Prepared By: Ajay.N, Ashwin.M.

Joshi
and Arvind Sagar
Assistant Professors,
RASTA-Center for Road Technology,
Bangalore

PRE-ENGINEERED
STRUCTURES
NOTES
Module 1
Types of RC Prefabricated Structures, Long wall and cross wall large panel buildings,
One way and two way prefabricated slabs, Framed buildings with partial and curtain
walls, single storey industrial buildings with trusses and shells, Crane, Gantry systems.

Module 2
Functional Design Principles: Modular coordination Standardization - Disuniting,
Diversity of prefabricates Production Transportation Erection - Stages of
loading,codal provisions- Safety factors - Material properties - Deflection control -
Lateral load resistance - Location and types of shear walls.

Module 3
Floors, Stairs and Roofs: Types of floor slabs Methods of Analysis and design
example of cored and panel types and two-way systems - Staircase slab design - Types
of roof slabs and insulation requirements - Description of joints, behaviour and
requirements - Deflection control for short term and long term loads - Ultimate strength
calculations in shear and flexure.

Module 4
Walls: Types of wall panels - Blocks of large panels Curtain partition and load
bearing walls Load transfer from floor to wall panels Vertical loads Eccentricity and
stability of wall panels Use of Design curves -Types of wall joints, their behaviour and
design Leak prevention, Joint sealents, sandwich wall panels.

Module 5
Industrial Buildings: Components of single storey industrial sheds with crane gantry
systems - Design aspects of R.C. Roof Trusses - Roof panels R.C. Crane - Gantry
Girders - Corbels and columns and Wind bracing.
 MODULE-1

1.1 Prefabrication-General
Prefabrication is the practice of assembling components of a structure in a factory or
other manufacturing site and transporting complete assembles to the construction site
where the structure is to be located. Prefabricated building is the completely assembled
and erected building of which the structural parts consist of prefabricated individual
units or assemblies using ordinary or controlled materials. Prefabricated construction is
a new technique and is desirable for large scale housing programmes.

1.2 Principles
1) To effect economy in cost
2) To improve in quality as the components can be manufactured under controlled
conditions.
3) To speed up construction since no curing is necessary.
4) To use locally available materials with required characteristics.
5) To use the materials which possess their innate characteristics like light weight, easy
workability, thermal insulation and combustibility etc.

1.3 Need for Prefabrication

Prefabricated structures are used for sites which are not suitable for normal
construction method such as hilly region and also when normal construction
materials are not easily available.
PFS facilities can also be created at near a site as is done to make concrete blocks
used in plane of conventional knick.
Structures which are used repeatedly and can be standardized such as mass housing
storage sheds, godowns, shelter, bus stand security cabins, site offices, fool over
bridges road bridges. Tubular structures, concrete building blocks etc., are
prefabricated structures

1.4 Advantages
Speed of construction, owing to the ability to begin casting components for the
superstructure while foundation work is in progress. Precast concrete components
can also be cast and erected year-round, without delays caused by harsh weather;
Aesthetic flexibility, due to the variety of textures, colors, finishes and inset options
that can be provided. Precast is extremely plastic and can mimic granite, limestone,
brick, and other masonry products. This allows it to blend economically with nearby
buildings finished with more expensive materials;
Design flexibility, resulting from the long-span capabilities to provide open
interiors;
 Durability, which allows the material to show minimal wear over time and resist
impacts of all types without indicating stress;
Energy efficiency, due to the materials high thermal mass. This is enhanced by the
use of insulated panels, which include an insulated core; Environmental
friendliness, as seen in its contributions to achieving certification in the Leadership
in Energy & Environmental Design (LEED) program from the U.S. Green Building
Council (USGBC); and
High quality, resulting from the quality control achieved by casting the products in
the plant. Plants certified by PCI undergo stringent audits of their quality
procedures, ensuring the quality of fabrication in these facilities.

1.5 Disadvantages
Careful handling of prefabricated components such as concrete panels or steel and
glass panels is required.
Attention has to be paid to the strength and corrosion-resistance of the joining of
prefabricated sections to avoid failure of the joint.
Similarly, leaks can form at joints in prefabricated components.
Transportation costs may be higher for Voluminous. Prefabricated sections than for
the materials of which they are made, which can often be packed more efficiently.
Large Prefabricated Structures require heavy-duty cranes & Precision measurement
and handling to place in position.

1.6 Precast Concrete Construction

Precast concrete consists of concrete that is cast into a specific shape at a location other
than its in service position. The concrete is placed into a form, typically wood or steel,
and cured before being stripped from the form, usually the following day. These
components are then transported to the construction site for erection into place.
Precast concrete can be plant-cast or site-cast. Precast concrete components are
reinforced with either conventional reinforcing bars, strands with high tensile strength,
or a combination of both. The strands are pretensioned in the form before the concrete is
poured. Once the concrete has cured to a specific strength, the strands are cut
(detensioned). As the strands, having bonded to the concrete, attempt to regain their
original untensioned length, they bond to the concrete and apply a compressive force.
This pre-compression increases load-carrying capacity to the components and helps
control cracking to specified limits allowed by building codes.

Precast components are used in various applications and projects of all types.
Key components include:
Wall panels, which can include an inner layer of insulation and be load supporting if
desired;
 Spandrels, which generally span between columns and are used with window
systems in office buildings or in parking structures;
Double tees, so named due to the two extending stems perpendicular to the flat
horizontal deck. These tees are often used for parking structures and buildings
where long open spans are desired;
Hollow-core slabs, which are long panels in which voids run the length of the
pieces, reducing weight while maintaining structural strength;
Columns and beams, including columns and a variety of beam shapes;
Bridge components for both substructure and superstructure designs, including
girders in a variety of shapes, box beams, and deck panels;
Piers, piles, caps and other supporting components for bridges.

1.7 Types of Prefabrication Elements

The system of prefabricated construction depends on the extent of the use of
prefabricated components, their material, sizes and the technique adopted for their
manufacture and use in building. The various prefabrication systems are outlined below.
1) Small prefabrication
2) Medium prefabrication
3) Large prefabrication
4) Off-Site prefabrication system
5) Open prefabrication system
6) Large panel prefabrication system
7) Wall system
8) Floor system
9) Stair case system
10) Box type system
11) Frame system

1. Small Prefabrication: The first 3 types are mainly classified according to their
degree of precast elements using in that construction. For example, brick is a small unit
pre-casted and used in buildings. This is called as small prefabrication. That the degree
of precast element is very low.
2. Medium Prefabrication: Suppose the roofing systems and horizontal member are
provided with precast elements. These constructions are known as medium
prefabricated construction. Here the degree of precast elements are moderate.
3. Large Prefabrication: In large prefabrication most of the members like wall panels,
roofing/flooring systems, beams and columns are prefabricated. Here degree of precast
elements are high.
4. Off-Site (Factory) Prefabrication
One of the main factors which affect the factory prefabrication is transport. The width
of road walls mode of transport vehicles are the factors which factor the prefabrications
which is to be done on site or factory.
Suppose the factory situated at a long distance from the construction site and the vehicle
have to cross a congested traffic with heavy weighed elements the cost in-situ
prefabrication is preferred even though the same condition are the cast in site
prefabrication is preferred only when number of houses are more for small elements the
conveyance is easier with normal type of lorry and trailors. Therefore we can adopt
factory (or) OFF site prefabrication for this type of construction.

5. Open Prefabrication System

This system is based on the use of the basic structural elements to form whole or part of
a building. The standard prefabricated concrete components which can be used are,
a) Reinforced concrete channel units
b) Hollow core slabs
c) Hollow blocks and battens
d) Precast plank and battens
e) Precast joists and tiles
f) Cellular concrete slabs
g) Prestressed / reinforced concrete slabs
h) Reinforced / prestressed concrete slabs
i) Reinforced / prestressed concrete columns
j) Precast lintels and sunshades
k) Reinforced concrete waffle slabs / shells
l) Room size reinforced / prestressed concrete panels
m) Reinforced / prestressed concrete walling elements
n) Reinforced / prestressed concrete trusses
The elements may be cost at the site or off the site.
Foundation for the columns could be of prefabricated type of the conventional cast in
situ type depending upon the soil conditions and loads. The columns may have hinged
or fixed base connections depending upon the type of components used and the method
of design adopted.
There are two categories of open prefabricated systems depending on the extent of
prefabrication used in the construction as given below.
i. Partial Prefabrication Open System
The system basically emphasizes the use of precast roofing and flooring components
and other minor elements like lintels, sunshades, kitchen sills in conventional building
construction. The structural system could be in the form of in-situ frame work or load
bearing walls.
ii. Full Prefabrication Open System
In this system, almost all the structural components are prefabricated. The filler walls
may be of bricks or of any other local materials.
6. Large Panel Prefabrication System
This is based on the use of large prefabricated components. The components used are
precast concrete large panels for walls, floor roofs, balconies, stair cases etc. The
casting of the components could be at the site or off the site.
Depending upon the context of prefabrication, this system can also lend itself to partial
prefabrication system and full prefabrication system.
Hence construction is a time consuming labor-intensive process. Builders need to bring
together all of the necessary materials and skilled workers to complete the project
successfully within a given time frame one way to make the process easier is by using
prefabricated components. Such as pre-built walls (or) larger wall panels.

The simple way of classification of precast wall panel is based on their size or the materials
of which they are made. They can be classified According to size as small and large or as
narrow vertical stirrups or as broad horizontal bands. The material that are used for precast
wall panel are bricks, hollow clay blocks, normal density concrete light weight metal
gypsum plastic & timber.
Generally materials that are locally available or which can be easily obtained are used for
the production of precast wall panels. Due consideration is also given to the structural and
physical properties of the materials in their selection particularly in respective of their
strength, thermal and sound insulation properties and relative cost. Another classification of
precast concrete wall which is especially application to prefabricated construction is based
on their function and location in the building. They can also be distinguished for their cross
sectional characteristics. As regards their location the wall panels may be classified as
exterior or interior location walls.
Depended on their function they may be either structural (load bearing) or non-structural
(non-load bearing) elements. They may be of solid ripped sandwich hollow core, or
composite construction they can be either prestressed or conventionally reinforce.
In large panel construction the load bearing wall may be laid out either perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis of the building (cross wall system) or parallel to it ( spine wall system). A
mixed system consists of cross wall and spine wall system. In most Vertical load carrying
elements transfer their loads directly to the foundation without an intermediate frame.

7. Wall System
Structural scheme with precast large panel walls can be classified as
1) Cross wall system
2) Longitudinal wall system

Cross Wall System

In this system the cross walls are load bearing walls. The facade walls are non-load
bearing. This system is suitable for high rise buildings.

Longitudinal Wall System

In this system, cross walls are non-bearing, longitudinal walls are load bearing. This
system is suitable for low rise buildings.
A combination of the above systems with all load bearing walls can also be adopted.

Precast concrete walls could be

Homogeneous walls:
The walls could be solid or ribbed.
Non-homogeneous walls:
Based on the structural functions of the walls, the walls could be classified as
a. Load bearing walls
b. Non-load bearing walls
c. Shear walls

a. Load bearing wall: Precast load bearing walls provide an economical solution when
compared to the conventional column/ beam/ infill wall system. The primary
advantages are speed of construction and elimination of wet trades.
In adopting the wall thickness, structural adequacy is not the sole consideration. Other
factors to be considered include:
Connection details for supported beams and slabs.
Sound transmission and fire rating.
Joint details at panel-to-panel connections.
Possible future embedded services, which could reduce the concrete area available.
 Based on typical layouts and building configurations, a thickness of 180mm is
recommended for the precast panels used for party walls.

b. Non-Loading Bearing Wall

Curtain Wall
Curtain wall is a non-load bearing concrete wall construction that protects covered
and/or conditioned interior spaces from the outside environment. Often designers
consider aluminum-framed walls of glass or thin in-fills of metal or other materials as
curtain walls.
Sandwich Walls
Insulated sandwich wall panels can be strictly architectural, strictly structural, or a
combination of both. The difference between typical panels and insulated sandwich wall
panels is that the latter are cast with rigid insulation "sandwiched" between two layers
of concrete. The insulation thickness can vary to create the desired thermal insulating
property ("R" value) for the wall.

The structural behavior is either:

Composite in which the Wythes are connected using ties through the insulation that
fully transfer loads. The structural performance is then based on the full thickness of the
panel;
 Non-Composite in which the Wythes are connected using ties through the insulation,
which limits performance to the individual capacities of each Wythe.
Whether the panel is composite or non-composite depends on the configuration and
material used for the ties. Insulated sandwich wall panels can be designed to be
loadbearing and support floor and roof components. They make an ideal structural
element for this purpose, typically by casting a thicker interior wythe to provide the
necessary support. They can also be non-loadbearing to complete a faade.
Finishes: As with typical wall panels, the panels are cast in a flat orientation, so the
form side is typically the side that will be exposed to view in the final construction. This
face can be made with virtually any type of finish. GFRC panels allow for great
aesthetic details and extensions such as cornices, due to the manufacturing process. The
back face is typically troweled smooth, but is not left exposed. The back-up systems are
often used to attach drywall and/or other finish materials.
Typical widths: 4 to 15 ft.
Typical heights: 8 to 50 ft.
Typical thicknesses: 1.5 to 3 in.

Precast Non-Load Bearing Facade Wall

Typically, the wall panels for the front and rear elevations are non-load bearing facade
elements. Support of these panels is achieved by any of the following methods:
The facade panel is connected to main load bearing walls and is designed to carry its
own weight between supports.
The facade panel is connected to the floor slab or beam, which is then designed to
provide support to the wall.
These panels will typically be designed for vertical loads due to self-weight and an
allowance for floor loads, if applicable, in addition to horizontal loads due to external
wind pressures. A typical panel thickness of 120mm is proposed on the basis of strength
considerations and to accommodate window fixings and profiles around the window
perimeter.

Facade panels will often require three-dimensional architectural features, such as hoods,
sills and ledges. In cases where there is a reasonable degree of repetition, customized
moulds can be produced, enabling these features to be economically incorporated into
the panels. As an alternative, when repetition is limited, it will be most economical to
cast the faade panel flat and subsequently add the features, manufactured separately
using materials such as precast concrete, GRC, Aluminum or steel.

8. Floor System
Depending upon the composition of units, precast flooring units could be homogeneous
or non-homogeneous.
1) Homogeneous floors could be solid slabs, cored slabs, ribbed or waffle slabs.
2) Non-homogeneous floors could be multilayered ones with combinations light
weight concrete or reinforced / pre stressed concrete with filled blocks.

Depending upon the way, the loads are transferred the precast floors could be classified
as one way or two way systems.

One Way System

One way system transfers loads to the supporting members in one direction only. The
precast elements of this category are channel slabs, hollow core slabs, hollow blocks
and hollow plank system, channels and tiles system, light weight cellular concrete slab
etc.

Two Way Systems

Transfer loads in both the direction imparting loads on the four edges. The precast
element under this category are room sized panels two way ribbed or waffle slab system
etc..

Typical Flooring / Roofing system.

9. Stair Case System Stair case system consists of single flights with inbuilt risers and
treads in the element only. The flights are normally unidirectional transferring the loads
to supporting landing slabs or load bearing walls.

10. Box Type System In this system, room size unit are prefabricated and erected at
site. This system derives its stability and stuffiness from the box limits which are
formed by four adjacent walls. Walls are joined to make rigid connections among
themselves. The box unit rest as plinth foundation which may be of conventional type
of pre-cast type.

11. Frame System

Precast frames can be constructed using either linear elements or spatial beam
column sub-assemblages.
The use of linear elements generally means placing the connecting faces at the
beam-column junctions. The beams can be seated on corbels at the columns, for
ease of construction and to aid the shear transfer from the beam to the column.
The beam-column joints accomplished in this way are hinged.
However, rigid beam-column connections are used in some cases, when the
continuity of longitudinal reinforcement through the beam-column joint needs to be
ensured.

Typical Precast Beams

 Typical Precast Columns

1.8 Industrial Building

Industrial type building (Workshops, warehouses, etc.) is governed by laws differing
from those controlling housing building.
Prefabrication in situ of the main load-bearing beams and other secondary members
(trusses, floors, etc.) is by now of common use in any construction yard for the erection
of a factory or an industrial building. Quite often the construction Company purchases
the main beams and other load-bearing members directly from specialized firms
expressly equipped for an industrial type production. This tendency is mentioned here
because it is probably destined to assert itself even more in the presumable development
of the building industry which will convert the construction companies into concerns for
the assembly of industrially prefabricated structural elements.

1.8.1 Components of Industrial Building (Single-Storey)

The roofs of single storey shed type industrial buildings maybe constructed by purlins
with covering of roofing slabs or corrugated asbestos cement sheet method. These are
the most popular forms of roof covering used in central Europe. This is not surprising
considering the simplicity of manufacture of purlins and the availability from stock of
factory made lightweight roofing slab and panels. The structural system of the purlins
maybe
a) Freely supported beam
b) Cantilever girder
c) Continuous girder

The connections of purlins over the support are designed only to absorb a limited
bending moment. Normal purlins spans between 5 and 10m.The purlins are spaced at
intervals of 2m to 3m. Roofing members are classified as,

Reinforced planks:
Reinforced planks made of hollow tiles. The reinforced planks with longitudinal
circular holes. Thickness of these tiles is 60mm, 80mm & 100mm & the width is
200mm & length is vary from 360mm to 400mm. On the upper side one longitudinal
groove is provided. Reinforcement is placed into these grooves which are subsequently
filled with cement mortar. In this way, roofs of length 2 to 3m & thickness of 60 to
100mm & width 200mm can be constructed. The end tiles resting on the support are
provided with 3.11mm dia stirrups protruding from the tile. There are kept together over
mortar of 40mm thickness & in further concreting of joint is completed.

Light weight concrete roofing members:

Light weight concrete roofing members play a role in addition to space bordering &
load bearing in heat insulation. The thickness varies from 7.5 to 25cm for reinforcement
of light weight concrete roofing members, welding nets is used. Steel reinforcement is
given additional coating to prevent any corrosion care is taken to give good bonding of
reinforcement with concrete. The unit weight of these members is 750kg/m3& width of
50cm.Its varies from 1.75mm to 6m.precast members can be made either in usual way
using lightweight materials. Sand as aggregate & combination of high strength concrete.
The top & bottom layer of about 2 to 3cm thickness is provided with high strength
concrete. Its consists of prestressed 2.5mm dia embedded in these layers. The middle
portion is made with light weight concrete.

Small reinforced concrete roofing members:

The Small reinforced concrete roofing members is essentially precast simply supported
ribbed concrete slab width varying from 450 to 120cm & length varying from 2 to 4m.

Purlins:
Purlins are usually solid web members. For long span they maybe lattice girders or
trussed beams. Freely supported purlins are designed as parallel flanged or fish- belly
members. Purlins designed as cantilever girders (articulated girders) are usually parallel
flanged members. The cross section of purlins is generally rectangular but it can also
have trapezoidal, T, L and I shape. The c/s features depends on the spans of purlins and
on the slope of the roof. The purlins for flat roofs are usually rectangular T- section or
(prestressed concrete).
T-section members for steeply sloped roofs if the purlins are loaded also bi axial
bending L-section and the approximate spans associated with them for a purlins spacing
of 3m are indicated for the flat roofs. The dimensions relate to freely supported purlins.

Precast purlins can be simply supported or cantilever beams & for the bearing of loads
beyond these weight simply supported purlins can be transformed into continuous
beams. It is very simple & easy to place. For cantilever purlins placing of hinges should
be determined in a manner to develop positive & negative moments equal to each other.
This can be arrived by placing the hinges @ 0.145 from the support where I is the
spacing between the supports.

Purlins section with associated spans for a purlins spacing of about1.25m in the case of
steeply sloped roofs with corrugated asbestos cement sheet are indicated. The L-section
is popular with British Firms channels section purlins have been developed by among
others professor VON HALASS. They are convenient to manufacture with the legs of
the channel upwards whereby very thin webs can be produced.
This type of purlins maybe conventionally reinforced or by prestressed, also they may
be freely supported or be continuous over several spans. In case of L- section purlins
usually only the flange of the section is supported
The fish belly girder is very favorable with regard to material requirements and the
pattern of forces in the girder, but it has the disadvantages of being rather
unsatisfactory. From the point of view of architectural aesthetics when it is used it is
generally designed as a reinforced concrete purlins.

