotropic rocks, engineers use three
log-derived measurements to come up with ve
mechanical properties. The compressional
modulus, M, is computed from the compressional
slowness time (tc) and bulk density, b. The
shear modulus, G, is calculated from the shear
slowness time (ts) and bulk density. The a in
both equations is a unit conversion constant. In
turn, these two moduli are used to compute the
bulk modulus, K, Youngs modulus, E, and
Poissons ratio, .
9
 However, the simple equations relating log- stants to 21, deriving the relationships used to
derived measurements to mechanical rock prop- determine mechanical properties in an anisotro-
erties are not valid when elastic anisotropy is pic formation is a formidable task that is beyond
encountered.15 The general formulation relating the scope of this article.
stress to strain as described by Hookes law is When acoustic data are available, engineers
represented by a fourth-order stiffness tensor use these data to compute pore pressure, derive
that has 81 elastic constants and summations. elastic properties and correlate downhole data
Although symmetry reduces the number of con- with surface seismic results. Drilling engineers
Attenuation Resistivity
0.2 ohm.m 2,000
Depth, ft
use pore pressure to facilitate drilling and
increase safety margins. Using mechanical prop-
erties derived from sonic data, they can optimize
drilling programs and validate their ability to fol-
low a given well prole while maintaining well-
bore stability. Completion engineers use these
same data to design stimulation programs.
Geophysicists rene seismic data acquired at the
surface using information derived from downhole
sonic data.
Real-time data from LWD sonic tools have two
main applications for pore pressure determina-
tion: identifying overpressured formations and

Gamma Ray Phase Shift Resistivity LWD Sonic Slowness selecting mud density (left). For drilling engi-
0 gAPI 150 0.2 ohm.m 2,000 150 s/ft 50
neers, overpressured zones present hazards that
can range from mildly annoying to catastrophic.
Optimizing mud weights to maintain borehole
stability and drill safely may result in consider-
able cost savings.16
X2,000 During lithication, sediments are com-
pacted by overburden pressure and uids are
Compaction
trend expelled. The effects of compaction can be
observed in sonic slowness data as a steady
X3,000 decrease in the compressional slowness. This is
most obvious in shale intervals. Conversely, when
uids cannot escape, the formation retains uids
and becomes overpressured. Higher uid content
X4,000 results in higher compressional slowness values.
Drilling through overpressured shale zones
usually does not pose a hazard because these
zones have inherently low permeability; however,
X5,000 should the bit encounter a porous layer that is
overpressured, the hydrostatic pressure in the
wellbore may be insufcient to contain the pore
pressure. The result may be a rapid inux of res-
X6,000 ervoir uids, or a kick. In extreme cases, the well
may blow out.
Engineers can also use mechanical properties
computed from acoustic data to construct a 1D
X7,000 mechanical earth model using programs such as
the single-well geomechanics module in Petrel
seismic-to-simulation software (next page, top).
The models can be adjusted while drilling using
X8,000 real-time data from LWD sonic tools. Such models
allow drillers to maintain a drilling mud density,
> Watching for trends. Real-time LWD gamma ray data (Track 1) indicate the or mud weight, that strikes a balance between
well is penetrating shale in the upper half of this section. As long as the bit the hydrostatic pressure in the wellbore and any
remains in a shale section, there is little potential for encountering
overpressure and taking a kick; however, should the bit enter a permeable anticipated increase in reservoir pore pressure.
zone, there is a risk of inux of formation uids. The driller would typically There is a point, however, at which raising
choose to manage overpressure by increasing mud weight, but if the the mud weight can cause weaker rocks to fail.
shallower formations are not strong enough to sustain mud weights
Pore pressure prediction programs can deter-
sufcient to control an overpressured condition, casing must be set.
Because changes in lithology or uid can mask changes in the pressure mine the maximum mud density that can be
regime, resistivity (Track 2) may not always indicate overpressured maintained before the formation breaks down.
conditions. The increase in sonic slowness (Track 3) at around X5,000 ft When the maximum mud weight threshold is
indicates a potential overpressured condition (red shading). If real-time
shear data are available from the LWD sonic tool, engineers can compute
reached, casing is run to isolate weaker forma-
the strength of shallower formations and determine the thresholds for mud tions. A mistake of a few meters can result in an
weight maximum values. expensive extra casing run or create hazardous