Large reinforced concrete roofing members:

Large reinforced concrete rest on the main girders. These are generally used for large
hall structures & these are most advanced type of precast structures. Members are
manufactured corresponding to spacing of the frame length of about 6 to 10m & width
of 1.3 to 1.8m. As they are most supported on main girder purlins are not required.
Four kinds of members exist:
1. Normal members.
2. Intermediate members.
3. Members with cornice.
4. Members with gutter & eves border.

Shell Roof:
The shell structure can have ribs in the centre & provided with curved membrane like
roof. There are many industrial structure are built by precast members with shells. The
thickness of shell varies from 2 to 10cm.Some precast shell, are produced with
dimensions which are very difficult to transport. To avoid such difficulty large size
shells are precast near to the resting or construction place.
The transportable or small size shell members can be precast in factories & these are
transported to the site.
Examples: Barrel shells, Saddle or hyperboloid shells. Cupola or parabolic shells.
The advantage of shells is that it provides large column free area for the monolithic
construction. The cost of shuttering & scaffolding is very high but if manufactured in a
precast factory in large scale. The production cost can be considerably reduced.

Type of Shell Constructions

a).Single barrel Shell Structure
The structure above is a single barrel with edge beams. The shell has been allowed to
project beyond the edge of the stiffener in order to show the shape of the shell.
Stiffeners are required at columns. They do not necessarily have to be complete
diaphragms but may be arches with a horizontal tie. The thickness is based on design of
a slab element, the thickness of the barrel shell is usually based on the minimum
thickness required for covering the steel for fireproofing, plus the space required for
three layers of bars, plus some space for tolerance. If these bars are all half inch rounds,
a practical minimum would be 3 inches. Near the supports the thickness may be
greater for containing the larger longitudinal bars. If more than one barrel is placed side
by side, the structure is a multiple barrel structure & if more than one span, it is called
as multiple span structure.

b).Multiple barrel Shell Structure

This structure shows a multiple barrel with vertical edge beams at the outside edges.
The stiffeners have been place over a roof. The advantage of having the stiffeners on
top is that there are no interruptions to the space inside the shell so both the inside
appearance & the utility are better. The movable formwork may be used which will
slide with little decentering lengthwise of the shell.
The multiple span structure should have an occasional expansion joint to reduce
shrinkage & thermal stresses. This can be accomplished by cantilevering half the span
from each adjacentstiffener. A small upturned rib placed on each side of the joint &
accordion type sheet metal flashing is arranged to prevent roof leakage.
The maximum spans for this type shell are again limited by the geometry off the cross
section .Assuming the maximum width of barrel to be 50 feet & maximum end slope to
be 45deg, the rise would be about 14 feet, the maximum span would be in the order of
150 feet.

c).North light shells

This type of shell structure is used to provide large areas of north light windows for
factories requiring excellent natural lighting. The windows may be slanting or may be
vertical. The member at the bottom forms a drainage trough with the curved shell &
materially assists in stiffening the structure. The effective depth of the shell is not the
vertical distance between the two ends but is merely represented b the depth if the shell
is laid flat with the ends of the circle on the same horizontal line. The spans for the
north light shell must be rather small in comparison to the vertical depth of
construction. The edges of adjacent shall should be tied together by concrete struts
serving as mullions between the window glazing.

d).Long barrel shell

Long barrel shell obtained hen the semicircle or a segment of same is translated along
the longitudinal axis. Generally used for shed for industrially purpose & buildings for
large column free areas. Generally the prefabricated barrels off sizes 3.5 to 5m & 10m
long with edge beams having thickness of 60mm.The thickness of the shell should not
be more than 40mm.The dimension of these members were finally limited by the load
carrying capacity of the available hoisting machines using the girder system built of
precast prestressed trusses with parallel chords, areas having a span of even more than
15m can be cover with barrel shell.

1.9 Materials Used

Prefabricated building materials are used for buildings that are manufactured off site
and shipped later to assemble at the final location some of the commonly used
prefabricated building. The materials used in the prefabricated components are many.
The modern trend is to use concrete steel, treated wood, aluminum cellular concrete,
light weight concrete, ceramic products etc. While choosing the materials for
prefabrication the following special characteristics are to be considered.

foundations
ermal insulation property
2.0 Characteristics of Materials

of foundations.
 MODULE-2

2.1 Modular Coordination

Modular coordination is a concept of coordination of dimension and space, in
which building components are dimensioned and positioned in a term of a basic
unit or module, which is also known as 1M and which is equivalent to 100 mm.
MC is internationally accepted by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) and many other countries as well as Malaysia. A module is
a unit of measurement and it means Standardized and easily fit components.
Generally the word Module is derived from Latin Word MODULUS meaning a
small dimension.
MC is the International system of dimensional standardization in building. The
smallest Module is generally used to coordinate Position and Size of Components,
Elements and their Installations.
Smaller Dimensions should be more clearly distributed than larger dimensions.
Modular coordination was first explored as an aid to design shortly after the
introduction of prefabrication in the construction industry in the industrialization.
It was conceived as a further step in the development of systematic design and
construction of the building. This subject has been discussed and attempted in an
actual building experiment in practically every developed country.
Modular coordination was first studied in Singapore in the early seventies. The
housing and development board implemented the concept in 1973 in the new
generation flats. Prefabrication and standard components were subsequently
introduced. Modular blocks and bricks were introduced in 1983. There are merits
to extend the use of modular coordination in other components as well.

2.2 Objectives
The principle objectives of modular system is to provide practical and coherent
solutions for coordination of the position and dimensions of elements, components
and space in building design.
This process can contribute to increase design freedom and improved balance
between quality and cost in manufacture and construction.

2.3 Principle of Modular Coordination

The main purpose of Modular Coordination is to achieve the Dimensional
Compatibility between the Building Dimensions, Span or Spaces and the Size of
Components and Equipments by using related Modular Dimensions.
Modular Coordination generally provides the easy grasped layout of the positioning of
the building components in relation to each other and to the building and facilitate
collaboration between planners, manufactures, distributors and contractors.
2.4 Advantages of Modular Coordination
To facilitate collaboration between building designers, manufactures, distributors
and contractors.
To permit the use of building components of standard size to construct the different
types of building.
To optimize the member of standard sizes of building component.
MC increases the speed of construction.
Benefits through the increase use of computer aided design and drafting.
Reduction in manufacturing and installation cost.
MC minimize the wastage of materials, time and manpower in cutting and trimming
on site
Facilitate prefabrication.
MC improved the balance between Quality and Cost.

2.5 Disadvantages of Modular Coordination

Uniformity.
Can lead to problems when modules are linked because link must thoroughly test.
It is difficult to manufacture to produce components based on mm tolerance.

2.6 Principle of Modular Coordination

1. Basic Module
2. Modular Dimension
3. Planning Module
4. Placing of Components
5. Modular Grid

1. Basic Module
The fundamental module used in modular coordination the size of which is selected for
general application to buildings and components.
2. Modular Dimension
Traditionally designers have trained to use simple whole number ratios. Modular
coordination provides a sound basis for an ordered selection of dimensions and
accommodates a proportional flexibility that satisfies the needs of architectural
aesthetics.
1) The planning grid in both directions of the horizontal plan shall be:
a. 3M for residential and institutional buildings
b. For industrial buildings,
15M for spans up to 12m
30M for spans between 12m and 18m and
60M for spans over 18m
The center lines of load bearing walls shall coincide with the grid lines.
2) In case of external walls, the grid lines shall coincide with the center line of the wall
50mm from the internal force.
3) The planning module in the vertical direction shall be 1M up to end including a
height of 2.8m, above the height of 2.8m it shall be 2M.
4) Preferred increments for sill heights, doors, windows etc. shall be 1M.
5) In case of internal columns, the grid lines coincide with the centre lines of columns.
In case of external columns and columns near the lift and stair wells the grid lines shall
coincide with centre lines of the column in the top most storey or a line in the column
50mm from the internal face of column in the top most storey.

3. Planning Module and Placing of Components

There are different methods of locating components within dimensional frame mark of
the building the distribution is made between load bearing walls, slab components
vertically and horizontally. The placement of components either made on axial to the
boundary planning.

4. Modular Grids
To simplify the design process a mesh of lines, which have preferred space dimension,
are plotted in three directions for all types of buildings. A rectangular coordinate
reference system in which the distance between consecutive lines is the basic module or
a multi-module. This multi-module may differ for each of the two dimensions of the
grid.

Basic Modular Grid

The fundamental modular grid, is that in which the intervals between consecutive
parallel lines is equal to the basic module, smallest planning grid.

Multi - Modular Planning Grid

In addition to the basic modular grid, multi-modular grids in which the intervals
between consecutive lines are a multi-modular may be used.
Type of Modular Grid
There are different types of grid patterns which are used to locate the positions and
dimensions of building spaces components are

A.Continuous grid
Where all dimensions in either direction are based on one increment only.

B. Superimposed grids
When the modular grid of 100 mm increment is superimposed on a multi-modular grid.

C. Displacement of grid or tartan grids

Where there is a homogenous and repetitive relation between at least two basic
increments.
Eg:- 1M +2M (or) 3/2 M + 3M

D. Interrupted grids (or) neutral zones

Where there are non-modular interruptions of grids neutral zones are created to cope
with the economics of building design.

2.7.Modular Coordination Design Rule:

Basic Module 1M= 100mm
Structural Grid 3M (1M as the second preference)
Horizontal Multi-Module 3M (1M as the second preference)
Vertical Multi-Module 1M (0.5M as the second preference)
Doors Multiples of 1M (width and height)
Windows Multiples of 1M (width and height)
Sub-modular increment 0.5M and 0.25M
Planning modules for main dimensions of framework especially the span (horizontal
dimensioning) are shown in figure.
2.8 Notation and Symbols

2.9.Tolerance
It is the sum of acceptable positive and negative discrepancies of actual dimensions
from the theoretical one.
The limits of tolerance are based on the manufacture and erection requirements.
Types of Tolerance:
1. Manufacture Tolerance (T)
Deviation caused by shrinkage, creep and temperature changes.
Also due to Loadings.
Positive and negative manufacturing tolerances are assumed equal to T/2(mm)
2. Erection tolerance
These are the limits of deviation of the positioning in the assembly of the
prefabricates.
 The position tolerance are normally defined by five components namely,
deviation in positioning of the prefabricates in x,y,z directions ( x, y, z) and
deviation in positioning with respect to another prefabricate and the deviation in
the verticality of the elements.
Tolerance as per IS: 15916-2011
2.10 Standardization
Standardization is to the creation and use of guidelines for the production of uniform
interchangeable components especially for use in mass production. It also refers to the
establishment and adoption of guidelines for conduct to global marketing the term is
used in describe the simplification of procurement & production to achieve economy.
It is the extensive use of components, methods or processes in which there is regularity,
repetition and a background of successful practice (e.g. standardisation of the
dimensions of components such as doors and windows, uniform standards for certain
common materials such as steel and concrete, etc.). The construction industry can
improve its efficiency through wider use of components of standardised dimensions and
standardised processes.
To maximize these benefits, we need to factor in the use of standardised components at
the design stage to ensure compatibility in design and to facilitate the manufacturing
process. The industry will also need to act together in order to achieve the necessary
economy of scale.
Standardised processes and practices provide much greater predictability about what is
performed, by whom, how and when and the possible outcomes. Wide adoption of
standardised processes and practices across the industry would facilitate integration
among industry participants, minimize development efforts, and promote learning
sharing.

Typical Standard Precast Concrete Sections

2.10.1 Advantages of Standardization

1) Easier in design as it eliminates unnecessary choices
2) Easier in manufacture as there are limited number of variants.
3) Makes repeated use of specialized equipment in erection and completion
4) Easier and quicker.
2.10.2 Factors Influencing Standardization
1) To select the most rational type of member for each element from the point of
production, assembly, serviceability and economy.
2) To limit the number of types of elements and to use them in large quantities.
3) To use the largest size of the extent possible, thus resulting in less number of joints.
4) To limit the size and number of prefabricate by the weight in overall dimension that
can be handled by the handling and erection equipment and by the limitation of
transportation.
5) To have all these prefabricates approximately of same weight very near to the lifting
capacity of the equipment

2.10.3 Types of standardization

1. Generic standardization - where an element or process is by its nature standard
and is usually recognized as such worldwide. E.g. steel, concrete, cement or plaster.
International standards (ISO etc.) seek to rationalize standards internationally.
2. National standardization - where some items are standard for a country or group
of countries, such as the European Union. The dimensions of a household brick
would be an example of national standardization. National standards (BSI etc) seek
to rationalize such items or processes into standards that are practices throughout the
country.
3. Client standardization - where a particular client defines certain elements,
processes or procedures in their business.
4. Supplier standardization - where a supplier, or in some cases a whole product or
materials sector, stipulates that certain components, sub-assemblies, or even whole
products are standard.
5. Project standardization - where a project team will decide to standardize certain
procedures or building elements. For example, Quality Assurance procedures,
column sizes, dimensional grids or module sizes.

2.11 Codal Provision (IS-15916: 2010)

2.11.1 Materials
Use of materials for plain and reinforced concrete shall satisfy the requirements of IS
456. Connections and jointing materials shall be in accordance with 9.3.
While selecting the materials for prefabrication, the following characteristics shall be
considered:
a) Easy availability;
b) Light-weight for easy handling and transport;
c) Thermal insulation property;
d) Easy workability;
e) Durability;
f) Non-combustibility;
g) Sound insulation;
h) Easy assembly and compatibility to form a complete unit;
j) Economy; and
k) Any other special requirement in a particular application.

2.11.2 Plans and Specifications

The detailed plans and specifications shall cover the following:
a) Such drawings shall describe the elements and the structure and assembly including
all required data of physical properties of component materials. Material specification,
age of concrete for demoulding, casting/erection tolerance and type of curing to be
followed.
b) Details of connecting joints of prefabricates shall be given to an enlarged scale.
c) Site or shop location of services, such as installation of piping, wiring or other
accessories integral with the total scheme shall be shown separately.
d) Data sheet indicating the location of the inserts and acceptable tolerances for
supporting the prefabricate during erection, location and position of
doors/windows/ventilators, etc, if any.
e) The drawings shall also clearly indicate location of handling arrangements for lifting
and handling the prefabricated elements.
Sequence of erection with critical check points and measures to avoid stability failure
during construction stage of the building.

2.11.3 Components
The dimensions of precast elements shall meet the design requirements. However, the
actual dimensions shall be the preferred dimensions as follows:
a) Flooring and Roofing Scheme Precast slabs or other precast structural flooring
units:
1) Length Nominal length shall be in multiples of 1 M.
2) Width Nominal width shall be in multiples of 0.5 M.
3) Overall thickness Overall thickness shall be in multiples of 0.1 M.
b) Beams
1) Length Nominal length shall be in multiples of 1 M.
2) Width Nominal width shall be in multiples of 0.1 M.
3) Overall depth Overall depth of the floor zone shall be in multiples of 0.1 M.
c) Columns
1) Height Height of columns for industrial shall be 1 M and other building 1 M.
2) Lateral dimensions overall lateral dimension or diameter of columns shall be in
multiples of 0.1 M.
d) Walls Thickness The nominal thickness of walls shall be in multiples of 0.1 M.
e) Staircase
Width Nominal width shall be in multiples of 1 M.
f) Lintels
1) Length Nominal length shall be in multiples of 1 M.
2) Width Nominal width shall be in multiples of 0.1 M.
3) Depth Nominal depth shall be in multiples of 0.1 M.
g) Sunshades/Chajja Projections
1) Length Nominal length shall be in multiples of 1 M.
2) Projection Nominal length shall be in multiples of 0.5 M.

2.11.4 Design Considerations

The precast structure should be analyzed as a monolithic one and the joints in them
designed to take the forces of an equivalent discrete system. Resistance to horizontal
loading shall be provided by having appropriate moment and shear resisting joints or
placing shear walls (in diaphragm braced frame type of construction) in two directions
at right angles or otherwise. No account is to be taken of rotational stiffness, if any, of
the floor-wall joint in case of precast bearing wall buildings. The individual components
shall be designed, taking into consideration the appropriate end conditions and loads at
various stages of construction. The components of the structure shall be designed for
loads in accordance with IS 875 (Parts 1 to 5) and IS 1893 (Part 1). In addition,
members shall be designed for handling, erection, Ties and bearings.
Handling stresses
Precast units should not be inflicted with any permanent damage arising from their
handling, storage, transportation and erection. Consideration should be given during
design to:
Loads on erected elements at construction stage;
Design considerations should also be given to:
Construction loads. A minimum load of 1.5 kN/m should be used. However, due
consideration should be given to any special requirements e.g. for plant loads or
storage loads and the load increased accordingly;
Notional horizontal load. The lateral load should be taken as not less than 1.5% of
the characteristic dead load;
Accidental loads such as earth movement, impact of construction vehicles.
Demoulding, storage, transportation and erection of precast units on site;
Temporary stages/erection sequence
The critical loading for precast elements is often not the permanent condition but can
occur during the construction phase and, hence, the temporary condition may govern the
design of elements. Consideration should be given to the loading imposed on precast
elements during each phase of construction. Examples of such cases are as follows:
Precast sections of composite elements which are required to support self-weight
plus construction load prior to casting of an in-situ topping;
Lower precast floor slabs or precast stair flights which support propping to
upper levels during installation; and
Bearing or halving joints which support higher temporary construction loads
because of back propping to upper levels.
The design should also take into consideration that the structural action and framing
might be different during the temporary stages resulting in higher stresses in individual
members.
Design of Ties
The types of ties to be provided for stability and interaction between precast units are as
follows:

Types of tie in structural frame

1. Peripheral Ties
At each floor and roof level an effectively continuous tie should be provided within 1.2
m of the edge of the building or within the perimeter wall.
The tie should be capable to resisting a tensile force of Ft equal to 60 kN or (20 + 4N)
kN whichever is less, where N is the number of storeys (including basement).
2.Internal Ties
These are to be provided at each floor and roof level in two directions approximately at
right angles. Ties should be effectively continuous throughout their length and be
anchored to the peripheral tie at both ends, unless continuing as horizontal ties to
columns or walls. The tensile strength, in kN per metre width shall be the greater of

where (gk + qk) is the sum of average characteristic dead and imposed floor loads in
kN/m2 and lr is the greater of the distance between the centre of columns, frames or
walls supporting any two adjacent floor spans in the direction of the tie under
consideration.
The bars providing these ties may be distributed evenly in the slabs or may be grouped
at or in the beams, walls or other appropriate positions but at spacings generally not
greater than 1.5 lr.
3. Horizontal ties to column and wall
All external load-bearing members such as columns and walls should be anchored or
tied horizontally into the structure at each floor and roof level. The design force for the
tie is to be greater of,
a) 2 Ft kN or ls Ft 2.5 kN, whichever is less for a column or for each meter length if
there is a wall. ls is the floor to ceiling height, in meter.
b) 3 percent of the total ultimate vertical load in the column or wall at that level.
For corner columns, this tie force should be provided in each of two directions
approximately at right angles.
4. Vertical ties (for buildings of five or more storeys)
Each column and each wall carrying vertical load should be tied continuously from the
foundation to the roof level. The reinforcement provided is required only to resist a
tensile force equal to the maximum design ultimate load (dead and imposed) received
from any one storey.
Bearingfor Precast Units
Precast units shall have a bearing at least of 100 mmon masonry supports and of 75 mm
at least on steel or concrete. Steel angle shelf bearings shall have a 100 mm horizontal
leg to allow for a 50 mm bearing exclusive of fixing clearance. When deciding to what
extent, if any, the bearing width may be reduced in special circumstances, factors, such
as loading, span, height of wall and provision of continuity, shall be taken into
consideration.

2.11.5 Joints
The design of joints shall be made in the light of their assessment with respect to the
following considerations:
a) Feasibility The feasibility of a joint shall be determined by its load carrying
capacity in the particular situation in which the joint is to function.
b) Practicability Practicability of joint shall be determined by the amount and type of
material required in construction; cost of material, fabrication and erection and the time
for fabrication and erection.
c) Serviceability Serviceability shall be determined by the joints/expected behavior
to repeated or possible overloading andexposure to climatic or chemical conditions.
d) Fire rating The fire rating for joints of precast components shall be higher or at
least equal to connecting members.
e) Appearance The appearance of precast components joint shall merge with
architectural aesthetic appearance and shall not be physically prominent compared to
other parts of structural components.

2.11.6 Design Requirements for Safety againstProgressive Collapse

Prefabricated buildings shall be designed with proper structural integrity to avoid
situations wheredamage to small areas of a structure or failure of singleelements may
lead to collapse of major parts of the structure.
The following precaution may generally provide adequate structural integrity:
a) All buildings should be capable of safely resisting the minimum horizontal load of
1.5 percent of characteristic dead load applied at each floor or roof level simultaneously.
b) All buildings shall be provided with effective horizontal ties,
1) Around the periphery;
2) Internally (in both directions); and
3) Columns and walls.
c) All buildings of five or more storeys shall be provided with vertical ties.
In proportioning the ties, it may be assumed that no other forces are acting and the
reinforcement is acting at its characteristic strength.
Normal procedure may be to design the structure for the usual loads and then carry out a
check for the tie forces.

2.12. Stages of Loadings

There were two stages of loadings. In the first stage, the structure is loaded with the
Ultimate Superimposed Design Load. In the second stage, going beyond the Ultimate
Superimposed Design Load, the structure is loaded with a point load in the center,
which was increased until the structure failed. In this case, the test is stopped before
catastrophic failure because of space limitations of the test setup.

2.13Stages of Prefabricated Concrete Product

2.14 Materials
Concrete: The most common grade of concrete for precast is M30 to M60. The type of concrete
depending upon the structural requirements. The code specify SCC, Light weight aggregate
concrete and Cellular Concrete.
Steel: Generally High tensile hot rolled ribbed bars are used for precast reinforced construction.
Diameter of steel varies from 6mm to 40mm.

33
2.15 Methods of Prefabrication
Site prefabrication:
In this scheme, the components are manufactured at site near the site of work as possible. This
system is normally adopted for a specific job order for a short period. The work is normally
carried out in open space with locally a valuable labour force. The equipment machinery and
moulds are of mobile nature. Therefore there is a definite economy with respect to cost of
transportation. This system suffers from basic drawback of its non-suitability to any high degree
of mechanization. It has no elaborate arrangements for quality control.

Plant prefabrication:
Factory prefabrication is restored in a centrally located plant for manufacture of standardized
components on a long form basis. It is a capital intensive production where work is done
throughout the year preferably under a covered shed to avoid the effects of seasonal variations
high level of mechanization can always be introduced in this system where the work can be
organized in a factory like manner with the help of constant team of workmen.
The basic disadvantage in factory prefabricated, is the extra cost in occurred in transportation of
elements from plant to site of work sometimes the shape and size of prefabrication.

Semi-mechanized
The work is normally carried out in open space with locally available labour force. The
equipment machinery used may be minor in nature and mouldsare of mobile or stationary in
nature.
Fully-mechanized
The work carried out under shed with skilled labour. The equipments used are similar to one of
factory production. This type of precast yards will be set up for the production of precast
components of high quality, high rate of production.

2.16 Process of Manufacture

The various processes involved in the manufacture of precast elements are classified as follows:
Main Process
It involves the following steps.
1) Providing and assembling the moulds, placing reinforcement cage in position for reinforced
concrete work, and
2) Fixing of inserts and tubes where necessary.
3) Depositing the concrete in to the moulds.
4) Vibrating the deposited concrete into the moulds.
5) Demoulding the forms.
6) Curing (steam curing if necessary)

34
7) Stacking the precast products.

Secondary (Auxillary) Process

This process is necessary for the successful completion of the process covered by the main
process.
1) Mixing or manufacture of fresh concrete (done in a mixing station or by a matching plant).
2) Prefabrication of reinforcement cage (done in a steel yard of workshop)
3) Manufacture of inserts and other finishing items to be incorporated in the main precast
products.
4) Finishing the precast products.
5) Testing the precast products.

2.17 Production Methods

The term production of systems is describes a series of operation directly concerned In the
process of making or more apply of moulding precast units on the face of it there are very many
techniques since almost every type prefabricates requires a specific series of operation in its
production.
These techniques however may be grouped into three basic method of production. These are
1. Stand Method
2. Flow Method
a) The Stand Method where the mouldsremainstationary at places, when the various processes
involved is carried out in a cyclic order at the same place.

b) The Flow Method where the precast unit under consideration is in movement according to
the various processes involved in the work which are carried out in an assembly-line method.

The various accepted precasting methods are listed in below Table (given in IS: 15916-2011)
with details regarding the elements that can be manufactured by these methods.

35
2.18 Quality Control
At Factory

Ordinance (BO) and the approved plans.

to conditions stipulated by the BO and in the approved plans.

e precast concrete works.
QAS) provided by the manufacturer satisfies the
purpose in that the manufacturer has made adequate provisions ensuring the production of the
precast elements complies with the provisions of the BO and the approved plans.

with the QAS prepared by the manufacturer in application for consent to commence work.
s stream) to
supervise the precast concrete production works at a frequency of not less than once a week.
g book recording details of
the supervisory personnel and details of the production, inspection, auditing and testing carried
out for the production of the precast units.

36
 book at the
site office.

elements at least once every month. Prepare audit reports for submission.
s.

to carry out regular technical audits of the factory and the production of the precast units at a
minimum frequency of once per month.

to conditions stipulated by the BO and in the approved plans.

tor (T3 TCP under the RCs stream) to provide continuous
supervision of the precast concrete production works. Provide supervisory personnel at the
factory and an inspection log book recording details of the supervisory personnel and details of
the production, inspection, auditing and testing carried out for the production of the precast units.
Make sure the log book is available for inspection at all time by keeping the log book at the site
office.
d production of the precast units at
least once every month by the Authorized Signatory of the RC. Prepare and submit the audit
reports to the AP/RSE for endorsement and onward submission for record purposes.
Duties of the manufacturer
lements shall be manufactured by a factory possessing an ISO9000 quality
assurance certification.

subsequently to make application for consent to commence works.

aintain the quality of the manufacturing of the precast elements.
to carry out regular technical
audits of the factory and the production of the precast elements at a minimum frequency of once
per month.

The QAS shall cover but not be limited to the following items:
-bars, finishes and building
services provisions.
such as the frequency and
standards adopted for the equipment used for the cube compressive strength test.

employed and demoulding details.

such as details of the curing procedure and associated controls.

37
 by the independent parties employed by the manufacturer or the
RC.

quality assurance scheme and in accordance with the specification and the approved plans.
Where Authorized Person (AP),
Registered Structural Engineer (RSE)
Registered Contractor (RC).

2.19 Quality Assurance System

1. Organization Chart
2. Casting yard
set up of yard
Number of moulds with estimated production rate
Machinery employed
3. Production procedures (casting and transportation of the precast units within the yard).
4. Quality control procedures on materials and check points for
Concrete
re-bar
Couplers
finishes
Building services installations
5. Quality control procedures on production and check points.
Approved plans used.
Shop drawings used.
moulds assembling.
re-bar fixing.
Couplers fixing/welding work.
Finishes and building services installation.
concreting work.
curing.
6. Calibration of testing equipment (responsible parties, frequency, and standards)
7. Testing of precast units such as dimensional check, cover meter test, pull-out test for tiled
finishes, bonding test for building services installation, etc.
8. Concrete repair procedures.
9. Handling of non-compliant precast units with corrective/preventive action.
10. Inspection forms.

38
11. Identification system of the precast units.
12. Audit by independent parties.

2.20 Construction Methodology

1. Production Planning
Generally, the production cycle is one day for a non-complicated precast element. In planning
the production of precast elements, time of construction of each floor is a key factor in
estimating the number of precastingmoulds.
For example, in a project consisting of 15 precast faades per storey and a working cycle of 6
days per storey, the number of mould required is 3. A storage area in the precast yard should be
sufficient to accommodate precastelements delivered to the construction site and extra precast
elements in caseof emergency delivery.
Example of a working schedule for production planning is shown in below figure.

Working schedule for precast unit.

For the production of precast elements, the precast manufacturer requires about or at least 1.5
months for manufacturing the moulds and 0.5 month for production of the precast units.
Therefore, the precast shop drawing (showing geometrical size) should be consolidated at least 2
months in advance of the scheduled date of delivered to site. All the above should be allowed for
in addition to the time required for approval and consent by government or client.
Embedded items including window frames, E/M pipe sleeves and openings in precast elements
should be delivered to the precast yard before production.

39
Unlike traditional in-situ construction, this requires coordination and approval of embedded
items at an early stage. For projects with a large number of precast elements, time required for
the above would be much longer and has to be taken into account.

2. Moulds
2.1 Materials
Moulds can be made of any suitable material including steel, timber, glass reinforced concrete or
a combination of these. The selection of the mould materials will depend on the several factors
highlighted in the Code. Locally, the steel mould is the most common type owing to its
robustness and precision.
In general, the steel plate thickness adopted for mould design and fabrication varies from a
minimum of 4.5mm to 6.0mm, which can be used over 100 times with proper care and
maintenance.
Material for moulds depends on the number of repetitions, required surface finish, quality and
shape complexity of precast elements.
Steel moulds are preferred owing to its robustness and precision.
Minimum 8mm thick steel plate can be used for 500 repetitions.
Minimal number of demoulding parts of mould helps to ensure good maintenance of
dimensional accuracy during production to facilitate easy assembly and dismantling.
Adjustable moulds for greater flexibility and variety in production of precast elements.

2.2 Tolerances
To enhance cost competitiveness, adjustable moulds should be adopted where possible, for
greater flexibility and variety in the production of precast concrete elements.

2.3 Recesses, sleeves and boxouts

Moulds should be designed to allow for appropriate placing and compaction of the concrete.
Adequate numbers of braces, ties and struts should be provided for proper casting and hardening
of the concrete.

40
 Applying mould release Agent

Steel mould Combined use of steel and timber mould

3. Cast-In Connection
Three basic types of in-situ concrete connections commonly used in precast construction are
A thin topping layer is cast to form a composite member, typically used with floor units such
as hollow-core and double-Tee. It also acts as a leveling screed and may not be mechanically
connected to the unit. Longitudinal shear due to bending is transferred by bonding and is also a
function of the roughness of the interface.
Composite construction is such that the in-situ concrete is a major component of the structural
member. A typical example is a beam-shell where the precast unit forms the soffit and sides of
the beam and contains the longitudinal reinforcement or prestressing wires and the shear steel.
This type of construction allows continuous members to be easily formed by placing negative
reinforcement in the in-situ concrete over supports. Simple spans are usually propped until the
in-situ concrete attains sufficient strength to carry the dead weight on the composite section.

where beam or column continuity is required as in earthquake-resistant construction. Bond

41
length of the bars being lapped dictates the length of the splice. It may be necessary to connect
large main bars by welding.

Use of thin topping on Slabs and Beams

Cast-in connection on Beams and Columns

4 Lifting Inserts
4.1 General
Three common types of lifting inserts used in precast concrete are:
Reinforcement bar with omega shape lifting insert. It is used in thin precast elements,
such as a precast partition; and precast elements of shallow depth, such as a semi-precast slab.
Lifting anchor with bulky head with U bars reinforcing the bottom head.
Lifting anchor with eye for reinforcement bar to pass through.

Lifting capacity of lifting inserts depends on the material strength of the insert and, more
important, the strength of surrounding concrete. Clear instructions must be specified on concrete
strength requirements for lifting, especially for the first lifting out of the mould.

42
4.2 Lifting position tolerance
If the lifting anchor is offset substantially when compared with the drawings, the centre of
gravity of the lifting point may be offset substantially from the centre of gravity of the precast
element. This may cause the precast element to become out-of-balance and incline during lifting
(i.e. not vertical in the lifting stage) making it difficult to handle, especially during installation.

5. Prefabricated Metal Frames

Prefabricated frames such as windows should be protected to avoid damage by fresh concrete.

43
 Prefabricated frames.

6. Pre-Concreting Check
Prior to concreting, the condition of the mould shall be inspected since it directly influences the
quality of the precast concrete product:
Themould form shall be level and the flatness of the base of the mouldand the squareness and
stiffness of the mould form examined and the mould kept free from spillage.
Manufacturers shall ensure that the dimensions of the mould are within the tolerances
specified in accordance with Code.
Themould shall be clean and free from debris (e.g. from the previous precasting operation).
Form oil or release agent and retarder shall be applied to the surface of the mould to be in
direct contact with concrete. They shall be applied in accordance with the manufacturers
instructions. Over application may lead to puddling on the concrete surface.
Reinforcing bars and cast in items such as lifting inserts, window frames and earthing lugs shall
be fixed only after preparation of the mould:
Rebar size, spacing, lap length and cover requirement shall be checked in accordance with the
approved drawings and within the tolerance limits.
Lifting inserts shall possess adequate length of embedment to prevent damage during lifting.
A sufficient number of spacers, chairs and supports shall be properly placed and secured to
achieve the required concrete cover during casting.
Window frames shall be installed and fixed in place according to the approved shop drawings,
and with full electrical continuity to the earthing lugs and faade.
Reinforcing bars and all cast in items shall be clean and free from contamination by mould oil
and cement grout before casting, as this may lead to poor bonding to the concrete.

44
Checking of rebar, lap length, cover and lifting inserts before concreting.

7. Concrete Placing
Density, uniformity and surface quality of precast concrete products depend on the workability
of concrete, placing and the compacting procedures used during the production process.

The workability of a concrete mix is presented in detail in the Concrete Code handbook.
Attributes which relate to measuring the workability of concrete are as follows:
Consistency depends on the degree of dryness and wetness of the concrete mix.
Deformability is a measure of workability for low to medium workability concrete.
Flowability is a measure of workability of high workability concrete.
Passing ability measures the ability of a concrete mix to pass through narrow gaps.
Segregation resistance or cohesiveness relates to the potential separation of some ingredients
due to free falling and sliding along surfaces during the placing of concrete.

Factors affecting workability include size and shape of aggregate, mix proportions, cement
content, admixtures used and concrete temperature during placing and compaction. Procedures

45
and precautions for placing concrete are detailed in the Concrete Code 2013. Vibration and
compaction of concrete is the principal method forconsolidating concrete. Fresh concrete must
beproperly vibrated so that once hardened, its strength and durability are fully realized.
Studies have shown that proper vibration enhances compressive, tensile and flexural strength and
resistance to deterioration by increasing the density of concrete and eliminating voids,
honeycombing and entrapped air due to poor placement of concrete.

The use of vibration tables, external form vibrators, and surface vibrators are examples of
external vibration/compaction techniques that are applicable in precast concrete production.
Form vibrators shall be mounted on the form to induce vibration in the mould, which is then
transmitted to the concrete. The number and locations of external vibrators used shall be
strategically planned to best distribute their impact. Surface vibrators are installed on the
concrete surface, exerting their effects at the top surface and consolidating from top down. They
are used mainly in precast slab construction. Vibration tables are used to vibrate the frame that
supports themould and are usually used for elements cast in small moulds. The table is isolated
from the ground with springs or neoprene isolation pads to prevent undesirable vibrations
affecting other production processes.
Proper vibration and compaction shall be carried out, in particular in congested areas with a lot
of steel reinforcement. When all air, entrapped in pockets and voids has been released, vibration
is considered sufficient. This is demonstrated when air bubbles cease to emerge at the concrete
surface.

(a) Using a vibration table (b) Using an external vibrator

46
 Concreting and compaction of concrete.

8.Demoulding and Lifting

A precast concrete product shall only be demoulded and lifted when the designed compressive
strength of the concrete has been achieved. This can be assessed by compression tests on cubes
cured under the same environment as the precast element itself. The minimum concrete strength
at which a precast element can be lifted from the mould shall be based on the calculated concrete
stresses at the lifting points, stresses caused by the transfer of prestressing forces or handling, the
anchorage length of inserts and the type of precast element.
To overcome additional suction and frictional forces during demoulding, the minimum concrete
strength for lifting may be higher than the recommended value specified in the Code. It depends
on the design and shape of the mouldand the precast element. Flat mould suction increases in the
presence of water and can be relieved by first lifting one edge of an element gently. Frictional
forces are induced by contact and bonding between concrete and the verticalsides of the mould.
To reduce friction, the mould shall be designed with adequate draw or removable sides or
vibrated gently while lifting one edge of the member. The Code also suggests the use of a high
quality demoulding agent to reduced suction and frictional forces.
Embedded hardware, threaded inserts, dowel connectors and removable sections of the moulds
are usually attached to the mould with bolts, pins and clamps. Before demoulding, all bolts and
pins connected to the mouldshall be loosened and all clamps removed. Side forms, window
capping shall also be detached from the element. Failure to remove all bolts and pins is a
common cause of failure of lifting insert and the formation of cracks on the concrete surface.

47
 Detaching the mould from a precast element.

Sequence of lifting of a precast faade (from top and left to right).

48
9.Curing
Curing has four major objectives:
To maintain a suitable environment for new concrete to produce as much gel as possible so as
to develop its full strength potential and reduce its permeability for better protection of the steel
reinforcement from corrosion
To avoid damage by plastic cracking and early age thermal cracking
To avoid damage by shock vibrations due to nearby activities
To avoid damage by premature loading caused by movement of adjacent parts of the structure
Therefore, the scope of curing includes:
Moisture control to prevent premature drying out of the concrete mix due to solar radiation
and wind that may lead to plastic shrinkage cracking of the free surfaces not in contact with
mould surfaces.
Thermal control to prevent large temperature rises and drops, whichcould cause serious
thermal cracking problems.
Vibration control, which is particularly important if the precast plant is located on or near a
construction site, or adjacent to any activities involving vibration.
Movement and deformation control, required if the mould might move during the curing
process.

Curing of precast elements is usually achieved firstly by accelerated curing followed by a normal
curing process (i.e. sprinkling water and keeping the elements moist with a curing membrane).
Steam curing, described in the Code, is a subset of accelerated curing. The chemical cement
hydration reaction takes place more rapidly with increased curing temperature and results in
greater early strengths and efficiency in the production of precast products. In practice, elevated
temperatures and addition of moisture during the steam curing process are both used in order to
accelerate the rate of strength gain. The following explains the stages of a steam curing process:
Stage 1 Fresh concrete in the mould is allowed to achieve its initial set before putting the
concrete in contact with steam or hot air. Steam is applied within a suitable enclosure that
permits free circulation of the steam. Precautions shall be taken to prevent moisture loss from the
concrete.
Stage 2 The precast element is heated to a maximum temperature of 700C at a heating rate
usually within 100C per half hour. A curing temperature exceeding 700C may result in delayed
ettringite formation which is detrimental to concrete strength. Gradual increase in temperature
ensures a small thermal gradient between the surfaces and the interior of the concrete element.
Stage 3 Temperature and pressure of the environment are maintained for a sufficient duration,
depending on the thickness and shape of the section.
Stage 4 The temperature is lowered at a rate not exceeding the rate of heating and the pressure
is normalized. Low pressure steam curing refers to steam curing as mentioned in the Code and

49
above. High pressure steam curing, also known as autoclaving, is used for the production of
concrete masonry units. This technique is designed especially for concrete of extremely low
water cement ratio.
Other methods of accelerated curing are also available. For example, the heatcuring technique
increases concrete temperature by conduction and convection.
The temperature of the mould is increased by a flowing fluid such as oil or water in contact with
the mould. The direct contact between concrete and the mould results in conductive heat transfer
and increases the curing temperature.
Electrical resistance curing increases curing temperature by the dissipation of heat generated in
the current carrying metal formwork, reinforcing steel bars or the concrete itself.

9.1 Normal curing

Precast elements achieve design strength by curing at a certain temperature and for a certain
length of time during production. In addition to Code, it is good practice to monitor the ambient
temperature. If the environment is at 240C or above, normal curing is recommended. If the
ambient temperature is hot (e.g. prolonged exposure to direct sunlight for several hours), it may
be necessary to moisten the concrete surface by adding water to the surface.

9.2 Steam curing

This method is usually used when the temperature of the environment is less than 240C. It can
help to speed up the curing time in achieving adequate strength for demoulding.
Table 3.1: Temperature versus curing time for different precast concrete products.

At the initial stage, concrete and moulds should be covered with a tarpaulin sheet before putting
into the steam chamber. Steam is released in the first hour to increase the temperature to 700C.
Water is sprayed inside the steam chamber for 3 to 5 minutes, once an hour, until the target
curing time is reached. Afterwards, the steam chamber is allowed to cool down. The temperature
inside the chamber then drops down to the surrounding environmental temperature within an
hour.
At the second stage, water must be poured on the precast elements until the 4thday of curing.
Steam curing has the advantages of speeding up the production of precast elements and
increasing the strength of precast elements in the early stages. Steam curing is appropriate when
the ambient temperature is below 240C. In such a situation, the precast elements are placed
50
inside the steam room and sealed with a non-porous membrane. The temperature inside the
steam room is sealed by a non-porous membrane and controlled by a centralized thermal system.
The steam inlet injects the steam into the steam room. The temperature inside the steam room
will increase to reach the target temperature. The time period required for curing depends on the
temperatureat the time.

Application of water to precast unit for normal curing.