10 Oileld Review
drilling conditions. Mechanical properties of the
Effective stress, psi
formations must be known in order to determine 800 600 400 200 0 200 400
the mud density limits.
Once the mechanical properties are com-
puted from compressional and shear slowness
data, geomechanical modeling programs can pro-
vide solutions to drilling and completion ques-
tions. Examples of modeling programs are
VISAGE reservoir geomechanics modeling soft-
ware and Mangrove reservoir-centric stimulation
design software. VISAGE software is a full-scale
reservoir-modeling program that engineers use to
predict behavior during drilling, injection and
production. Using nite-difference methods, the
software calculates detailed 3D and 4D models
that can display patterns of pressure, stress,
strain, porosity and permeability at specic
points or across an entire reservoir (below right). > Integrating sonic data. By including sonic data in reservoir models, such as this Petrel example,
Fracture stimulations in conventional reservoirs operators can design wellbore proles that are compatible with the mechanical properties of the
can be modeled along with expected production. formation. Geoscientists compute mechanical properties from surface seismic data, and the LWD
sonic data are used to update models in near real time. For instance, advanced computations deliver
Mangrove software was developed for use with stress proles that vary in a complex manner around the wellbore projection, and are graphically
unconventional reservoirs. displayed along a near-wellbore grid (shown encircling the wellbore). These displays allow engineers
An example of how geomechanical data are to better understand the borehole geomechanical status and adjust well plans to safely reach a target
(lower green area). The magenta background to the left represents Youngs modulus, an elastic
used in the development of unconventional
parameter used to dene the stress state, determined from seismic inversion. These types of
resource plays is in identifying targets with information can be updated with downhole sonic data as the well is drilled. Sonic data can also tie
better characteristics for multistage fracture time-based surface seismic data, such as the cross section displayed on the right, to specic depth
stimulation. Spacing and location of perforation references downhole.
clusters are crucial elements in stimulation
design of these reservoirs.17 A manual approach
of identifying intervals with completion-quality
rock can be tedious. However, current industry Low

Mud weight safety margin

practice of designing stimulation jobs with
evenly spaced perforation clusters regardless of
variations in rock properties can result in sub-
optimal recovery.
Other key challenges in completion design
involve modeling the complex fracture networks
High
that are frequently observed in unconventional
reservoirs and evaluating their impact on produc-
tion. Accounting for heterogeneity in completion
design can help engineers enhance well produc-
tivity, especially by identifying changes in geome-
chanical propertiespaticularly those that can
be derived from sonic data. The absence of a sin-
gle integrated solution to incorporate rock het-
Narrow operational window Negative operational window
erogeneity has been an impediment to optimizing
> Drilling through operational windows. After populating 3D and 4D models with mechanical
fracture stimulation designs.
properties, engineers can perform eld-scale stress simulations to determine magnitude and
15. For information on application of sonic data in orientation of stresses (cyan crosses). Areas to be avoided within the reservoir can be identied,
formations with elastic anisotropy: Armstrong P, such as those shown in red in the background. Narrow operational windows, which may correspond
Ireson D, Chmela B, Dodds K, Esmersoy C, Miller D, to many factors, including maximum mud weight, regions of high uid loss and mechanical
Hornby B, Sayers C, Schoenberg M, Leaney S and
Lynn H: The Promise of Elastic Anisotropy,
instability, are displayed in 3D, allowing engineers to choose a well path that maximizes safety and
Oileld Review 6, no. 4 (October 1994): 3647. efciency. Drillers may decide to set casing above or below these zones, or proceed with caution,
16. Brie et al, reference 4. aware of the increased risks. An acceptable path can be located between areas with narrow
17. King GE: Thirty Years of Gas Shale Fracturing: What operating windows (purple). The vertical cross section also provides detailed information about the
Have We Learned? paper SPE 133456, presented at the effects of a nearby salt dome on the stress eld. The mud weight safe operating margins, computed
SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, from seismic and sonic data, actually increase from top to bottom, which is the opposite of
Florence, Italy, September 1922, 2010. conditions in most reservoirs. The corresponding color changes go from blue (low safety margin) to
green to yellow to orange (high safety margin).