10.Handling
The handling of precast concrete units encompasses demoulding, loading, transportation,
unloading, storage and site erection. The optimum solution for economical handling is the ability
to demould a unit and tilt it into a position similar to its storage position and its final
configuration when installed in the buildings. Re-handling and turning of units between
demoulding and final installation adds extra cost and increases the danger of accidental damage;
hence handling must be reduced to a minimum. The following outlines some handling
considerations for various construction stages:
Delivery of precast elements, e.g. loading, transportation and unloading, shall be properly
planned so that unnecessary site storage and handling is minimized to prevent damage.
Transportation regulations shall be observed, as this may affect the size, weight and timing of
shipments.

51
The route shall be studied as conditions including bridge restrictions, nearby buildings or power
lines, restricted turning radii and natural obstacles may determine the choice of transportation
route.
Once the unit is loaded onto the vehicle, it shall be attached firmly to the supporting members
and fastened with a position locking device.
Units shall be loaded with proper supports, frames, blocking, cushioning and tie downs to
prevent or minimize in-transit damage.
Dunnage shall be placed across the full width of each bearing location to separate stacked
members. Prior to unloading the unit from the vehicle to the storage area, visual inspection shall
be made before theremoval of bracing, chains, straps and protection for edges of the units.
Storage sequences shall be properly planned to minimize the effects of handling during
erection. Storage areas shall be relatively level, firm and well drained to avoid any differential
ground settlement which may damage the stored elements and it shall be large enough to permit
easy access for handling of the precast elements. Locations of supports, stacking configuration
and sequences shall be in accordance with the approved shop drawings. Horizontal precast
concrete elements such as precast slabs, beams and hollow core panels can be stacked and
supported separately using strips of wood or battens across the full width of the designed bearing
points. The support spaces shall be aligned to reduce induced stresses. Precast walls and faade
panels are usually cast horizontally and rotated for storage in upright positions with racks and
stabilizing walls to support their weight.
For site erection, the rigging sequence and method shall be considered. Locations of lifting
devices and lifting points shall be compatible with the method of shipment so that patching and
repairing are minimal. It shall be aimed at ease of erection and connection of the precast unit to
the structure. Lifting devices shall be standardized and installed in various precast elements so
that frequent changes of lifting method can be avoided. Precast elements shall be rigged for
balancing, remaining vertical and in line with their centres of gravity to prevent undesirable and
excessive movement which may induce additional stresses on the elements and lifting devices
due to dynamic loading.

Rotatable steel rack for easeof lifting.

52
 Temporary supports for faade in the factory.

Proper storage to avoid excessive stresses and possible damage to precast units.

Handling involves demoulding, loading and unloading operations. Proper handling of precast
elements is important to ensure crack free concrete which will improve durability and ensure
zero accident, thus safeguarding productivity at site.

11. Stacking of precast elements

The storage yard provided at site should have the capacity to hold at least one weeks production.
The area should be firm enough to hold layers of precast elements. The yard should have proper
drainage system and should be easily accessible for trailers.

53
Stacking support system for horizontal and vertical elements should be based on the structural
behaviour of the elements. Horizontal stacking for slabs and vertical stacking for wall elements
should be done. Elements stored should be tagged for easy identification and should follow the
erection sequence.

12.Testing of finished components

The component should be loaded for 1 h at its full span with a total load (including its own self
weight) of 1.25 times the sum of the dead and imposed loads used in design. At the end of this
time it should not show any sign of weakness, faulty construction or excessive deflection. Its
recovery 1 h after the removal of the test load, should not be less than 75% of the maximum
deflection recorded during the test. If prestressed, it should not show any visible cracks up to
working load and should have a recovery of not less than 85% in 1 h.
Maximum Deflection = 40*l2/D where l is the effective span, in m; and D, the overall depth of
the section, in mm.

13. Post-Concreting Check

13.1 General
The Code discusses items to be checked and the checking shall be performed in two stages;
immediately after demoulding and when the precast units are ready for dispatch. A list of
production tolerances, which defines the limits to variations of size and shape of individual
precast concrete members, to ensure that the member will fit the structure without difficulty, is
given in the Code.

13.2 Production Tolerances

The tolerances given in the Code are for normal circumstances. More stringent dimensional
tolerances may be required if the structure is sensitive to deviations in dimensions. In general,
the tolerance limits are acceptance criteria. However, even if the tolerance limits are exceeded,
they may be considered acceptable if:
Exceeding the tolerances does not affect the structural integrity or architectural performance
of the member.

54
 The member can be brought within tolerance by structurally and architecturally satisfactory
means.
The total erected assembly can be modified economically to meet all structural and
architectural requirements.
When proposing a set of production tolerances, the following factors shall be taken into account:
Effect of forms on dimensions: Rigid forms are used to fabricate architectural precast panels
where appearance or function dictates the need for the closest tolerances. Their sides are
permanently fixed to ensure the highest degree of dimensional accuracy. The downside of a fixed
mould is the frictional forces induced by the sides of the formwork. Some moulds are designed
as flexible forms with semi rigid joints so that the side forms can be removed during
demoulding. Since the enddividers or removable side forms are not permanently and
rigidlyattached to the form, they have the potential to move during placement and vibration of
the concrete. As a result, they are less likely to achieve precision linear plan dimension, than is
the case with rigid forms.
emperature on a
plane member can induce bowing and cambering. For long members, the temperature effects
may lead to lengthening and shortening of the length of the product.

14. Lifting Equipment and Accessories

Lifting equipment such as mobile cranes, gantry cranes, forklifts, etc., must be carefully selected
to ensure that lifting of precast elements is carried out within the rated capacity of the lifting
equipment. The supports for the lifting equipment must be checked to ensure that adequate
supporting capacity is provided.
Lifting accessories may comprise combinations of lifting beams or frames, slings or cables,
hooks or shackles, etc. The selection of each of these components should be predetermined to
take into account the forces exerted on them with respect to all aspects of the lifting operations.
Lifting beams or frames are usually tailor made to suit the precast elements, especially for slabs
or prefabricated volumetric units which may be easily damaged during handling. Lifting beams
or frames shall be designed to withstand the required weight of the precast units as well as the
axial compression in the beams or frames due to an inclined sling during lifting. An impact
factor as prescribed in the relevant code of practice should be applied to the structural design.
Personnel suitably qualified in accordance with the relevant regulations must regularly inspect all
lifting equipment prior to and after use. Results of such inspections must be properly recorded
and be available for subsequent inspection by the Engineer upon request. Some precast elements
such as prestressed hollow-core floor slabs must be handled by means of lifting clamps, straps or
slings as they may have no lifting inserts. Lifting equipment of this type can wear out easily and
should be regularly inspected. Location of lifting points should be clearly indicated on the
drawings.

55
 Gantry cranes.

Lifting a precast unit Lifting a precast faade

Precast staircase Double-Tee panel slab

56
 Lifting pin for a 30 ton precast column.

Erection detail of a precast panel.

15. Factory and Site Storage

Storage areas must be large enough for precast elements to be stored properly. They should
provide adequate room for lifting equipment and for themmaneuvering of transporting vehicles.
The storage ground area must be hard, level, clean and well drained to permit organized storage.
Precast elements can be damaged by incorrect stacking and storage. Locationsof support points,
e.g. dunnage, for precast elements are critical and should benoted on the shop drawings. Supports

57
must be arranged to avoid twisting or distorting of precast elementsand must be adequate to
transfer the weight of the stacked units to the groundwithout excessive settlement. Stored and
stacked units should be protected to prevent accidental damage. Support material should be non-
staining to prevent discoloration. Liftingpoints should be well protected and kept accessible
while the units are in storage Precast elements must be stored safely with adequate supports so as
not toendanger the workers.

Examples of supports.

16. Transportation
Transport of prefabrication elements must be carried out and with extreme care to avoid the
distress in elements and handled as far as possible to be placed in final portion.
Requirements for Transportation and Erection
i. Traffic regulations limit the maximum length, size and weight of an individual unit.
ii. The capacity of cranes and hoists limits.
iii. The load carrying capacity of trucks.
Transported by road, typical dimension might be Height 4.0 to 4.5m; Length 22.0 m and width
2.55m.

16.1 Delivery
Precast elements must be loaded carefully on to delivery vehicles to preventdamage. Weight and
size of precast elements should be considered at thedesign stage to ensure that the precast
elements can be transported by truck.

58
 Ensure no undesirable stresses to the precast elements due toflexing of truck.

Pre-plan sequence of liftingto avoid multiple handling of precast elements.

16.2 Loading and storage on transporters

To protect the edges throughout their journey, proper devices should be usedto support, secure
and wedge the precast units. The units should be adequately secured and supported to prevent
them from overturning, shifting or being damaged during transportation. Chain blocks or tie
wire, together with a steel frame, are usually used to hold precast elements in position during
transportation.

59
17 Erection on Site
The type of erection must be taken into account: horizontal, i.e. elements positioned storey by
storey with a tower crane, or vertical, i.e. bay by bay over the full height of the building with a
mobile crane.

Typically, tower cranes can handle only relatively light loads, albeit at a large radius and through
a full 360h. However, the largest tower crane used in Germany to date was able to handle a load
of 30 t at a radius of 40 m.

17.1 Erection of Prefab Elements

It is the process of assembling the Prefabrication element in the find portion as per the drawing.
In the erection of prefab elements the following items of work are to be carried out.
1).Slinging of the prefab elements.
2).Tying up of erection slopes connecting to the erection hooks.
3).Cleaning the elements and the site of erection.
4).Cleaning the steel inserts before incorporation in the joints lifting and setting the elements to
correct position.

60
5).Adjustments to get the stipulated level line and plumb.
6).Welding of cleats.
7).Changing of the erection tackles.
8).Putting up and removing the necessary scaffolding or supports.
9).Welding the inserts laying the reinforced in joints.
The erection work in various construction jobs by using prefab elements differs with risk
condition, hence skilled foremen, and workers to be employed on the job.

17.2 Equipments required for Erection

Equipments required for the prefab elements in industry can be classified as.
1) Machinery required for quarrying of course and fine aggregates
2) Conveying equipment, such as but conveyor, chain conveyors etc.
3) Concrete mixers
4) Vibrators
5) Erection equipment such as cranes, derricks, chain pulley etc.
6) Transport machines
7) Work shop machinery for fabricating and repairing steel.
8) Bar straitening, bending and welding machines
9) Minor tools and takes, such as wheel barreriour, concrete buckets etc
10) Steam generation a plant for accelerated curing

17.3 Installation of Vertical Elements

1. Setting out

2. Setting out Quality control point

offset line

3. Hoisting, Rigging and Installation

o designated location

61
 Check stability of prop before releasing hoisting cable.

4. Grouting works

-compacting to prevent cracking.

oad bearing elements.

5. Connecting joints

d connections welding as required

17.4 Installation of Horizontal Elements

1. Setting out

during the erection process

2. Hoisting & Installation

ort slab/beam

considerations

62
3. Connections/Jointing
-in-situ joints place the lap rebars as required

to form part of formwork joints

4. Installation using Big canopy

er and efficient

5. Erection Purpose
In Japan
o Used to construct the 26 storey pre-cast concrete 30,763m2
o The system realized 60% reduction in labor requirement for the frame erection.
In Singapore
o DBS China square used the system to erect is efficient and faster

6. Installation constraints Management

7. Management

panels lowered in roller platform

8. Mishandling of precast panels

t was placed on the beam corbel

9. Common Defects in precast panels

The common defects to hole in precast panels before installation panel before installation.

63
 duck choked

10. Precast failures

Bridge Deck collapse

Single T beam collapse

17.4 Erection safety

In precast construction, erected precast elements are initially in a temporary condition before
being connected to the parent in-situ structure. Since many are temporarily installed around the
peripheral areas of buildings, the safety of workers during installation is of paramount
importance.
The absence of peripheral scaffolding in precast construction is a major difference from
conventional construction. As a result, steel working platforms are provided for workers. The
height, width, strength and connections of working platforms should be thoroughly considered to
match the precast construction circumstances. In some cases, a temporary detachable handrail is
necessary at the installation areas.

17.5Propping
Erection is one of the critical steps to be attended to in precast construction. The Code specifies
the requirements and considerations in respect of erectionpreparation, safety, sequences and
tolerance as well as the temporary supporting system.
A full method statement, which includes details of the handling of the precast elements, rigging
arrangements, use of machinery as well as the erectionsequence, shall be prepared, checked and
endorsed.

64
2.21. Erection of precast columns

Elevation

Side View

Stage-1-Column Erection
1-1 Erect P/C columns.
1-2 After the Grout Strength (For Column Base and Connection) Achieve 40MPa, Dismantle the
Push and pull

Lifting of Columns
65
2.22.Construction sequence of precast columns, beams and slabs

66
2.23 Disuniting of Structures
The solution of problems connected with the transportation and placing of structures demands as
a rule their disuniting in to smaller members. One bay frames not exceeding, 40 tonnes in weight
may represent an exception because the problems of their hoisting and placing can be solved
with the aid of modern available hoisting machines and equipment.
In spite of this framed are frequently disunited at their corners or points of minimum moments
into members to make the hoisting of these smaller members possible, using much simpler
equipment.
In general there is trend towards the use of larger members. This justified by more than one
reason. One is that the bearing of a certain moment can be solved more economically by using
one large girder instead of two or more smaller beams together having the same capacities.

67
Benefits of Disuniting
Hoisting of one large member as a rule, less expensive than that of 2 smaller members having the
same combined weight. It is a direct consequence of the following circumstances:
1. The assembling of the lifting tackle, the transfer of the hoisting machine, the hoisting,
placing and plumbing must be done for each member separately, independently of its weight.
2. The disuniting into larger members means lower costs of hoisting and placing as well as
saving in joining costs.

Types of System
(a) Systems consisting of linear members disunited at joints.
Advantage:
Disuniting at joints gives linear member. This means that a great advantage and facilitates from
the view point manufacture and assembly.
Disadvantage:
1. Joints are at corners i.e. at points of maximum moment values, so forming the joint is difficult.
2. Joints must be over dimensioned to cope with in-situ concreting. And one alternate solution to
replace moment resistant joints by hinged connection.

(b) System for the Prefabrication of Entire Rigid Frame

In this system, to reduce the no of joints and to precast larger numbers I one piece leads to the
prefabrication of entire frame. Production of the frames does not cause any particular trouble but
the hoisting is more difficult and requires careful preparation. The stress distribution of straight
members during hoisting is in general statistically determinate.
Advantage:
1. It is ideal for site prefabrication.
2. Small number of joints so rapid prefabrication work is possible.
3. Suitable for long walls consisting of great number of uniform frames.

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(C) System Consisting of I, T, U of Straight Members Disunited At Points of Minimum
Moment
Another method of disuniting of structures is by division into different membranes at points
where the moments are thin or smallest. This method is called as lambda method. Using this
method hinge joints are made.
Advantage:
1. Functions are made at points of minimum moments or at points of contra flexure.
2. Disuniting the main girder in this manner makes the application of different skylights possible.

69
.
Disadvantage:
1. Hosting and temperature bracing of L joined asymmetric frame members is particularly
complicated.
2. Temperature resting of frame member on each other necessitates the use of cantilevers having
half depth and proper forming of this cause difficulty.

(D) Two hinged and three hinged arches

Arched structures are normally two hinged and three hinged arches. Arched structures are
normally used for bridging span more than 20-25m. Their production and placing is more
difficult than straight members. Arch can be two hinged and three hinged but they can also be
fixed at footings and can be constructed with or without tie.
These members are generally precast and assembled in statistically determinant three hinged
variance and middle hinge is only eliminated after placing is finished. The reinforcing bars
protruding both sides are welded together and the joint between the members is filled in with in-
situ concrete.
Arch structure can be precast in either vertical or horizontal positions. In the first case, shuttering
made of timber or concrete is required having the same curvature s the arch itself. The
prefabrication of larger arches in the horizontal position is found to be more economical. The
construction of arch trusses can be properly carried out in the horizontal position only.

70
2.24 Lateral Load-Resisting Systems
Three common systems for resisting wind or earthquake lateral loads are given here.
1. Moment-resisting frames: This system are made up of interconnected beams and columns.
Lateral loads are resisted by bending of the beams and columns. Such frames undergo relatively
large lateral deflections. If all stories have beams and columns with sizes proportional to the
shear in the story, the lateral deflection of each story would be similar. To simplify construction,
however, the sizes of the beams and columns selected for the lower stories are commonly used
throughout, or are changed only every third or fourth story.
Hence, the beams and columns in a building tend to be oversized in the upper stories. Moment-
resisting frames are used for buildings up to 8 to 10 stories. May be impossible to make the
beams stiff enough to prevent large deflections. In such cases, walls or other stiffening elements
are used to control lateral deflections.

2. Bearing-wall systems: This system are used for apartment buildings or hotels. A bearing-wall
building has a series of parallel transverse shear walls between rooms or apartments. The walls
resist lateral loads by flexural action and deflect as vertical cantilevers.

3. Shear-wallframe system: This system are used in buildings ranging from about 8 to about 30
stories. The lateral load is resisted in part by the wall and in part by the frame. Some of the most
slender shear-wallframe structures ever built are described by Grossman. He presents some of
the wind modeling rationale and two case histories of buildings with heights up to 10 times the
least width at ground level.

4.Very tall concrete buildings Structural systems: This system contain closely spaced columns in
the upper stories transfer vertical loads much like a continuous closed tube would. At the top of
the second floor the vertical loads are transferred to a continuous deep beam called a transfer
beam. It, in turn, transfers the vertical loads to the 10large columns on the perimeter of the
ground floor. In this region the more-or-less uniform compression in the tube is disrupted.

71
2.25 Shear Wall
Shear walls are vertical elements of the horizontal force resisting system. Shear walls are
constructed to counter the effects of lateral load acting on a structure. In residential construction
shear walls are straight external walls that typically form a box which provides all of the lateral
support for the building.

Importance of shear wall

When shear walls are designed and constructed property and they will have the strength and
stiffness to resist the horizontal forces. In building construction a rigid vertical diaphragm
capable of transferring lateral forces from exterior walls floors and roofs to the ground
foundation in a direction parallel to their planes.
Lateral forces caused by wind earthquake and uneven settlement loads. In addition to the weight
of structure and occupants create powerful twisting (torsion) forces. These forces can literally
shear a building apart. Reinforcing a frame by attaching or placing a rigid wall inside it
maintains that shape of the frame and prevents rotation at the joints shear walls are especially
important in high-rise building subjected to lateral wind and seismic forces.
In the last two decades shear walls became an important part of mid high rise residential
buildings. As part of an earthquake resistant building design these walls are placed in building
plans reducing lateral displacements under earthquake loads. So shear wall frame structure are
obtained. Shear wall buildings are usually regular in plan and in elevation. However, in some
buildings lower floors are used for commercial purposes and the buildings are characterized with
larger plan dimensions at those floors.

Purpose of constructing shear walls

1. Shear walls are not only designed to resist gravity/vertical loads due to its self-weight & other
living moving loads), but they are also designed for lateral loads of earthquakes/wind. The walls
are structurally integrated with roofs/floors (diaphragms).
2. Shear wall structural systems are more stable because their supporting area (Total cross
sectional area of all shear walls) with reference to total plans area of building is comparatively
more, unlike in the case of RCC framed structures.
3. Walls have to resist the uplift forces caused by the pull of the wind walls have to resist the
shear forces that try to push the walls over walls have to resist the lateral force of the wind that
tries to push the walls in and pull them away from the building.
4. Walls floors and roofs to the ground foundation in a direction parallel to their planes.

72
Comparisons of shear wall with construction of conventional load bearing walls
Load bearing masonry is very brittle material. Due to different kinds of stresses such as shear,
tensile...etc. Caused by the earthquakes the conventional unreinforced brick masonry collapses
instantly during the unpredictable and sudden earthquakes.
The RCC framed structures are slender. When compared to shear wall concept of box like three-
dimensional structures though it is possible to design the earthquake resistant RCC frame it
requires extra-ordinary skills at design detailing and construction levels. Which cannot be
anticipated in all types of construction projects.
On the other hand even moderately designed shear wall structures not only more stable, but also
comparatively quite ductile. In safety terms it means that during very severe earthquakes they
will not suddenly collapse causing death of people. They give enough indicative warnings such
as widening structural cracks yielding rods etc offering most precious moment for people to run
out off structures before they totally collapse.
For structural purposes we consider the exterior walls as the shear resisting walls. Forces from
the ceiling and roof diaphragms make their way to the outside along assumed paths enter the
walls and exit at the foundation.