Spring 2012 11
 Horizontal Application
Geometrically placed perforation clusters
Rock quality Chevron Cabinda Gulf Oil Company Ltd uses
Good CQ and good RQ acoustic data to optimize drilling and comple-
Good CQ and bad RQ tions in a Lower Congo basin eld offshore
Bad CQ and good RQ
Angola.19 Shear data are required for computing
Bad CQ and bad RQ
mechanical properties, which are then used in
Rock quality well design to ensure wellbore stability. Engineers
planned to acquire SonicScope data from two
separate 6-in. horizontal boreholes, drilled
Stress sequentially, to conrm that high-quality shear
Stress data could be extracted while drilling. Along with
the SonicScope tool, the LWD logging program
Low High
included azimuthal density, neutron porosity and
Selectively placed perforation clusters
resistivity tools.
The reservoir consists of unconsolidated thin-
bedded sands. To maximize exposure to the thin
layers, lateral wellbores are drilled with sinusoi-
dal trajectories. Interval A was drilled to a mea-
sured depth of 4,570 ft [1,390 m] and then,
Rock quality without pulling out of the hole, the sidetrack
Interval B was drilled to 4,240 ft [1,290 m]. The
deviation ranged from 78 to 93 in Interval A
Stress and from 80 to 97 in Interval B.
The primary focus for the study was to com-
pare the compressional and shear measure-
ments obtained using monopole sources with
> Logging data for fracture design. In unconventional reservoirs, such as gas shales, operators measurements extracted from quadrupole data.
frequently use geometry (top) rather than geology and geomechanics to determine fracture staging The engineers programmed the tool to obtain
and perforation cluster locations. LWD acoustic data, such as those from the SonicScope tool, can high-frequency monopole, low-frequency mono-
identify rocks with low stress, which offer better completion quality (CQ), and petrophysical analysis
pole and low-frequency quadrupole waveform
can identify intervals with better reservoir quality (RQ). The Mangrove program generates a composite
quality score combining CQ and RQ to rank the rock along the wellbore, recommends preferred data, which were acquired while running in the
locations for perforation clusters and groups similar rocks in treatment stages (bottom). The stress is hole and while drilling in open hole. High-
presented beneath the well projection and ranges from low (red) to high (blue). The same number of frequency monopole data were also acquired
perforation clusters are used in both examplescolored ovals represent perforation clusters in each
while in casing. Compressional slowness data
stagebut in the recommended results they are concentrated in better quality rock (blue, green and
yellow), and poor quality rock (red) is avoided. Operators following this engineering approach for were transmitted to surface in real time, and log-
completion design have seen substantial improvement in production. (Adapted from Cipolla et al, ging engineers transmitted the information to
reference 18.) geoscientists at the onshore ofce. Data were
also stored in tool memory for further processing
To address unconventional hydraulic fracture quantied from these multidomain reservoir data after TD was reached in Interval B and the tools
design and to help optimize fracture stimula- so that completion engineers can optimize stage could be retrieved from the well.
tions, Schlumberger engineers developed placement and perforation programs. Monopole data provided good compressional
Mangrove stimulation modeling software Operators recognize the benets of using acous- measurements; however, shear slowness data
(above).18 The software incorporates seismic, tic log data for well and completion design. from the monopole source were frequently miss-
geologic, geomechanical and microseismic data Acquisition of data in extended-reach horizontal ing from both intervals (next page). Processing of
along with reservoir simulations to model frac- wellbores has been problematic with wireline tools the quadrupole waveform data yielded continu-
ture propagation and geometry. The software because it is difcult to convey them to TD and it is ous shear slowness data of good quality across
includes two different fracture simulators that hard to keep the tools centered in the wellbore. the majority of both intervals. The shear slowness
are designed for complex hydraulic fracture mod- LWD sonic tools, designed to acquire data in these values from the quadrupole data in Interval A
eling. They are linked to reservoir models for types of environments, provide real-time formation ranged from 132 to 310 s/ft [433 to 1,020 s/m],
optimizing fracture design and production fore- mechanical properties that may improve drilling and in Interval B the range was 145 to 264 s/ft
casting. Reservoir and completion quality are decisions and stimulation programs. [476 to 866 s/m]. With the monopole data, no
shear slowness values greater than 243 s/ft
18. Cipolla C, Weng X, Onda H, Nadaraja T, Ganguly U and 19. Mohammed S, Crowe J, Belaud D, Yamamoto H,
Malpani R: New Algorithms and Integrated Workow Degrange J-M, Pistre V and Prabawa H: Latest [797 s/m] were observed. With the quadrupole
for Tight Gas and Shale Completions, paper SPE 146872, Generation Logging While Drilling Sonic Tool: Multipole source, Chevron Cabinda Gulf Oil was able to
presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Acoustics Measurements in Horizontal Wells from
Exhibition, Denver, October 30November 2, 2011. Offshore West South Africa, Transactions of the quantify shear slownesses in zones that were too
SPWLA 52nd Annual Logging Symposium, Colorado slow for the monopole source.
Springs, Colorado, USA, May 1418, 2011, paper CC.