Location of Shear Wall

Generally shear walls are either plane or flanged in section, while core walls consists of channel
sections.

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In many cases, the wall is pierced by openings. These are called coupled shear walls because
they behave as individual continuous wall sections coupled by the connecting beams or slabs.

Normally the walls are connected directly to the foundations. However, in a few cases where the
lateral loads are relatively small and there no appreciable dynamic effects, then they can be
supported on columns connected by a transfer beam to provide clear space.

The shape and plan position of the shear wall influences the behavior of the structure
considerably. Structurally, the best position for the shear walls is in the centre of each half of the
building. This is rarely practical, however, since it dictates the utilization of the space, so they
are positioned at the ends.

This shape and position of the walls give good flexural stiffness in the short direction, but relies
on the stiffness of the frame in the other direction.
This arrangement provides good flexural stiffness in both directions, but may cause problems
from restraint or shrinkage. As does this arrangement with a single core, but which does not have
the problem from restraint of shrinkage.
However, this arrangement lacks the good torsional stiffness of the previous arrangements due to
the eccentricity of the core.

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Forces on shear wall
Shear wall resist two types of forces
Shear Forces
Shear forces are generated in stationary buildings by accelerations resulting from ground
movement and by external forces like wind & waves. This action creates shear forces throughout
the height of the wall between the top and bottom shear wall connections.
Uplift Forces
Uplift forces exist on shear walls because the horizontal forces are applied to the top of the wall.
These uplift forces try to lift up one end of the wall and push the other end down. In some cases
the uplift force is large enough to tip the wall over. Uplift forces are greater on tall short walls
uplift shear walls need hold down devices at each end when the gravity loads cannot resist all of
the uplift. The hold down device then provides the necessary uplift resistance.

Classification of shear walls

1. Simple rectangular types & flanged walls
2. Coupled shear walls
3. Rigid frame shear walls
4. Framed walls with in filled frames
5. Column supported shear walls
6. Core type shear walls

Types of shear walls

RC shear wall
It consists of reinforced concrete walls and reinforced concrete slabs wall thickness varies from
140 mm to 500 mm depending on the number of stories, building age and thermal insulation
requirement. In general these walls are continuous throughout the building height however.
Some walls are discontinued as the steel front or basement level to allow for commercial or
parking spaces. Floors slabs are either cast in-situ flat slabs or less often. Precast hollow core
slabs. Buildings are supported by concrete strip or mat foundations the latter type is common for
buildings with basements.

Ply wood shear wall

Plywood is the traditional material used in the construction of shear walls the creation of pre-
fabricated shear panels have made it possible to inject strong shear assemblies into small walls
that fall at either side of a opening in a shear wall plywood shear wall consist of
Plywood to transfer shear forces.
Chords to resist tension/compression generated by the over turning moments.
Base connections to transfer shear to foundations.

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Mid-ply shear wall
The mid-ply shear wall is an improved timber shear wall that was developed by redesigning the
joints between shearing and finishing members. So, that the failure modes observed in standard
wall testing are virtually eliminated at lateral loads levels high enough to cause failures in
standard walls

RC Hollow concrete block masonry walls (RHCBM)

These walls are constructed by reinforcing the hollow concrete block masonry by taking
advantage of hollow spaces & shapes of the hollow blocks. It requires continuous steel rods
(reinforcement) both in the vertical & horizontal directions at structurally critical locations of the
wall panels packed with the fresh grout concrete in the hollow spaces of masonry bocks.
RHCBC elements are designed both as load bearing walls for gravity loads and also as shear
walls for lateral seismic loads to safety withstand earthquakes.

Steel plate shear wall

In general steel plate shear wall system consists of a steel plate wall boundary columns and
horizontal floor beams. Together the steel plate wall and boundary columns act as a vertical plate
girder. The column act as flanges of the vertical plate girder and the steel plates wall act as its
web. The horizontal floor beams act more or less as transverse stiffeners in a plate girder steel
plate shear wall systems have been used in recent years in highly seismic area to resist lateral
loads.
Thus shear walls are one of the most effective building elements in resisting lateral forces during
earthquake. By constructing shear walls damages due to effect of lateral forces due to earthquake
and high winds can be minimized shear walls construction will provide larger stiffness to the
buildings there by reducing the damage to structure and its contents.
Hence it is preferable to have all these prefabricate approximately of some weight very near to
the lifting capacity of the equipment.

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 MODULE-3

3.1 Precast RC Floor Slabs-General

Precast concrete flooring offers an economic and versatile solution to ground and suspended
floors in any type of building construction. Worldwide, approximately half of the floors used in
commercial and domestic buildings are of precast concrete.

3.2 Advantages of Precast concrete floors over conventional RC Floor Slabs

1. It offers both design and cost advantages over traditional methods such as cast in situ concrete,
steel-concrete composite and timber floors.
2. There are awide range of flooring types available to give the most economical solution for all
loading and spans.
3. The floors give maximum structural performance with minimum weight and may be used with
or without structural toppings, non-structural finishes (such as tiles, granolithic screed), or with
raised timber floors.
4. Offsite production of high-strength, highly durable units.
5. Fast erection of long span floors on site.
6. It require minimum amount of in-situ reinforcement and wet concrete.

3.3 Types of Floor Slabs

Structural floors/roofs account for substantial cost of a building in normal situation. Therefore,
any savings achieved in floor/roof considerably reduce the cost of building. Traditional Cast-in-
situ concrete roof involve the use of temporary Shuttering which adds to the cost of construction
and time. Use of standardized and optimized roofing components where shuttering is avoided
prove to be economical, fast and better in quality. Some of the prefabricated roofing/flooring
components found suitable in many low-cost housing projects are:
i. Precast RC Planks.
ii. Prefabricated Brick Panels
iii. Precast RB Curved Panels.
iv. Precast RC Channel Roofing
v. Precast Solid
vi. Hollow Slabs
vii. Single /Double Tee Beam Precast Slabs

i. Precast RC plank roofing system

This system consists of precast RC planks supported over partially precast joist. RC planks are
made with thickness partly varying between 3 cm and 6 cm. There are haunches in the plank
which are tapered. When the plank is put in between the joists, the space above 3 cm thickness is

77
filled with in-situ concrete to get tee-beam effect of the joists. A 3 cm wide tapered concrete
filling is also provided for strengthening the haunch portion during handling and erection. The
planks have 3 numbers 6 mm dia MS main reinforcement and 6 mm dia @ 20 cm centre to
centre cross bars. The planks are made in module width of 30 cm with maximum length of 150
cm and the maximum weight of the dry panel is 50 kg (Figure 3.1). Precast joist is rectangular in
shape, 15 cm wide and the precast portion is 15 cm deep (Figure 3.1). The above portion is
casted while laying in-situ concrete over planks. The stirrups remain projected out of the precast
joist. Thus, the total depth of the joist becomes 21 cm. The joist is designed as composite Tee-
beam with 6 cm thick flange comprising of 3 cm precast and 3 cm in-situ concrete (Figure 3.2).
This section of the joist can be adopted up to a span of 400 cm. For longer spans, the depth of the
joist should be more and lifting would require simple chain pulley block. The completely
finished slab can be used as intermediate floor for living also In residential buildings, balcony
projections can be provided along the partially precast joists, designed with an overhang carrying
super imposed loads for balcony as specified in IS: 875-1964, in addition to the self-load and the
load due to balcony railings. The main reinforcement of the overhang provided at the top in the
in-situ concrete attains sufficient strength. The savings achieved in practical implementations
compared with conventional RCC slab is about 25%.(P.K.Adlakha and H.C.Puri, 2002)

Fig. 3.1 Precast R.C. Planks

Fig. 3.2 R.C. Planks laid over partially precast joists

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ii. Prefabricated brick panel roofing system
The prefabricated brick panel roofing system consists of:
(a) Prefab brick panel-Brick panel is made of first class bricks reinforced with two MS bars of
6 mm dia and joints filled with either 1:3 cement sand mortar or M-15 concrete. Panels can be
made in any size but generally width is 53 cm and the length between 90 cm to120 cm,
depending upon the requirement. The gap between the two panels is about 2 cms and can be
increased to 5 cms depending upon the need. A panel of 90 cm length requires 16 bricks and a
panel of 120 cm requires 19 bricks (Figure 3.3). (P.K.Adlakha and H.C.Puri, 2002)

Fig. 3.3 Brick Panel

(b) Partially precast joist-It is a rectangular shaped joist 13 cm wide and 10 cm to 12.5 cm deep
with stirrups projecting out so that the overall depth of joist with in-situ concrete becomes 21 cm
to 23.5 cm, it is designed as composite Tee-beam with 3.5 cm thick flange.(Figures 3.4 and 3.5 ).
(P.K.Adlakha and H.C.Puri, 2002)

Fig. 3.4 Details of Precast JoistFig. Fig.3.5 Precast R C Plank and Joist System

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iii. Precast curved brick arch panel roofing
This roofing is same as RB panel roofing except that the panels do not have any reinforcement.
A panel while casting is given a rise in the centre and thus an arching action is created. An
overall economy of 30% has been achieved in single storeyed building and 20% in two or three
storeyed buildings. (P.K.Adlakha and H.C.Puri, 2002)

iv. Precast RC channel roofing

Precast channels are trough shaped with the outer sides corrugated and grooved at the ends to
provide shear key action and to transfer moments between adjacent units. Nominal width of units
is 300 mm or 600 mm with overall depths of 130 mm to 200 mm (Figure 8). The lengths of the
units are adjusted to suit the span. The flange thickness is 30 mm to 35 mm. Where balcony is
provided, the units are projected out as cantilever by providing necessary reinforcement for
cantilever moment. A saving of 14% has been achieved in actual implementation in various
projects. (P.K.Adlakha and H.C.Puri, 2002)

v. Solid Slabs
Solid slabs are used as structural deck components similar to hollow-core slabs. They can be
made in a long-line pre-tensioning facility and reinforced with pre-stressing strand or cast in
individual forms with either pre-stressing strand or conventional reinforcing bars. They are
typically cast in the same position as used in the structure.

Sizes can vary to satisfy the structural requirements.

Typical widths: 1.2m to 3.6m

Typical spans: 2.4m to 9.0m.
Typical thicknesses: 100mm to 300mm.

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vi. Precast Hollow slabs roofing
Precast hollow slabs are panels in which voids are created by earthen kulars. Without decreasing
the stiffness or strength. These hollow slabs are lighter than solid slabs and thus save the cost of
concrete, steel and the cost of walling and foundations too due to less weight. The width of a
panel is 300 mm and depth may vary from 100 mm to 150 mm as per the span, the length of the
panel being adjusted to suit the span. The outer sides are corrugated to provide transfer of shear
between adjacent units. The kulars are placed inverted so as to create a hollow during precasting
(Figure 9). Extra reinforcement is provided at top also to take care of handling stresses during
lifting and placement. There is saving of about 30% in cost of concrete and an overall saving of
about 23%.(P.K.Adlakha and H.C.Puri, 2002)

Hollow-core slabs are used predominantly for floor and roof deck components for various
structures such as residential, hotel, office buildings, schools, and prisons.

Typical widths: 0.6, 1.2, and 2.4m; some precasters offer 3.0 and 3.6m widths
Typical depths: 150, 200, 250, 300, 375, and 400mm.
Typical span-to-depth ratios: Floors: 30 to 40 / Roofs: 40 to 50

Hollow core slabs are the most widely used precast floor component in prefabricated buildings.
Thesuccess is largely due to the highly efficient automated production method, good quality
surface finish, saving of concrete, wide choice of structural depths, high strength capacity and
rapid assembly on site.
The hollow core slabs are manufactured using long line extrusion or slip-forming processes; the
former process being the most popularly used. Cross section, concrete strength, and surface
finish are standard to each system of manufacture. Other variations include increased fire
resistance, provision of penetrations, opening of cores for on-site fixings, cut-outs for
columns/walls, etc. The slabs are sawn after detensioning which normally takes place six to eight
hours after casting and typically when the concrete strength reaches 35 N/mm2.

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 12m x 1.2m Hollow Core Floor Slabs
Holes in the floor may be created in the precast units during the manufacturing stage before the
concreteas hardened. The maximum size of the opening which may be produced in the units
depends on the size of the voids and the amount of reinforcement that can be removed without
jeopardizing the strength of the unit. Holes should preferably be located within the void size
which may vary in different sections.

viii. Single Tee Beam

Combination beam and slab
Spans up to 120-0"
Typical width = 8-0"
Typical depths of 36" and 48"

Double Tees Beam

Named for its shape, double-tees are used primarily as floor and roof deck components for any
type of structure, including parking structures and all types of buildings. They are made either:
Pre-topped using a flange thickness of 100mm, which creates the wearing surface in parking
structures; orField- topped with a 25mm flange, on which a cast-in-place concrete composite

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topping of 25mm to 100mm is added in the field. For roof construction, there is typically no need
to add topping on the 50mm flange.

Typical widths: 2.5m, 3m, 3.6m and 4.5m.

Typical depths: 600mm, 650mm, 700mm, 750mm, 800mm, and 850mm.
Typical span-to-depth ratios: Floors: 25 to 35 / Roofs: 35 to 40
Combination beam and slab
Spans up to 30m.
Typical width = 2.5m
Depths of 380mm, 450mm, 600mm and 800mm.

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3.4 Analysis and Design of Precast Floor Slab
General
The design process for a hollow-core floor system should typically involve the following
specifications:
a. General structural arrangement including the assumed self-weight of the floor and any
significant floor penetrations.
b. All other permanent actions including partition loads and potentially removable loads.
c. All design imposed actions on the floor including uniformly distributed live loads and point
loads.
d. Intended floor support arrangements including any special requirements for plastic hinge
regions.
e. Earthquake induced support displacements and rotations.
f. Vertical seismic loads (accelerations).
g. Floor diaphragm requirements.
h. Extent of any expected beam elongations resulting from inelastic behavior in the support
beams.
i. Tolerance requirements.
j. Any other requirements, such as minimum concrete strengths, propping restrictions fire rating,
durability, specifically required details, etc. The design of hollow core slabs is governed by the
American concrete Institute (318-95). Building Code Requirements for structural concrete. As
with prestressed concrete members in general, hollow core slabs are checked for prestresstransfer

84
stresses, handling stresses, service load stresses, deflections and design (ultimate) strength in
shear and bending.

Design the Hollow core slab having the following details.

1. Clear span = 5m
2. No. of openings = 3 No.s /m of 100 mm dia
3. LL = 4 KN/Sq.m
4. Floor finish = 2 KN/Sq.m
5. M30 Grade of concrete and Fe-500 steel

3.5Reinforcement Details

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3.6 Production of Floor Slabs
A. Principles of Product forming Systems Two basic manufacturing methods currently in use for
the production of hollow core slabs are:-
Extrusion:
In extrusion system a very low slump concrete is forced through the machine. The cores are
formed with augers or tubes with the concrete being compacted around the cores. Extrusion is
known for the high compaction capabilities and excellent structural capacity of the hollow core
slab. One of the advantages in the modern extrusion is the silent and automatic operation. The
key to an optimum compaction on dry cast is the frequency of vibration since the absence of
water makes it more difficult for the concrete particles to flow. Some of the Extruders
manufactured today do not use the high frequency vibrators, instead they operate based on
pressing extrusion screws, which usually requires more water to achieve the same level of
compaction than the Hollow Core Extruders based on high frequency of vibration.
Slip form:
This system uses a higher slump concrete. Sides are formed either with stationary, fixed forms or
with forms attached to the machine with the sides being slip formed. This is a relatively simple
principle where concrete is flowing on to the product in two to three phases (layers) each phase
is compacted typically by vibrators. The Slip form system is used mainly for shallower hollow
core cross sections and various other cross sections like inverted T-beams. However, there are
slip formers, which can form 700mm hollow core sections. The production speed for each of the
system varies depending on raw materials, depth of products and machine types being used. The
speed ranges between 1 to 3 meters/min.
Hollow coreslabs can be manufactured in different thicknesses such as150mm, 200m, 240mm,
265mm, 280mm, 300mm, 320mm, 350mm, 400mmetc as required.

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1. Cleaning and oiling of the bed
2. Reinforcement
3. Lifting the extruder on the bed
4. Concrete mixing and transportation
5. Concrete dosing to extruder
6. Extruding
7. Making openings
8. Covering and curing of slab
9. Cutting of slab
10. Drilling of drainage holes
11. Transportation to storage
12. Handling of slabs in storage
13. Transportation to site.

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3.7Construction Sequence for Erection of Precast RC Slabs

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89
3.8 Lift-Slab System
The load-bearing structure consists of precast reinforced concrete columns and slabs.
Precast columns are usually two stories high.
All precast structural elements are assembled by means of special joints.
Precast concrete floor slabs are lifted from the ground up to the final height by lifting cranes.
The slab panels are lifted to the top of the column and then moved downwards to the final
position.
Temporary supports are used to keep the slabs in the position until the connection with the
columns has been achieved.

1. Pillars and the first package (e.g. 5 pieces) of slabs prepared at ground level.
2. Lifting boxes are mounted on the pillars + a single slab lifted to the first floor level.
3. Boxes are sequentially raised to higher positions to enable the slabs to be lifted to their
required
4.Final position - slabs are held in a relative (temporary) positions by a pinning system

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3.9 Precast Stair Case
Precast stair slabs are usually designed to span longitudinally into the landings at right angles to
thestair flights or span between supporting beams. In monolithic construction, the stair slab can
be designed with continuous end restraints over the supports. But in instances where staircases
are precast, the construction is generally carried out after the main structure, with pockets or
recesses left in the supporting slabs or beams to receive the stair flights. With no appreciable end
restraints, a precast stair slab could therefore be designed as simple slab between supports.

In design, the dead load is calculated along the sloping lengths of the stairs but the live and
finishing loads are based on plan area. If the risers were to be covered with finishes, additional
loads would have to be added in the design.

The effective span is measured horizontally between the centers of the supports or the actual
horizontal length of the precast stair slab where dry connections are used at the supports. The
thickness of the waist is taken as the slab thickness.
The basic span-effective depth ratio may be increased by 15% to 23 (=20 x 1.15) if the stair
flight occupies at least 60% of the span. This will apply to precast stair slabs without landings.
The supporting nibs of the precast stair slab may be constructed with either dry or wet
connections (extended bearings).
The design of reinforcement of the nibs can be based on:
Simple bending.
Strut and tie force model.
Shear friction.

3.9.1 Standard Precast Staircase Dimensions

In practice, the number of risers and the riser height of a staircase have always been dictated by
the storey height of a building. This would result in different riser dimensions. Prefabricating
stair flights with many different riser dimensions would not be economically viable.

The limit the riser height to 165mm and 175mm, with a tread dimension to 250mm. These
dimensions are suitable for fire escapes. For school development projects, 150mm riser with
300mm tread (instead of 250mm) are recommended dimensions required by the Ministry of
Education, for safety reasons.

91
In residential developments, a designer could use staircases with 175mm riser for a floor tofloor
height of 3m, 150mm, for fire escape. In luxury residential developments, staircases with a
165mm riser would be appropriate for a floor to floor height of 3.3m.
The recommended width of standard staircase is ideally set to allow for a 1000mm clearance
between handrails and edging kerb. In addition, it allows designers to include or exclude an
edging kerb (or buffer zone) of 75mm width to one side of the staircase. The provision is

92
intended for the fixing of balustrades, which could be welded to the base plate, cast in the
welding pocket, or bolted to the concrete surface by cast in socket.

Isometric View of Precast Stair Case with Dry Joint

93
Isometric View of Precast Stair Case with Wet Joint

94
3.9.2. Method of Constructions

95
3.10 Joints and Connections
One of the most intricate and most difficult problems to be solved in both design of construction
of structures assembled of prefabrication members is the joining. It is highly important that the
construction of the joints should be easy that unavoidable smaller inaccuracies and deviations
within dimensional tolerances should neither influence the designed stresses in a detrimental
manner nor cause is admissible changes in the stress distribution of the structures.
The forming and construction of joints requires owing to their intricacy, great increased control
joints which cannot be inspected should be omitted. When solving the problem of joints the
properties of reinforced concrete must be taken into consideration. This means in other words,
that the design of the construction of the joint should harmonize with the materials to be used.
The properties of steel of timber are quite different from those of concrete and reinforced
concrete. Therefore joints similarly to those used in timber and steel construction are generally
not appropriate for the purpose.