12 Oileld Review
 2-MHz
Resistivity
Data
Bulk Density
10-in. Monopole
Phase Shift Poissons Ratio 1.95 g/cm3 2.95
ROP
0.2 ohm.m 200 0 0.5 Neutron Porosity
200 ft/h 0 Monopole Projection
22-in. Quadrupole 45 % 15
Gamma Ray Phase Shift Poissons Ratio 40 s/ft 340
PEF
0 gAPI 150 0.2 ohm.m 200 0 0.5 Monopole tc Quadrupole Projection
Caliper 0 20
34-in. Monopole 40 s/ft 340 40 s/ft 440
Phase Shift Vp /Vs Ratio Density Correction
5 in. 10 Monopole ts Quadrupole Inversion Quality
Bit Size 0.2 ohm.m 200 0 5 1 g/cm3 1
40 s/ft 340 1 4 Waveform
5 in. 10 Measured
24-in. Quadrupole Monopole
Attenuation Vp /Vs Ratio tc Quadrupole ts Quadrupole ts Variable Density Log
depth, ft
Washout
0.2 ohm.m 200 0 5 240 s/ft 40 40 s/ft 340 40 s/ft 440 0 s 5,000

XX,000

XX,100

> Good quality shear data from the SonicScope LWD tool. Chevron Cabinda engineers use mechanical properties computed from acoustic data for well
design and to optimize drilling practices in a Lower Congo basin eld offshore Angola. In this example, several LWD logs were run in a horizontal well and
provided rate of penetration (ROP), gamma ray and caliper data (Track 1) along with resistivity (Track 2) and porosity data (Track 4). The SonicScope tool
was included in the suite to evaluate its ability to provide shear data in soft formations. Extracting shear slowness from monopole data is difcult in the
unconsolidated formations that are typical of the eld. Track 5 presents the coherence projections for the monopole compressional data (black curve on
left) and monopole shear data (black curve on right). In several places across the logged interval, such as the gap in the middle of this interval, the
monopole shear data are incomplete. Quadrupole shear data acquired with the SonicScope tool are continuous (Track 5, red curve). The coherence
(Track 6) of the quadrupole data provides high condence in the measurement quality. There is also a difference between the two shear slownesses
measured by the different methods. This difference is associated with acoustic anisotropy in this horizontal well. Where monopole shear data are available,
Vp /Vs ratios from the two datasets are shown (Track 3, green and dashed magenta lines). Monopole Poissons ratio (Track 3, purple) is compared with
quadrupole Poissons ratio (Track 3, dashed red) and these data also exhibit some differences across the interval. A Variable Density log (Track 7) is used to
check the quality of the received sonic data. (Adapted from Mohammed et al, reference 19.)

Spring 2012 13
 Variable Density Log
High-Frequency Monopole Waveforms
0 s
Casing Arrival Window Start
Casing 0 s
Bit Size Casing Arrival Window Stop
5 in. 10 0 s
Casing shoe
> Cement bond logging with an LWD sonic tool. Data from the SonicScope