Design of class based an efficiency of the material used:

The plastic concrete can be used for the subsequent concrete of joints of the fluid cement mortar
cast or pressed into the gaps less part of their water during the setting time of shrink, after setting
the shrinkage of the insite concrete of mortar continue.
With respect to two phase of shrinkage same codes on reinforced concrete construction permit
only reduced stresses for a subsequent insite concrete of a mortar casting. There are generally
determined as a function of width of the joint on the gap to be concrete as cast.
Joints must be designed of executed so that compensation for the allowed dimensional tolerances
is ensured. A relative displacement of the joined member should be impossible even as a result
of a blow or of any other unfavorable force effect. The length of the section determined for the
transmission of forces should be as short as possible but should excluded any excess of the
permissible stress.
The joints can be rigid hinge like or shed. Rigid joints are adequate in addition to the bearing of
tensile, compressive of shear forces for resisting to bending moments too. Thesejoints make
relative displacement and relative relation impossible. Hinge like joints can transmit forces
passing through the hinge itself and also allow a certain motion and rotation.

Rigid joints are generally used for the junction of column to footings, but they can also be
applied for joining of individual groups with one another. The joints generally used in the
construction with precast members are usually hinge like. Their execution is simpler and requires
less working lime than rigid joints shed joints are only exceptionally used in industrial
construction of are justified for a long span only. These joints are chiefly used in bridge
construction for long span bridges depending on the necessity of insite concreting; two kinds of
joints can be distinguished.

96
a) Dry joints = joint accomplished by simple placing of two members on each other of fasting.
b) Wet joints = joint require not only casting with cement mortar but also subsequent concreting.

Joints for different structural connections:

eam on top of column.

(a) Joining Columns to Footing

This joint is usually rigid but also can be hinge. A rigid joint can be made by placing the column
into a calyx of the footing or by using a welded joint. The figure shows the three variations of
this method.

For large footings

97
 Column to Foundation
The depth of the calyx is dimensioned according to the long or side length of the column. The
depth of the calyx should be equal to 12.5% of the length of the column. The opening of the
calyx is 6-10 cm greater in all direction than the class of the column. This is enabling the vibrator
to be operated while concreting at the bottom of the calyx of checked by levelling before
concreting. A similar steel plate is also put on the lower end of the column when positioning the
column. These two steel plates must be on each other. The dimensions ofthese steel plates are
frame 100x100x10 to 150x150x10 mm a chord into the concrete after the column is put in placed
properly plumbed two advantages of the calyx joint should be mentioned.
1. The placing plumbing and fixing of the column as well as the subsequent filling of the calyx
with concrete is for simpler and requires less time than in the case of a welded joint.
2. The method is least sensitive to inaccuracies occurring during the construction.

The disadvantages of the calyx joint are more suitable for small columns. In the case of large
columns requiring a calyx depth of which is greater than 1 m.

(b) Joining of Column to Beam at an Intermediate Junction

One method of forming a hinge like joint consists either or placing to beam on to a small
cantilever protracting frame the column or of putting it on the bottom of an adequately shaped
opening left out of the column shaft. The beam rests temporarily on a tongue like extension on a
steel plate placed in this opening on the supporting surface the tongue is also furnished with a
steel plate anchored into the concrete. The other parts of the tongue are supported after the
placing has been finished with concrete cast through an opening left for this purpose.

Hinge like joining of girder to column:

1. Opening for casting.
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2. Subsequent concreting.
3. Steel plate.

99
 Column to Beam

(c) Lengthening of Columns

Columns are usually lengthened at floor levels. An intermediate lengthening should be avoided it
possible.
The lengthening of columns can be executed similarly to the joining with footing, accordingly
the upper columns rests on the lower ones by a tongue like extension. The steel bars of the main
reinforcement are joined by overlapping looped steel bars a welding. There after the stirrups
have to be placed of finally the joint must be concreted.

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 Column to Column

(d) Joining of Beams

The functions of beams can be affected either by overlapping the protracting steel bars or by
welding them together. Fig. shows the hinge like joint of purlins. In this method the whole shear
must be both by both cantilevers (i.e.) by two separate structures therefore it is expedient to
formthis joint at least for large girders. The method illustrated in the fig presents a dry joint of
beams which is called a bolted front. The advantages of this joint are immediate bearing
capacity.

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 Beam to Beam

(e) Joining of Precast To Monolithic Reinforced Concrete Structures

It frequently occurs that a monolithic beam has to be joined to a precast column. In this case the
function can be established in the same way as already been described in the previous paragraph
an joining namely by placing the end of the beam either on to a cantilever protruding from the
column or into an opening formed into the columns shaft.
When making the joint, first of all a 2.5 cm deep cavity is chiselled out of the side of the precast
column. The bottom of this cavity should be roughened so as to attain a belter band between the
concrete of the monolithic beam and the precast column.

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Expansion Joint
An Expansion joint is an assembly designed to safely absorb the heat induced expansion and
contraction of various construction material to absorb vibration or to allow movement due to
ground settlement or earthquakes they are commonly found between sections of sidewalks,
bridges, railway tracks, piping systems, and other structures.

Expansion Joint Design

A design specification shall be prepared for each expansion joint application. Prior to writing the
expansion joint design specification it is imperative that the system designer complicity review
the structural system layout and other items which may affect the performance of a expansion
joint particular attention shall be given to the following items the system should be reviewed to
determine the local and type of expansion joint which is most suitable for the application. Both
the EJMA standards and most reliable expansion joint manufacturers. Catalogs provide numerals
examples to assist the user in this effort. The availability of supporting structures of anchoring
and guiding of the system and the direction and magnitude of thermal moments to be absorbed
must be consider when selecting the type and location of the expansion joint.

Conventional Rubber Expansion Joint

Expansion joints are designed to provide stress relief in piping system that are loaded by thermal
movements and mechanical vibration. To deal with the various forces on the joint they require
fiber reinforcement which guarantees both flexibility and strength. conventional expansion joints
are reinforced using prefabricated fiber pipes, the use of these fiber pipes makes it impossible to
control the orientation of the fiber on complex shape such as the below of the expansion joint. In
both case the inability to use the fiber in the optimal way leads to the following disadvantages.
High material cost
ded then necessary

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 MODULE-4

4.1 Types of Wall Panels

a. Cross wall system
b. Longitudinal wall system

Cross-wall system: The main walls that resist gravity and lateral loads are placed in the short
direction of the building.

Longitudinal-wall system: The walls resisting gravity and lateral loads are placed in the
longitudinal direction.

Precast concrete walls could be

1) Homogeneous walls
2) Non-homogeneous walls

Homogeneous walls:
The walls could be solid or ribbed.
Non-homogeneous walls:
Based on the structural functions of the walls, the walls could be classified as
a. Load bearing walls
b. Non-load bearing walls
c. Shear walls

Based on their locations and functional requirements the walls are further classified as

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(i) External walls which can be load or non-load bearing depending upon the layout. They are
usually non-homogeneous walls of sandwiched type to impart better thermal comforts.
(ii) Internal walls which provide resistance against vertical loads, horizontal loads, fire etc. and
are normally homogeneous.
These could be composite or sandwich panel based on the structural functions of the walls, the
wall could be classified as
i. Load bearing walls
ii. Non load bearing walls
iii. Shear walls

Based on their locations and functional requirements the walls are also classified as
1. External walls
2. Internal walls
1. External Walls which can be load bearing depending up to the layout and are usually non
homogeneous walls of sandwiched typed to impart better thermal comforts.
2. Internal walls providing resistance against vertical loads horizontal loads, fire etc. and are
normally homogeneous walls.

In addition, the walls are classified as:

1. Braced if the walls are supported laterally by floors or other cross-walls
2. Unbraced if the walls provide their own stability, such as cantilever walls.

The walls are considered stocky if the slenderness ratio, does not exceed 15 for a braced wall and
10 for an unbraced wall. Otherwise, the walls are considered as slender.

4.2 Design of Precast Concrete Walls (Based on ACI-533R-93)

General
The functions of precast concrete walls can be identified by the type of buildings in which they
are used:
1. Skeletal frame structures: precast concrete walls are used as non-load bearing in-fill walls and
may be designed to provide stability to the building
2. Shear wall structures: the precast walls are reinforced, cantilevered walls designed to carry the
vertical loads and horizontal, lateral and in-plane forces. They are used as stabilizing elements
for the structure and may come in the form of single elements or forming boxes for staircases or
lift shafts.

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In a mixed skeletal frame and shear wall building, both types of walls are provided.Precast
concrete walls may also be used as non-load bearing partitions to replace brickworks so asto
achieve better surface quality and minimize site plastering.

The thickness of precast walls varies from 125 mm to 300 mm and is governed either by carnage
constraints at the site or factory or by the ultimate shear and load carrying capacity in service.
Walls are preferably designed as single elements. For wider walls, it may be necessary to
assemble them in separate units with in-situ jointing. Openings for doors, windows and services
may be accommodated provided their positions do not interrupt the structural integrity and
continuity of the walls. This is particularly important when the wall design is based on the
compressive diagonal strut model. Alternative load paths for the vertical and horizontal forces
must be considered if the openings are large.

The construction of box walls for staircases and lift shafts can be obtained from individual wall
sections or from a complete or partial box in single or part storey high.

There is a wide range of solutions in jointing the walls. These include:

1. in-situ concrete and steel tie
2. Welded connections made by fully anchored plates
3. Bolting
4. Shear keys with or without interlacing steel and
5. Simple mortar bedding
The design forces at the vertical and horizontal wall joints primarily consist of compression,
tension and shear forces.

Panel Cases
Non-load-bearing panel (cladding)-A precast wall panel that transfers negligible load from other
elements of the structure; this type of panel is generally designed as a closure panel and must
resist all applicable service and factored loads from wind forces, seismic forces, thermally
induced forces, forces from time-dependent deformations, self-weight and those forces resulting
from handling, storage, transportation and erection.

Load-bearing panel-A precast wall panel that is designed to carry loads from one structural
element toother structural elements; load-bearing panels must interact with other panels and the
supporting structural frame to resist all applicable design loads in addition to thoselisted for non-
load-bearing panels. Load-bearing panels also include panels designed to function as shear walls.

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Panel types
Solid panel-A panel of constant thickness; anallowance for surface texture must be made in
determining effective thickness.
Hollow-core panel-A precast panel that has voids within the thickness in one direction for the
full length of the panel.
Sandwich panel-A precast panel consisting of two layers of concrete separated by a nonstructural
insulating core.
Ribbed panel-A precast panel consisting of a slab reinforced by a system of ribs in one or two
directions.

Design Forces (As per ACI)

Precast wall panels should be designed to resist all of the following forces wherever applicable:
Forces developed from differential support settlement, deformations from creep and
shrinkage, structural restraint and the effects of environmental temperatures.
Forces due to construction, handling, storage, transportation, erection, impact, gravity dead
and live loads, as well as lateral loads from soil, hydrostatic pressure, wind, and seismic
action. Local stress concentrations in the vicinity of connections and applied loads must be
considered.
Forces developed from thermal movement or bowing as well as volume change of the panel,
with respect to the supporting structure, must be considered.

4.3 Stability analysis of wall

1. Effective Thickness: Walls thickness should not be less than 150mm and H/t of less than or
equal to 25.

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2. Effective Width: The effective width is depending on concentrated load or bending moment.
For concentrated load may not exceed the center-to-centerdistance between supports, nor the
width of the loadedportion plus six times the wall panel effective thicknesson each side of the
concentrated load.
For bending moments may not exceed the effective thickness of the wall panel or the width of
the corbelat the point of concentrated bending moment, whicheveris greater, plus three times the
effective wall panelthickness each side of the concentrated bending moment.
3. Distance between supports - Spacing of lateral supports for a precast wall panel loaded in
flexure only should not exceed 50 times the effective width of the compression flange or
face.
4. The spacing between lateral supports of a precast panel carrying axial load and bending
moment should not exceed 50 times the effective width of the compression face or flange.
5. Allowable direct compressive stress in concrete should not exceed

= . [ ( ) ]

6. Maximum Concrete Bearing Stress
= .
7. Minimum Eccentricity not less than 25mm or e/t not less than 1/10, whichever greater.
8. The maximum slenderness (kl/r) of a precast wall panel should not exceed 65.
9. Stability under axial load By Eulers Method
The critical load is the maximum load which a column can bear while staying straight.

=
Pc = Euler's critical load (longitudinal compression load on column).
E = modulus of elasticity of column material.
I = minimum area moment of inertia of the cross section of the column.
L = unsupported length of column.
K = column effective length factor.
10. Reinforcement:
Spacing not less than 3 times of wall thickness nor more than 450mm.
Minimum vertical Ast= 0.0015 x gross cross section.
Minimum Horizontal Ast=0.0025 x gross cross section.
11. Permissible Deflection criteria (Table from ACI-533R:93)

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Design example:
1. Design precast load bearing wall for data mentioned below.
Number of storey-1.
Dimension 18m x 12m x 2.4m
Material-M40; Fe-415
Loads- DL=2.5 KN/m2;LL=2.0 KN/m2

4.4 Wall Joints

4.4.1 General
The successful performance of a building exterior is frequently defined by its ability to keep rain
and the elements outside,away from the buildings occupants. Precast concrete panels are
relatively impermeable to water. Moisture will not penetrate through precast concrete panels.
The joints between precast concrete panels or between panels and other building materials must
be considered to prevent water and air penetration through the building envelope. The design and
execution of these joints is therefore of the utmost importance and must be accomplished in a
rational, economical manner. Joint treatment also has an effect on the general appearance of the
project. To ensure the joint and sealant give the desired performance, selecting the right product,
appropriate joint design, and proper surface preparation and application technique is required.
The penetration of moisture into a building envelope may enter directly (through an opening), by
gravity, capillary action, and as a result of the mean (steady state) air pressure difference across
the wall.

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Joint sealants are fully exposed to the major agents of aging and deteriorationultraviolet light
and thermal cycling. High performance sealants with a low modulus and high movement
capability must be used to ensure quality long-term performance. In new construction, labor to
material costs are typically 4 to 1, while in renovation/rehabilitation the ratio may be 8 to 1 or
more. Joints are required to accommodate changes in wall panel or structure dimensions caused
by changes in temperature, moisture content, or deflection from applied design loads. The joints
between panels are normally designed to accommodate local wall movements rather than
cumulative movements. Sealants subjected to volume change movements, either horizontally or
vertically at building corners, at adjacent non-precast concrete construction, or at windows not
having similar movements must be given special consideration. Some wall designs handle water
properly in two-dimensional blueprints, but fail in three-dimensional reality. Isometric drawings
should be used to show the proper intersection of horizontal and vertical seals. These
intersections are a prime source of sealant problems.

4.4.2 Types of Wall Joints

Joints between precast concrete wall units may be divided into three basic types: one-stage, two-
stage, and expansion joints.
One-Stage jointAs its name implies, the one-stage (face-sealed) joint has a single line of
caulking for weatherproofing. This is normally in the form of a gun-applied sealant close to the
exterior surface of the precast concrete panel. The principal advantages of face-sealed joints are
their simplicity, ease of installation, and almost universal suitability for normal joints between
precast concrete panels. No grooves or special shapes are necessary. Thus, one-stage joints are
normally the most economical with regard to initial cost. However, the economics may change
when maintenance costs are included in the evaluation.One-stage joints provide adequate air
leakage and water penetration control in most climates. Their performance depends greatly on
the quality of sealant materials, the condition of joint surfaces, quality of field installation, and
the overall wall design.Because sealants are subject to deterioration from the elements and
ultraviolet (UV) exposure, it is recommended that the sealant be set back into the joints by using
recessed joints. This partially protects the sealant from rain, wind, and UV light.

Two-Stage jointWatertightness of sealant joints can be improved by installing a second line of

sealant in each joint. The inner seal is placed inside the joint, generally from the exterior, and
recessed a minimum of 50 to 63 mm from where the back of the front sealant and backing willbe
located or to the back of insulation in a sandwich (insulated) wall panel. This layer provides
redundancy in the system, as it is fully protected from weather and UV exposure by the outer
layer of sealant, which is installed in the normal manner.This approach requires the installationof
10 mm weep openings in the exterior seal to allow water contained by theinner seal to exit the

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cavity between joint seals. Near the junction of the horizontal and vertical joints, the inner seal
must turn out to the plane of the exterior seal at regular intervals to force water out of the joint.

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This termination requires care in detailing and construction. Failure to provide these weep
openings results in trapped water within the joint and ponding against both seals; this accelerates
deterioration of the sealant material and its bond to the substrate.These joints are based on the
open rainscreen principle. They are sometimes known as ventilated or pressure equalization
joints and are favored for exterior wall construction in Canada. The rain screen principle is based
on the control of the forces that can move water through small openings in a face-sealed wall
system, rather than the elimination of the openings themselves. These joints have two lines of
defense for weatherproofing. The typical joint consists of a rain barrier near the exterior face and
an air retarder close to the interior face of the panel. The rain barrier is designed to shed most of
the water from the joint, and the wind-barrier or air retarder is the demarcation line between
outside and inside air pressure.
Openings in the rain barrier allow air to rapidly enter until the pressure inside the chamber is
equal to the wind pressure acting against the outer wall, which prevents water from entering the
chamber. The pressure difference across the exterior layer is essentially zero, and wind pressure
is transferred to the inner, airtight layer. Rain does not penetrate to the air chamber and,
subsequently, to the interior of the building because there is no wind pressure forcing it through
the exterior layer. Any moisture entering the joint will cling to the joint walls and then be drained
out by the transverse seal. The airtightness of the air retarder is critical in governing the speed at
which pressure equalization occurs. Pressure equalization must take place almost instantaneously
for a rain screen wall to be effective. The size of vent opening must reflect the size of the joint to
be pressure equalized. Typical details of two-stage vertical joints are shown in below Figs.

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This system is especially applicable to high-rise buildings subject to severe climatic exposure
(greater than 5000 degree days). The warm, moist air moving from the building interior to the
exterior usually carries moisture, which could cause condensation. Air must be prevented from
contacting cold surfaces in the wall. In northern climates, thermal bridges can occur and allow
condensation to form a buildup of frost in or on the walls, which may be thought to be a failure
of the joint sealant. This frost later can melt and run back inside the building, giving the
impression that the building is leaking.

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Water either from penetration or condensation in the joint should be drained from the joint by
proper sealant installations. The second line of sealant should be brought to the front face at
regularly spaced intervals along the height of vertical joints, usually near the junction of the
horizontal and vertical joints at each floor level. Therefore, if any moisture does come out of the
system, it will run down the face of the joint sealant and not over the face of the panels.
A spacing of two or three stories may be sufficient for low-rise buildings and in areas of
moderate wind velocities. Factors to consider when using two-stage joints are:
1. Higher initial cost due to labor and materials required for their successful application.
2. Sealants are not easily placed at the back of the two-stage joint unless 25 to 35 mm joints are
used. Therefore, conscientious workers or intensive supervision throughout the installation
procedure is necessary, because inspection of the completed installation is difficult.
Panel configurations and joint widths should permit a careful applicator to successfully install
both lines of sealant from the exterior. The special tools required may include an extension for
the nozzle of the caulking gun and a longer tool for tooling the interior sealant. The architect,
precaster, erector, and sealant applicator must all understand the function of the two-stage joints
if optimum results are to be achieved. The dimensions of the joints must be maintained at all
times. The most common mistake in the installation of two-stage joints is leaving gaps in the air
seal.

4.4.3 Expansion Joints

Cumulative movements, as well as differential expansion movement of adjacent wall materials,
are generally taken by specially designed expansion joints. Because an expansion joint may have
to accommodate considerable movement, it should be designed as simply as possible. Although
this might result in an appearance somewhat different from a normal joint, the architect is urged
to either treat it as an architectural feature or simply leave it as a different, but honest, expansion
joint.
Seismic seals are a special case of expansion joints. Such joints are generally quite large and are
used between new and existing buildings to protect the joint from moisture and allow the
structures to move from thermal expansion, wind drift, and seismic motions without damage.
Seismic joints are designed to accommodate both vertical and horizontal movement. They are
available in sizes from 0 to 305 mm. Wider openings can be accommodated by joining seal sizes
together.
Materials for expansion joints must be chosen for their ability to absorb appreciable movement
while performing their primary function of controlling the movement of moisture and air. Figure
shows bellows-type expansion seals of neoprene that accommodate thermal movement and
seismic movement. Joints must be designed first for weather protection longevity, then for
movement, and finally for appearance.In most cases, this requires that special gasket materials be

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used, rather than sealants. Otherwise, the requirements for expansionjoints are similar to those
listed previously for other joints.

4.4.4 Number of Joints

The number of joints in the architectural design should be minimized. This will result in a lower
overall-cost for the joints, potentially lower maintenance costs, and will increase economy by
working with larger panels. Limiting panel sizes to minimize movements in the joints is not
recommended. It is generally more economical to select larger panels and design the joints and
sealants to allow for anticipated movements. Optimum panel size should be determined by
erection conditions, available handling equipment, and local transportation limitations as to panel
weight and sizes.
If the desired appearance demands additional joints, false joints may be used to achieve a more
balanced architectural appearance. In order to match appearance of the two joints, the finish of
the false joints should simulate the gaskets or sealants used in the real joints. Caulking false
joints adds unnecessary expense.

4.4.5 Location of Joints

Joints are simpler to design and execute if they are located at the maximum panel thickness. If
there are any ribbed projections at the edges of the panels, joints should be placed at this
location. Ribs at the edges improve the structural behavior of the individual unit. Also, panel
variationspossible warping or bowingare less noticeable when the joints are placed between
ribs than when the joints are located in flat areas. However, complete peripheral ribs are not
recommended because they are likely to cause localized water runoff resulting in unsightly
staining. Instead, ribs should be placed at vertical panel edges. If the ribs are too narrow to
accommodate joints, the full rib may be located in one panel only.
Vertical joints should be located on grid lines. Horizontal joints should be near, but above, floor
lines. The designer should allow the precaster to optimize panel sizes for economy with false
joints, if necessary. The location of joints between precast concrete panels should be considered
as an integral part of the evaluation of economical fastening of the units.
Locating and detailing joints (real or false) is an important factor in creating weathering patterns
for a building. Joints should be made wide and recessed to limit unexpected weathering effects.
Recessed joints screen the joint from rain by providing a dead-air space that reduces air pressure
at the face of the sealant. Also, the joint profile channels the rain runoff, helping to keep the
building faade clean from unsightly runoff patterns. The designer should determine where the
water will finally emerge. Set-backs should be provided at window perimeters and other
vulnerable joints in the wall system to reduce the magnitude and frequency of water exposure.
Figure shows an elevation where some of the false vertical joints, into which water is channeled,
discharge this water over a verticalconcrete surface with fewer joints than at higher levels. This

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causes a marked washing effect at termination of the joint; the water should be directed until it
reaches the ground or a drainage system.Joints in forward-sloping surfaces are difficult to
weatherproof, especially if they collect snow or ice. This type of joint should be avoided,
whenever possible. When forward sloping joints are used, the architect should take special
precautions against water penetration.
All joints should be aligned, rather than staggered, throughout their length. Non-aligned joints
subject sealants to shear forces in addition to the expected compression or elongation forces. The
additional stress may cause sealants to fail. In addition, non-aligned joints force panels to move
laterally relative to each other, inducing high tensile forces.

4.4.6 Width and Depth of Joints

Joint width must not only accommodate variations in the panel dimensions and the erection
tolerances for the panel, but must also provide a good visual line and sufficient width to allow for
effective sealing. The performance characteristics of the joint sealant should be taken into
account when selecting a joint size. Joints between precast concrete units must be wide enough
to accommodate anticipated thermal expansion, as well as other building movements and proper
sealant installation. Joint tolerances must be carefully evaluated and controlled if the joint sealant
system is to perform within its design capabilities.
When joints are too narrow, bond or tensile failure of the joint sealant may occur and/or adjacent
units may come in contact and be subjected to unanticipated loading, distortion, cracking, and
local crushing (spalling).
Joint widths should not be chosen for reason of appearance alone, but must relate to panel size,
building tolerances, joint sealant materials, and adjacent surfaces. The required width of the joint
is determined by the temperature extremes anticipated at the project location, the movement
capability of the sealant to be used, the temperature at which the sealant is initially applied, panel
size, fabrication tolerances of the precast concrete units and panel installation methods. The
following factors take precedence over appearance requirements:
1. Temperature extremes and gradients. The temperature range used when selecting a sealant
must reflect the differential between seasonal extremes of temperature and temperature at the
time of sealant application. Concrete temperatures can and normally will vary considerably from
ambient air temperatures because of thermal lag. Although affected by ambient air temperatures,
anticipated joint movement must be determined from anticipated concrete panel temperature
extremes rather than ambient air temperature extremes.
2. Sealant movement capability. A sealants performance within joints is rated as the allowable
movement expressed as a percentage of the effective joint width. The minimum design width of
a panel joint must take into account the total anticipated expansion and contraction movement of
the joint and the movement capability of the sealant. This evaluation should include volume
changes from creep,shrinkage, and temperature variations.

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PCI Design Handbook supplies figures for estimating volume changes directly related to the size
of the panel. Most drying shrinkage occurs in the first weeks following casting, and creep
normally levels out after a period of months. For these reasons, movements caused by ambient
air temperature variations are more important than those caused by shrinkage. For loadbearing
panels, the effect of creep may be cumulative, thus may be more important.
Many factors may be involved in actual building joint movement. These include, but are not
limited to, mass of material, color, insulation, building load, building settlement, method of
fastening and location of fasteners, differential heating due to variable shading, thermal
conductivity, differential thermal stress (bowing), building sway, and seismic effects. Material
and construction tolerances that produce smaller joints than anticipated are of particular concern.
Tolerances in overall building width or length are normally accommodated in panel joints,
making the overall building size tolerance an important joint consideration. Where a joint must
match an architectural feature (such as a false joint), a large variation from the theoretical joint
width may not be acceptable and tolerances for building lengths may need to be accommodated
at the corner units.
One-stage joint is a simple butt joint with sealant applied against a backer rod at the external face
of the wall. One-stage joint offers only a single line of defense against water seepage. Pressure
drop may occur across the one-stage joint and water may seep through micro cracks or hairline
cracks. Two- stage joint, on the other hand, provides two defense lines against water ingress.
Experience has shown that two stage joints give better watertightness performance than one-
stage joints.
The required sealant depth is dependent on the sealant width at the time of application. The
optimum sealant width/depth relationshipsare best determined by the sealant manufacturer,
however, generally accepted guidelines are:
1. For joints designed for 19 to 25 mm width: The sealant depth should be equal to one half the
width. The sealant should have a concave shape providing greater thickness at the panel faces.
The sealant should have a minimum 6 mm contact with all bonding surfaces to ensure adequate
surface adhesion.
2. For joints greater than 1 in. (25 mm) wide: Sealant depth should be limited to 1/2 in. (13 mm)
maximum, preferably 3/8 in. (10 mm). For sealant widths exceeding 2 in. (50 mm), the depth
should be determined by consultation with the sealant manufacturer.
The depth of the sealant should be controlled by using a suitable sealant backing material. To
obtain the full benefit of a well-designed shape factor, the backing material must also function as
a bond breaker. When it comes to sealant depth, more is not better. If too much sealant is
applied, the stresses on the sealant bead are magnified and the chance of premature deboning at
the precast concrete interface is increased. If the bead is too shallow, there may be insufficient
material to accommodate the joint movement and the sealant will split.

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4.4.7 Sealant Materials and Installation
The most common joint materials are sealants meeting ASTM C920. These sealants are used in
both one-stage and two-stage joints. If used as an air seal, they may be applied from the front
provided joint width and depth permit, or from the interior if access to the joint is not blocked by
edge beams or columns.
Designers should consult with the various sealant suppliers to ensure they are specifying an
appropriate sealant for the specific needs of the project, as well as the sealants proper
installation. For a comprehensive discussion of joint sealants used between wall panels, refer to
ASTM C1193, Standard Guide for Use of Building Sealants. Table 4.1 provides a list of
common sealants and their qualities. Non-staining joint sealants should be selected to prevent the
possibility of bleeding and heavy dirt accumulation, which are common problems with sealants
having high plasticizer contents. Also, care should be taken to avoid sealants that collect dirt as a
result of very slow cure or long tack-free time. Dirt accumulation is more a function of specific
product formulation rather than generic sealant type.When specifying a sealant, a current sample
warranty should be obtained from the manufacturer and the contents studied to avoid
uncalculated risks. The warranty period for a polyurethane material can be up to 10 years, and up
to 20 years for a silicone. This doesnt imply that the sealant will deteriorate during that time.
Some polyurethane-based products maintain their appearance and integrity for more than
15 years. Warranties can be written to cover either the material or the material and the labor
needed to replace them. The specifier should be familiar with the available sealants and
associated warranties prior to selecting a sealant for the building.
The following characteristics should be considered when making the final selection of sealants
from those with suitable physical (durability) and mechanical (movement capability) properties:
1. Adhesion to different surfacesconcrete, glass, or aluminum.
2. Surface preparation necessary to ensure satisfactory performancepriming, cleaning, and
drying.
3. Serviceable temperature range.
4. Drying characteristicsdirt accumulation, susceptibility to damage due to movement of joint
while sealant is curing.
5. Puncture, tear, and abrasion resistance.
6. Color and color retention.
7. Effect of weatheringwater and ultraviolet (UV) lighton properties such as adhesion,
cohesion, elasticity.
8. Staining of adjacent surfaces caused by sealant or primer.
9. Ease of application.
10. Environment in which the sealant is applied.
11. Compatibility with other sealants to be used on the job.
12. Long term durability.

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13. Life expectancy.

The sealants used for specific purposes are often installed by different subcontractors. For
example, the window subcontractor normally installs sealants around windows, whereas a
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different subcontractor typically installs sealants between panels. The designer must select and
coordinate all of the sealants used on a project for chemical compatibility and adhesion to each
other. In general, contact between different sealant types should be avoided by having one
sealant contractor do both panel and window sealant application with compatible materials.
The recommendations of the sealant manufacturer should always be followed regarding mixing,
surface preparation, priming, application life, and application procedure. Good workmanship by
qualified sealant applicators is the most important factor required for satisfactory performance.
Sealant installation should be specified to meet at least the requirements of ASTM C1193.
Prior to sealant application, the edges of the precast concrete units and the adjacent materials
must be sound, smooth, clean, and dry. They must also be free of frost, dust, laitance, or other
contaminants that may affect adhesion, such as form release agents, retarders, or sealers. It may
be more economical and effective to prepare joint surfaces prior to erection if a large number of
units require surface preparation. It may also be desirable to conduct pre-project adhesion tests in
accordance with ASTM C794, Test Method for Adhesion-in-Peel of Elastomeric
Joint Sealants, and field adhesion tests using ASTM C1521, Standard Practice for Evaluating
Adhesion of Installed Weatherproofing Sealant Joints, to determine the adhesion of the sealant
with each contact surface. Adhesion (ASTM C794 or C1521) and stain testing
(ASTM C510 or C1248) of the substrates and sealants in the early project planning stage of a
building are recommended by most sealant manufacturers. This early testing will prevent most
problems before they start and will give the construction team the assurance of a problem-free
job. Even when performed on a limited basis, inspecting sealants during installation significantly
improves the probability they will be installed in accordance with the contract documents.
Performing this evaluation early in the project provides a method for obtaining feedback on
installation workmanship. This way, modifications or corrections can be implemented before any
problem becomes widespread.
ASTM C1521 provides guidance for two tests. The first is non-destructive, and consists of
applying pressure to the surface of the sealant at the center of the joint and the bond line with a
probing tool. The second procedure involves removing sealant to evaluate adhesion and
cohesion. The latter test offers tail and/or flap procedures, depending on whether similar or
different substrates are present on adjacent surfaces of the sealant joint. The sealant pulled from
the test area should be repaired by applying new sealant to the test area. Assuming good
adhesion was obtained, use the same application procedure to repair the areas as was used to
originally seal them. Care should be taken to ensure that the new sealant is in contact with the
original sealant so that a good bond between the new and old sealants will be obtained.
ASTM C1521 can be used to evaluate installed sealant during mockups, at the start of work to
confirm application methods, and throughoutthe work to confirm installation consistency. ASTM
C1521 provides guidelines for the frequency of destructive testing when evaluation is part of a

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quality control program for a new installation. All results should be recorded, logged, and sent to
the sealant applicator and manufacturer for warranty issuance.
In the construction of a mockup for water penetration testing, the actual field construction
techniques must be used. If a leak develops, which usually occurs at the window to precast
concrete interface, the details need to be examined and modified. Putting more sealant on to
make the system pass the test is not realistic, as this will generally not occur during construction.
Sealants that chemically cure should not be applied to wet or icy surfaces, as they may cure or
set before they can bond to the concrete surface. Some methyl methacrylate resin sealers
inadvertently sprayed in the joints may peel away from the concrete surface, leaving a void
between sealant and concrete. Silicone water repellents in the joints may prevent adhesion of
sealants to the concrete surface. Therefore sealant/sealer compatibility should be verified.
Abrasion cleaning using a stiff wire brush, light grinding, or sandblasting followed by air
blowing may be necessary to remove surface contaminants. The sealant should be cured 14 days
before applying water repellents. Care should be taken to caulk first, as sealer may prevent
proper adhesion of sealant.
Also, before caulking, the joint may require solvent cleaning with a lint-free cloth dampened
with an acceptable cleaning-grade solvent followed by wiping with a dry cloth. Isopropyl alcohol
(IPA) is soluble in water and may be appropriate for winter cleaning, as it helps in removing
condensation and frost by picking up surface moisture as it evaporates. Xylene and toluene are
not soluble in water and may be better suited for warm weather cleaning. Follow the solvent
manufacturers safe handling recommendations and local, state, and federalregulations
regarding solvent usage.
Sometimes, smooth concretes that are very shiny exhibit a skin on the surface. The skin may
peel off, leaving a gap between it and the concrete after the joint sealant has been applied to the
concrete. It may be necessary to remove the skin by using a stiff wire brush followed by a high-
pressure water rinse. The joint must be dry before applying the sealant. Wet concrete should be
allowed to dry for at least 24 hours, under good drying conditions, before applying sealant or
primer.
The caulking gun should have a nozzle of proper size and should provide sufficient pressure to
completely fill the joints. An extension for the nozzle of the caulking gun and a longer tool for
tooling the inner seal of a two-stage joint are necessary. Joint filling should be done carefully and
completely, by thoroughly working the sealant into the joint. Under-filling of joints normally
leads to adhesion loss. After joints have been completely filled, they should be neatly tooled to
eliminate air pockets or voids, and to provide a smooth, neat-appearing finish.Tooling also
provides a slightly concave joint surface that improves the sealant configuration and achieves a
visually satisfactory finish. Jointtooling should be performed within the allowable time limit for
the particular sealant. The surface of the sealant should be a full, smoothbead, free of ridges,
wrinkles, sags, air pockets, and embedded impurities.

121
Large daily temperature swings during curing (warm days, cold nights) may cause adhesive
failure. A practical range of installation temperatures, considering moisture condensation or frost
formation on joint edges at low temperatures and reduced working life at high temperatures, is
from 40 to 80 F (5 to 27 C). This temperature range should be assumed in determining the
anticipated amount of joint movement in the design of joints. A warning note should be included
on the plans that, if sealing must take place for any reason at temperatures above or below the
specified range, a wider-than-specified joint may have to be formed. Alternately, changes in the
type of sealant to one of greater movement capability or modifications to the depth-to-width ratio
may be required to secure greater extensibility. The applicator should know the joint size
limitation of the sealant selected.
When it is necessary to apply sealant below 40 F (5 C), steps must be taken to ensure clean,
dry, frost-free surfaces. The area to be sealed should be wiped with a quick-drying solvent that is
slightly water soluble, such as IPA, just before sealing. The area may be heated, if possible, or at
least the sealant should be slightly warm (60 to 80 F [15 to 27 C]) when applied. It is
recommended that tools be used dry. Tooling solutions such as water, soaps, oil, or alcohols
should not be used unless specifically approved by the sealant manufacturer as they may
interfere with sealant cure and adhesion and create aesthetic issues.
It is imperative that uncured silicone or polyurethane sealants are not allowed to contact non
abradable surfaces such as polished stone, metal, or glass. These surfaces must be masked or
extreme care taken to prevent any contact with the sealant during the application process.
Excess sealant cannot be completely removed with organic or chlorinated solvents. Once an
uncured sealant comes in contact with an exposed surface it will leave a film that may change the
aesthetic or hydrophobic surface characteristics of the substrate.
Surfaces soiled with sealant materials should be cleaned as work progresses; removal is likely to
be difficult after the sealant has cured. A solvent or cleaning agent recommended by the sealant
manufacturer should be used.

Sealant Backing. For sealants to perform to their optimum movement parameters, they must
adhere only to the joint sides and never to the base. Closed-cell expanded polyethylene, or non-
gassing polyolefin sealant backing are the recommended backing materials for horizontal and
vertical joints. For two-stage joints, open-cell polyurethane backing should be used on the
interior seal unless the interior seal is allowed to cure for seven days before installing the exterior
seal. Proper selection and use of backing material is essential for the satisfactory performance of
watertight joints. When selecting a backing material and/or bond breaker, the recommendations
of the sealant manufacturer should be followed to ensure compatibility with the sealant.
The principal functions of sealant backing materials are:
1. Controlling the depth and shape of the sealant in the joint (proper width to depth ratio). Also,
profiles the rear surface to an efficient cross-section for resisting tensile forces.

122
2. Serving as a bond breaker to prevent the sealant from adhering to the back of the joint. The
sealant must adhere only to the two surfaces to which it bridges. If it also adheres to the back of
the joint (three-sided adhesion), the stresses on the sealant bead are greatly increased and this
increases the likelihood of premature sealant failure.
3. Assisting in tooling of the joint by providing back pressure when tooling. The combination of
tooling and back pressure ensures full-sealant contact with the sides of the joint, which is vital if
proper adhesion is to take place.
4. Protecting the back side of the sealant from attack by moisture vapors trying to escape from
the building. Use of two-stage joints and backing is recommended where high vapor pressure
occurs at the immediate back surface of the sealant.
The backing should not stain the sealant, as this may bleed through and cause discoloration of
the joint. Sealant backing materials should be of suitable size and shape so that, after installation,
they are compressed 25 to 50%. Compression differs with open- and closed-cell rods; refer to
manufacturers recommendations. Adequate compression is necessary so that the shape will stay
in the opening and not be dislodged or moved by sealant installation.

Primers. Some sealants require primers on all substrates; others require primer for specific
substrates or none at all. Absence of a required primer will cause premature sealant adhesion
failure. A primer often helps sealant adhesion in cold weather. Primers are recommended by the
sealant manufacturer for the following reasons:
1. To enhance adhesion of sealants to porous surfaces, such as concrete, or to reinforce the
surface.
2. To promote adhesion of sealants to surfaces such as porcelain enamel, unusual types of glass,
certain metals and finishes, and wood.
3. To promote adhesion of sealants to an existing surface treatment which is difficult to remove.
Special care should be exercised to avoid staining the visible face of the precast concrete unit
because some primers leave an amber-colored stain if brushed along the surface. This stain will
have to be mechanically removed, which will be expensive. The primer should be allowed to
cure before application of the sealant. Sealant must be applied the same day the surfaces are
primed. The sealant and primer should always be supplied by the same manufacturer.

123
 Module-5

5.1 Components of Industrial Building (Single-Storey)

5.2 Precast Reinforced Concrete Truss

5.2.1 General
Reinforced concrete truss having all the members in reinforced concrete only.
Solid Purlin - Purlin having its tensile and compression zones connected by concrete
along its length such as purlin with T, L, trapezoidal, or rectangular cross-section.
Thickness of Member - The dimension in the plane of the truss perpendicular to the
axis of the truss.
Trussed Purlin - Purlin having members in triangulated or virendeel shapes.
Width- of the Truss - The dimension in the plane perpendicular to the plane of the truss.
Concrete for truss members shall be controlled concrete conforming to IS: 456-2000 and
of grade not weaker than M 20 in case of reinforced concrete trusses.
For reinforced concrete members, the steel reinforcement shall be the following:
a) Mild steel and medium tensile steel bars conforming to IS: 432 ( Part 1 )-1982.
b) High strength deformed bars conforming to IS: 1786-1985.

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5.2.2 Analysis of Truss
In case of triangulated trusses where statical indeterminacy is due only to rigidity of n
joints, the truss may be treated as pin-jointed for the purpose of finding forces in various
members for preliminary design. All loads may be assumed as acting at the nodes. In large
span trusses (span exceeding 30 m), the secondary moments due to relative deflection of the
joints in the end members near the support should be considered even in preliminary design.
The secondary moment and the secondary forces in various members may be arrived at by
using the preliminary sections.
The secondary moments may be computed by finding the relative displacement of each
member with the help of a Williot Mohr diagram or by any other method, including
computer.
The fixed end moment produced at each end of the member due to deflection is given as:

The next moment for preliminary design may be taken as 0.7 times the fixed end moment,
computed as above for preliminary design. Flatter diagonals are preferable to steep diagonals to
steep diagonals to reduce the net moments in the truss members.
The moment due to self-weight of each member or any other superimposed load shall also be
taken into account while calculating the secondary moments due to relative deflection and
the rigidity of the joints.
The equilibrium of joints is obtained by further distribution of unbalanced moment at each
joint by any of the method, such as the moment distribution method, or the Kanis interation
method of frame analysis.
The analysis may also be made by treating the whole truss as rigid jointed without making
any simplifying assumptions.
However, for the usual triangulated trusses up to a span of 30 m, the secondary stresses due
to loads and those due to prestress, resulting from rigidity of joints, compensate each other at
most of the joints and so it is accurate enough to find the forces .in the members assuming
the truss to be pin-jointed.