tool can be presented in a format similar to that of wireline cement bond logs
(CBLs) to evaluate cement behind casing. The measurements are qualitative
rather than quantitative. The Variable Density log is a presentation of the
acoustic waveform at a receiver, in which the amplitude is presented in
shades of a gray scale. Because cement bonded to the outside of the casing
attenuates the signals that would normally be present, the Variable Density
log is a useful indicator of the presence of cement behind pipe. In this
interval, the depth of end of casing is shown (red line). The absence of
waveform arrivals in the casing window (dashed yellow line to dashed blue
line) indicates good bonding of the cement behind the pipe. The patterns to
the right of expected casing arrivals come from the formation, which signify
bonding of cement to the formation. (Adapted from Mohammed et al,
reference 19.)
Sweet Spots in Real Time
In addition to improving well design and optimiz-
ing drilling with increased safety, sonic data help
3,000 engineers make and validate real-time well
placement decisions. Recently, engineers used
data from the SonicScope tool to identify sweet
3,000 spots in a horizontal well.20 Two drilling runs were
made in the well, one of more than 1,500 ft
3,000 [460 m] and a second of 886 ft [270 m].21 The
LWD assembly did not include density or porosity
data. Identication of sweet spots was based
solely on changes in the ratio of compressional
and shear velocities (Vp /Vs).
For this reservoir, a correlation had been
observed between drilling rate of penetration
(ROP) and production; zones with higher ROPs
exhibited better hydrocarbon production.
Drilling rates can, however, be inuenced by fac-
tors that are unrelated to reservoir quality, such
as bit type and condition. On the other hand,
stable Vp /Vs ratios had also been associated with
better quality rock, and they reect reservoir
properties. Log analysts identied seven sepa-
rate zones within the drilled interval based on
Vp /Vs ratios. Zone 1 represents the interval con-
taining the landing point. Zone 2 is the interval
over which angle was built to penetrate the reser-
voir. Changes in formation lithology and variable
formation properties were identied from
Vp /Vs ratios in zones 4 and 6. Zones 3, 5 and 7 have
steady Vp /Vs ratios and correspond to 10%
increases in ROP compared with the average
ROP for the drilled section (next page).
From sonic data, engineers conrmed that
three intervals offered the best quality rock for
completion. The driller was also able to guide the
well back to better quality intervals after inadver-
tently exiting the preferred zones. The results of
this study demonstrate the value of real-time
sonic data to quantify rock quality.