5.2.3 Design of Truss

Loading - For the purpose of design of precast reinforced concrete trusses, the following loads
shall be considered:
a) Dead load,
b) Live load,
c) Wind load,
d) Seismic load, and
e) Handling and erection loads.

125
The effect of shrinkage and temperature variation shall also be taken into account in the design
of the truss seatings.
Dead Load
For trusses supporting asbestos cement/galvanized iron/aluminum or such light roofing
material transmitted through precast concrete purlins, the following intensity of loading
from self-weight of truss for preliminary design may generally be assumed in absence of
more specific data:

For trusses supporting ribbed concrete roof panels, the average dead load per square
meter of the plan area will be approximately 1000 N/m2 more than the above values. .
For the dead weight of the roofing sheets and ceiling, if any, actual ascertained weights
shall be used; but if these are not available, unit weights given in IS : 875 ( Part 1 )-1987
may be used.
For dead load initially assumed shall be checked after the design is completed and the
design shall be revised if the actual calculated dead load exceeds the assumed dead load.

Live Load - Live load on the pitched roofing with precast reinforced concrete trusses shall be
in accordance with the relevant provisions of IS : 875 (Part 2)- 1987. The other superimposed
loads from the services on bottom chord or other members of the truss should be considered.
Wind Load - Wind load shall be considered in accordance with the relevant provisions of IS:
875 (Part 3)-19881.
Seismic Load - The seismic load shall be considered in accordance with the relevant
provisions of IS: 1893-1984.
Handling and Erection Load - Trusses are normally cast in simple moulds on the floor in flat
position and have to be tilted to vertical position at the time of demoulding. The demoulding
is normally done in 2 to 3 days after casting. The concrete stress induced during this stage
should be limited to one half the concrete strength attained in the period before tilting the
truss.
Trusses are normally erected only after 75 percent of the 26-day strength is obtained. The
handling of the trusses should be done carefully with slings around node points and
should be accomplished in such a way that no adverse stresses are induced during this
phase. The stresses induced should be limited to 50 percent of the strength of concrete
during the handling phase.

126
 Crack width analysis should be made in accordance with the accepted methods in case of
reinforced concrete members subjected to predominantly direct tension or direct tension and
bending.
5.2.4 Design Aspects as per IS: 3201-1988
Span - The span of precast reinforced trusses shall preferably be in increments of 3 m
ranging between 9 to 30 m and 6 m for spans in the range of 30 to 60 m.
Rise of the Truss - The central rise of the truss may preferably be not less than one-sixth of
the span * for straight chord trusses and between one-eighth and one-tenth of the span for
curved chord trusses.
Spacing of Trusses - The spacing of trusses shall be decided on economical grounds. The
spacing of trusses should usually be 6 m. Other preferred dimensions are 4.8, 7.5, 9.0 and
12.0 m.
Spacing of Purlins - The spacing of purlins shall be governed by the standard widths of
roofing sheets or pretensioned planks or other roofing materials available which shall
conform to the requirements of relevant Indian Standards.
Shape of the Truss - Shapes commonly used in steel trusses are possible for concrete trusses
as well as portal frames in trussed form. For trusses carrying concrete roofing panels, bow
trusses with curved chords are economical and induce constant tension in the bottom chord
and reduced secondary moments in the top chord due to load transfer being uniformly
distributed along the top chord.

Design of Members
Thickness
The thickness of all the members, that is, truss thicknesses shall preferably be uniform
except at the bearing surface of the truss where the section may be widened to provide
adequate seating.
To reduce the effect of secondary stresses, the thickness of the members shall preferably
be less than the width of the members.

Reinforced Concrete Compression Members

The reinforced concrete compression members of the trusses shall be designed in
accordance with the requirements for compression members specified in IS: 456-
2000. For the purpose of taking the effective length of the members, the ends may be
assumed as pin-jointed.
The stresses is members due to combination of direct load and bending moment shall
not exceed the permissible stresses for bending multiplied by the appropriate
reduction coefficient treating the member as a long column in the appropriate
direction taking due effect of ties provided by purlins or any other lateral stiffeners.

127
Reinforced Concrete Tension Members
Members subjected to tension shall be designed conforming to the following requirements.
There should be sufficient reinforcement to resist all the tension at the permissible tensile
stress of steel,
The calculated tensile stress on the effective section shall not be greater than the value
specified in 4.4.1.1 of IS : 456-2000, and
Local bending should be checked in case of suspension oi transfer of loads away from
node points of loads eccentric to the axis of the truss.
Minimum Reinforcement Minimum reinforcement of four 6 mm diameter corner bars for
thick members and two 6 mm diameter bars for members less than 75 mm thick shall be
provided irrespective of the nature and magnitude of the forces in the member.

Design of Purlins
Purlins are usually subjected to bending in two planes resulting from the wind load acting
normal to the sheeting and the dead acting vertically downwards.
Where solid reinforced concrete purlins are proposed the section shall be adequate to
resist moments in both the planes and the resulting stresses shall be .within permissible
limits as specified in IS : 456-2000.
Alternatively where trussed purlins are proposed, they shall primarily be designed to
carry the component of the load in its own plane and the load component normal to the
plane of the truss shall be resisted entirely by the top member of the trussed purlins.

Transverse Reinforcement
The diameter of the transverse reinforcement shall be not less than 4 mm.
Transverse reinforcement either in the form of helical or stirrups shall be provided in all
members irrespective of whether they are in tension or compression or carrying no load.
Reinforcement shall have a concrete cover and the thickness of such cover (exclusive of
plaster or other decorative finish) shall be in accordance with the provisions of IS: 456-
2000.

128
129
5.3 Design of RC Columns
5.3.1 Introduction
Compression members are structural elements primarily subjected to axial compressive
forces and hence, their design is guided by considerations of strength and buckling.
Examples: Pedestal, column, wall and strut.
These compression members may be made of Bricks or Reinforced concrete.
Pedestal: Whose effective length does not exceed 3 times of b (least lateral dimension).
The other horizontal dimension D shall not exceed four times of b.
Column: Whose unsupported length L shall not exceed 16 times of b (least lateral
dimension), if restrained at the two ends.
Wall: Whose effective height /thickness (least lateral dimension) shall not exceed 30 (cl.
32.2.3 of IS 456). The larger horizontal dimension i.e., the length of the wall L is more
than 4t.

5.3.2 Classification of Columns

Based on Type of Reinforcement

(Courtesy: Design of RCC Structures by Pillai &Deadas menon)

130
 Based on Type of Loading

(Courtesy: Design of RCC Structures by Pillai &Deadas menon)

The occurrence of axial loading (concentric) is relatively rare.
Columns in RC framed buildings usually subjected to biaxial loadings.
Due to rigid frame action, lateral loadings and practical aspects of construction, there will
be bending moments (Mx and My) and horizontal shear in all the internal columns.
Similarly, side columns and corner columns will have the column shear along with the
axial force and bending moments in one or both directions, respectively. This results in
biaxial eccentricities ex= Mx /P and ey = My /P.
However, the code ensures that the design of such columns is sufficiently conservative to
enable them to be capable of resisting nominal eccentricities in loading.
The effects of shear are usually neglected as the magnitude is very small. Moreover, the
presence of longitudinal and transverse reinforcement is sufficient to resist the effect of
column shear of comparatively low magnitude. The effect of some minimum bending
moment, however, should be taken into account in the design even if the column is
axially loaded. Accordingly, Cls.39.2 and 25.4 of IS 456 prescribes the minimum
eccentricity for the design of all columns. In case the actual eccentricity is more than the
minimum that should be considered in the design.

Based on Slenderness Ratios

1. Short columns;
2. Slender (or long) columns.
Slenderness is a geometrical property of a compression member which is related to the
ratio of its effective length to its lateral dimension. This ratio, called slenderness ratio.
Columns with low slenderness ratios, i.e., relatively short and stocky columns, invariably
fail under ultimate loads with the material (concrete, steel) reaching its ultimate strength,
and not by buckling.

131
 On the other hand, columns with very high slenderness ratios are in danger of buckling
(accompanied with large lateral deflection) under relatively low compressive loads, and
thereby failing suddenly. Design codes attempt to preclude such failure by specifying
slenderness limits to columns.
According to the IS Code (Cl. 25.1.2), a compression member may be classified as a
short column if its slenderness ratios with respect to the major principal axis (lx/Dy)
as well as the minor principal axis (ly/Dy) are both less than 12; otherwise, it should be
treated as slender column.
However, above definition is not suitable for non-rectangular and non-circular sections,
where the slenderness ratio is better expressed in terms of the radius of gyration r (as in
steel columns), rather than the lateral dimension D.

5.3.3 Effective Length of Column

Distance between the points of inflection in the buckled configuration of the column in
that plane. The effective length depends on the unsupported length l (i.e., distance
between lateral connections, or actual length in case of a cantilever) and the boundary
conditions at the column ends introduced by connecting beams and other framing
members. An expression for Leff may be obtained as
Leff = K * L
Where K is effective length ratio (i.e., the ratio of effective length to the unsupported length
also known as effective length factor) whose value depends on the degrees of rotational and
translation restraints at the column ends.
L Unsupported length (Clear distance between the floor and the shallower beam framing into
the columns in each direction at the next higher floor level).

5.3.4 Code Recommendations for Idealized Boundary Conditions

1. Columns braced against sideway: When relative transverse displacement between the upper
and lower ends of a column is prevented, the frame is said to be braced (against sideway).
a) both ends fixed rotationally: 0.65 l.
b) one end fixed and the other pinned: 0.80 l.
c) both ends free rotationally (pinned): 1.00 l.

132
2. Columns Unbraced against sideway: When relative transverse displacement between the upper
and lower ends of a column is not prevented, the frame is said to be unbraced (against sideway).
a) both ends fixed rotationally: 1.20
b) one end fixed and the other partially fixed: 1.50
c) one end fixed and the other free: 2.00

133
5.3.5 Code Requirements
Slenderness Limits for Columns:
The unsupported length between end restraints shall not exceed 60 times the least
lateral dimension of a column.
If, in any given plane, one end of a column is unrestrained, its unsupported length, 1,
shall not exceed-100 b2 / D.

Minimum Eccentricity

Reinforcement and Detailing

Longitudinal Reinforcement
Minimum area of cross-section of longitudinal bars must be atleast 0.8% of gross section
area of the column.
Maximum area of cross-section of longitudinal bars must not exceed 6% of the gross cross-
section area of the column.
The bars should not be less than 12mm in diameter.
Minimum number of longitudinal bars must be four in rectangular column and 6 in circular
column.
Spacing of longitudinal bars measures along the periphery of a column should not exceed
300mm.

Transverse reinforcement (Ties)

It may be in the form of lateral ties or spirals.
The diameter of the lateral ties should not be less than 1/4th of the diameter of the largest
longitudinal bar and in no case less than 6mm.
The pitch of lateral ties should not exceedLeast lateral dimension16 x diameter of
longitudinal bars (small)300mm

134
Helical Reinforcement
The diameter of helical bars should not be less than 1/4th the diameter of largest longitudinal and
not less than 6mm.
The pitch should not exceed (if helical reinforcement is allowed);
75mm
1/6th of the core diameter of the column
Pitch should not be less than,
25mm
3 x diameter of helical bar
Pitch should not exceed (if helical reinforcement is not allowed)
Least lateral dimension
16 x diameter of longitudinal bar (smaller).
300mm.

5.3.6 Columns Subjected to Axial Loads:

All compression members are to be designed for minimum eccentricity of load in two principal
directions. Clause 24.4 of the Code specifics the following minimum eccentricity,

However, as a simplification, when the value of the minimum eccentricity calculated as above is
less than or equal to 0.05D, 38.3 of the Code permits the design of short axially loaded
compression members by the following equation:

135
Example.1 Design the reinforcement in a column of size 450 mm 600 mm, subject to an axial
load of 2000 kN under service dead and live loads. The column has an unsupported length of
3.0m and is braced against sideway in both directions. Use M 20 concrete and Fe 415 steel.

SOLUTION:
Step: 1. Check for Short Column or Slender Column
Given: lx = ly = 3000 mm, Dy = 450 mm, Dx = 600 mm

As the column is braced against sideway in both directions, effective length ratios kx and ky are
both less than unity, and hence the two slenderness ratios are both less than 12. Hence, the
column may be designed as a short column.

Step: 2. Check for Minimum Eccentricities.

ex,min=+3000/500+600/30 = 26.0 mm (> 20.0 mm)
ey,min=+3000/500+450/30 = 21.0 mm (> 20.0 mm)
As 0.05Dx = 0.05 600 = 30.0 mm >ex,min = 26.0 mm and
0.05Dy = 0.05 450 = 22.5 mm >ey,min = 21.0 mm,
Code formula for axially loaded short columns can be used.

Step: 3.Factored Load

Pu = service load partial load factor = 2000 1.5 = 3000 kN.
Design of Longitudinal Reinforcement

3000 103 = 0.4 20 (450 600) + (0.67 4150.4 20) Asc

Asc = (30002160) 103/270.05 = 3111 mm2
Provide 425 at corners: 4 491 = 1964 mm2
And 420 additional: 4 314 = 1256 mm2
Asc = 3220 mm2> 3111 mm2
p = (1003220) / (450600) = 1.192 > 0.8 (minimum reinf.) OK.

136
Example 2.Design the reinforcement in a spiral column of 400 mm diameter subjected to a
factored load of 1500 kN. The column has an unsupported length of 3.4 m and is braced against
sideway. Use M 25 concrete and Fe 415 steel.

Step: 1.Short Column or Slender Column

Given: l = 3400 mm, D = 400 mm
Slenderness ratio = le/D 3400/400 = 8.5 (as column is braced).
As le/D < 12, the column may be designed as a short column.
Step: 2 Minimum eccentricities
emin=(3400/500)+(400/30)=20.1 mm (> 20.0 mm)
As 0.05D = 20.0 mm emin, the Code formula for axially compressed short columns may be
used.
Step: 3.Factored Load
Pu = 1500 kN (given)
= 1.05 [0.4fck Ag + (0.67 fy 0.4 fck) Asc] for spiral columns (appropriately reinforced)

137
Provide 6 spiral @ 28 mm c/c pitch.

138
5.3.7 Compression Members Subject To Biaxial Bending:
Exact design of members subject to axial load and biaxial bending is extremely laborious.
Therefore, the Code permits the design of such members by the following equation:

Where
Mux, Muy, are the moments about x and y axes respectively due to design loads,
Mux1, Muy1 are the maximum uniaxial moment capacities with an axial load
Pu, bending about x and y axes respectively, and
n is an exponent whose value depends on Pu/Puz (see table below)
where
Puz = 0.45 fck A, + 0*75fy As

For intermediate values, linear interpolation may be done. Chart 63 can be used for evaluating
Puz.
For different values of Pu/Puz, the appropriate value of n has been taken and curves for the
equation

139
Typical Design of Critical Column (Bi-Axial):
Size of column=200 x 600 mm.
Grade of concrete=25N/mm2
Grade of steel=415N/mm2
= 682 KN
= .
=
Unsupported length = 3.0m
Effective cover = 40 mm
Column are held in position & restrained against rotation.
= 0.65 L = 0.65 x 3 = 1.95 m

= 1.95/ 0.6 = 3.25 < 12
= 1.95/0.20 = 9.75 < 12
Hence column is design for short column.
Check for eccentricity:
= L/500 + D/30 = 1950/500+600/30=23.9mm >20mm
= L/500 + D/30 =1950/500+200/30= 10.56 mm < 20 mm
= 20 mm
= 682 x0 .0239 = 16.29 KN-m
= 682 x 0.02 = 13.64 KN-m
Assume Pt = 3%
/ = 3/25 = 0.12

Uniaxial moment capacity of the sec about X-X axis

Assume 25mm;

= = .

= = . /
.

From Chart 44 SP- 16

Mux1 = 0.18 x 25 x 200 x 547.52 = 269.78 KN-m.

Uniaxial moment capacity of the sec about Y-Y axis

= = .

140

= = . /
.

From chart 45 SP -16

Muy1 = 0.19*25*200*547.52 = 284.76 KN-m.

= = .

%= = = %

From chart 63

= N/mm

= =

= = . N/mm

/ = 16.29/269.78=0.06N/mm2

/ = 13.64/284.76=0.047 N/mm2

For value of = .

From chart 64 SP- 16

Muy /Muy1 = 0.98 > 0.047 N/mm2 safe.

Main reinforcement: Use 25 mm bars = 3600/491 = 7.33 = 8 nos.

Dia of Lateral ties:

1
Dia = x25 6.25 8mm 2
4
Adopt 8 mm.

Spacing of lateral ties:

141
Least lateral dimension = 375mmc/c
16 x 25= 400 mm c/c
Provide 8 # lateral tie @ 200 mm c/c

5.4 Design Accepts of Corbels

5.4.1 Introduction
Corbel or bracket is a reinforced concrete member is a short-haunched cantilever used to support
the reinforced concrete beam element. Corbel is structural element to support the pre-cast
structuralsystem such as pre-cast beam and pre-stressed beam. The corbel is cast monolithic
with the column element or wall element.

5.4.2 General Consideration as per IS-456:2000

A corbel is a short cantilever projection which supports a load bearing member and where:
a) Shear span/depth ratio (av/d) is less than 1.0.
b) The Depth of Df is should not less than one-half of the depth of Ds.

142
5.3.3 Initial Dimensioning of Corbels (as per BS 8110)
1. The ultimate bearing pressure on concrete should not exceeded the allowable pressure.

5.4.4 Modes of Failures

143
5.4.5 Analysis of Forces in Corbel
1. Struct and Tie Method

144
Alternatively, the value of z/d can be obtained from chart for given values of a/d and once z is
known, we can calculate the values of x, ft and s.

145
5.4.6 Step by Step Procedure

146
147
Design Example: (Ref: Limit state method by P.C.Varghese)

148
149
150
151
2. Shear Friction Method
General
Since the corbel is cast at different time with the column element then the cracks occurs in
the interface of the corbel and the column. To avoid the cracks we must provide the shear
friction reinforcement perpendicular with the cracks direction. ACI code uses the shear
friction theory to design the interface area.

Shear Friction Theory

In shear friction theory we use coefficient of friction to transform the horizontal resisting
force into vertical resisting force. The basic design equation for shear reinforcement design
is : Vn Vu
Where:
Vn = nominal shear strength of shear friction reinforcement
Vu = ultimate shear force
= strength reduction factor ( = 0.85)

152
153
Step by Step Procedure:
1. Step 1 : Check a/d < 1 (else, it is probably a shallow or deep beam)
2. Step 2: Find factored shear Vu and tensile force Nuc
If Nuc is not specified, use a minimum value of Nuc = 0.2 Vu (ACI 11.9.3.4)
Compute nominal values of shear and tensile force
Vn = Vu / 0.85 ; Nnc = Nuc / 0.85
If Vn > 0.2 fc b d OR Vn > 800 b d (lb. units) then section size is inadequate
(ACI 11.9.3.2)
3. Step 3: Compute shear-friction reinforcement (ACI 11.7.4.1)
V
Avf n
fy

Where = 1.4 for concrete placed monolithically, = 1.0 for concrete placed against
hardened concrete (see ACI 11.7.4.3)
4. Step 4: Calculate required flexural reinforcement (11.9.3.3)
V a N nc (h d )
Af n
f y ( jd )
(assume jd = 0.85)

5. Step 5: Reinforcement to carry tensile force (ACI 11.9.3.4)

N nc
An
fy

2 Avf An
3
larger of A f An
f
0.04 c bd
f y

6. Step 6: Required main flexural steel (As) is given by (ACI 11.9.3.5 and 11.9.5)
7. Step 7: Provide closed horizontal stirrups (ACI 11.9.4):
Ah = 0.5 (As An)
8. Step 8: Ensure adequate detailing (ACI 11.9.6 & 11.9.7)

154
References
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