The absence of shear data in softer forma-
tions would have made it impossible to compute
mechanical properties in these zones. Because
measurements with the quadrupole source deliv-
ered shear slowness in slow formations inter-
sected by both intervals, engineers are able to
incorporate mechanical property data in future
well designs.
In addition to compressional and shear slow-
ness, the SonicScope tool provided cement bond
logging (CBL) information in the 7-in. casing
(above). From high-frequency monopole data, log
analysts identied the top of cement (TOC) and
estimated the cement quality. A Variable Density
log, similar to wireline CBL logs, was also generated.
The interpretation based on the LWD sonic data is
only qualitative, but is often sufcient to verify that
the pipe is adequately cemented in place.
The Lower Congo basin reservoir described in
this case study consisted of unconsolidated
sands, which can pose drilling challenges. The
ability to extract usable-quality acoustic shear
data from LWD sonic quadrupole measurements
in these unconsolidated sands enabled engineers
to derive geomechanical properties for planning
future extended-reach horizontal wells. These
data were used for several purposes, including
developing safer drilling programs, optimizing
drilling, managing mud properties and under-
standing limiting factors for future wells.
Sound Future
Engineers recognize the importance of using
mechanical property data in optimizing drilling
programs and designing effective stimulation
jobs. Identifying and responding to seemingly
small variations in properties can mean the dif-
ference between disastrous results and a well
drilled with few complications. Small variations
in mechanical properties can be exploited to
improve commercial viability of drilling pros-
pects where fracture stimulation is indicated.
20. Sweet spots refer to target locations or areas within a
play or a reservoir that represent the best production or
potential production. Geoscientists and engineers
attempt to map sweet spots to allow wellbores to be
placed in the most productive zones of the reservoir.
21. Degrange et al, reference 8.

14 Oileld Review
 Zones 1 and 2 Zone 3 Zone 4 Zone 5 Zone 6 Zone 7
100
80
ROP, ft/h 60
40
20
0

140
120
t c, t s, s/ft

100
80
60
40
t c recorded mode t c real time t s recorded mode t s real time
2.000

1.875
Vp /Vs ratio

1.750

1.625

1.500

0.500
Poissons ratio

0.375

0.250

0.125

Zones 1 and 2 Zone 3 Zone 4 Zone 5 Zone 6 Zone 7

True vertical depth, ft

0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500

Original well plan Horizontal departure, ft

Revised trajectory
> Sweet spot drilling. ROP has been identied by the operator of this well as a sign of good completion-quality rock. However, ROP is inuenced
by factors other than reservoir quality. The ROP data (green curve) are not conclusive and have considerable variability. Stable Vp /Vs ratios are
also an indicator of completion quality and can be computed from sonic compressional data (top, blue and red curves) and shear data (purple and
green curves) acquired in real time or recovered from downhole memory. Engineers identied seven different zones (yellow and green shading)
across the interval based on LWD Vp /Vs data (red curve). Poissons ratio (blue curve) is an indicator of rock stiffness. The cross section (bottom)
shows the location of each zone of the wellbore relative to the sweet spot (between light blue lines). Zone 1 is the heel of the horizontal section
where the well was kicked off, and Zone 2 is where angle was being built to enter the reservoir. Zones 4 and 6 were drilled out of zone for short
intervals. Zones 3, 5 and 7 have stable Vp /Vs ratios around 1.625, were drilled in zone and were identied as good targets for fracture stimulation.
(Adapted from Degrange et al, reference 8.)

New LWD sonic tools and techniques allow access
to these data in real time.
Integration of acoustic data in drilling, com-
pletion and evaluation workows is a key to the
future of LWD sonic operations. Service compa-
nies have demonstrated conclusively that these
data can be extracted and that the information is
relevant to drilling and completion operations.
Presenting the data in a form that decision mak-
ers can use to visualize the downhole environ-
ment is crucial.
The area around the bit is noisy and wracked
by sound and vibrations while drilling. However,
engineers have designed LWD acoustic tools that
overcome these conditions and answer funda-
mental questions about the rocks being pene-
trated by the bit. These tools are saying
something important about the reservoir and
the rocks, and geoscientists are listening. TS

Spring 2012 15