Fundamentals of Momentum, Heat, an Mass Transfer Welty | Wicks | Wilson |Rorrer = | | | = |Chapter 2 Fluid Statics ‘The definition of a uid variable at a point was considered in Chapter 1. In this chapter, the point-to-point variation of a particular variable, pressure, will be considered for the special case of a fluid at rest. ‘A frequently encountered static situation exists for fluid that is stationary on arth’s surface. Although Earth has some motion of its own, we are well within normal limits of accuracy to neglect the absolute acceleration of the codrdinate system that, in this situation, would be fixed with reference to Earth. Such a coordinate system is said to be an inertial reference. If, on the contrary, « fluid is stationary with respect to a coordinate system that has some significant absolute acceleration of its own, the reference is said to be noninertial. An example of this latter situation would be the fhuid in a railroad tank car as it travels around a curved portion of track. ‘The application of Newton's second law of motion to a fixed mass of fluid reduces to the expression that the sum of the extemal forces is equal to the product of the mass and its acceleration, In the case of an inertial reference, we would naturally have the relation UF = 0; whereas the more general statement EF ~ ma must be used for the noninertal case. 2.1 PRESSURE VARIATION IN A STATIC FLUID From the definition of a fluid, itis known that there can be no shear stress in a fluid at rest ‘This means thatthe only forces acting on the fluid are those due to gravity and pressure. AS the sum of the forces must equal zero throughout the fuid, Newton’s law may bessatisfied by applying it to an arbitrary free body of fluid of differential size. The free body selected, shown in Figure 2.1, is the element of fluid Ax Ay Az with a comer at the point xyz. The coordinate system xyz isan inertial coordinate system, Figure 2.1 Pressure forces on a static uid element, EXEXAMPLE 1 2.1 Pressure Variation in a Static Floid 47 ‘The pressures that act on the various faces of the element are numbered | through 6. To find the sum of the forces on the element, the pressure on each face must frst be evaluated, ‘We shall designate the pressure according to the face of the element upon which the pressure acts, For example, P; = Pl,.P2 = P|. 4gos nd s0 on, Evaluating the forees acting ‘on each face, along with the force duc to gravity acting on the element g Ax Ay Az, we find that the sum of the forces is pair dy Ac) + (Ply ~ Pane) Ay Azey + Ply —Ply.gy Ar Acey + Pl, — PlaynsdOx Ave, = 0 Dividing by the volume of the element Ax Ay Az, wo see that the above equation becomes Pherae — Pi ax =P) ve. Where the order of the pressure terms has been reversed, As the size of the element approaches zero, Ax, Ay, and Az approach zero and the clement approaches the point (x,y, 2). In the limit Play = Ph ay = Jim OE sation a + Plesax — PI ‘Ar oF, he OP B= Ee BT Oe Recalling the form of the gradient, we may write equation (2-1) as a= P 22) Equation (2-2) isthe basi equation of lad states sn states thatthe maximum rate of change of pressure occurs inthe direction othe gravitational vector. ln addition, as isolines aro perpendicular tothe gradient, constant pressure lines are perpendicular to the gravita- tional vector. The point-to-point variation in pressure may be obtained by integrating equation (22). ‘The manometer, a pressure measuring device, may be analyzed from the previous discussion. The Simplest type of manometer the U-tube manometer showa in Figare 2.2. The pressure in the tank at point A isto be measured. The fluid in the tank extends into the manometer to point B. (Choosing the y axis inthe direction shown, we see that equation (2-2) becomes Paty Integrating between C and D in the manometer Nuid, we have Pan Po =~ Pisce and then integrating between B and 4 in the tank fuid, we obtain Pa —Pa = —pred,18 Chapter 2 EXAMPLE 2 Fluid States |: x rule in tank pp Figure 2.2 A U-Tube Manometorfuld— py RIBUES 2 ‘As elevations B andl C are equal, the preseures, Py and Pe, must be the sime. We may, thus, Combine the above equations to obtain Pr Pane = pga ~ aye ‘The U-tube manometer measures the difference between the sbsotute pressure and the atmio- spheric pressure. This difference is called the gage pressure and is frequently used in pressure sasurement In the fluid statics of gases, a relation between the prossure and density is required to integrate ‘equation (2-2), The simplest case is hat ofthe isoxhermal perfect gas, where P = RTIM. Here Ris the universal gos constant, isthe molecular weight ofthe gas, and T's the temperature, which is ‘constant for this ease. Selecting the y ans parallel tog, we see that equation (2-2) becomes 2M ag er Separating variables, we see thatthe above differential equation becomes In the above examples, the atmospheric pressure and a modet of pressure variation with elevation have appeared in the resulls. As performance of aircraft, rockets, and many types of industrial machinery varies with ambient pressure, temperature, and density, asiewseassiri iii ai ciasnac 22 Uniform Rectilinear Acceleration 19 standard atmosphere has been established in order (o evaluate performance. At sea level, standard atmospheric conditions are P= 29.92in. Hy = 2116.2 Ibe/ft = 14.696 lbgfin? = 101 325 Nim? T= S19°R = 59°F = 288K p= 0.07651 lbp! = 0.002378 slugii? = 1,226kg A table of the standand atmospheric properties as a function of al Appendix G." ude is given in 2.2 UNIFORM RECTILINEAR ACCELERATION For the case in which the coordinate system xyz in Figure 2.1 is not an inertial coordinate system, equation (2-2) does not apply. In the case of uniform rectilinear acceleration, however, the fluid will be at rest with respect to the accelerating coordinate system, With a constant acceleration, we may apply the same analysis as in the case of the inertial ‘coordinate system except that SF = ma = p Ax Ay Aca, as required by Newton's second Jaw of motion. ‘The result is VP = pig a) 3) «The maximum rate of change of pressure is now in the g — a direction, and lines of ‘constant pressure are perpendicular to g — a, ‘The point-to-point variation in pressure is obtained from integration of equation EXAMPLE 3 ‘A fue lank shown in Figure 2.3. Ifthe tank s given auniform acceleration to theright, what will be the pressure at point 8? ‘From equation (2-3) the pressure gradient isin the g —a direction, therefare the surface of the fluid will be perpendicular to this di ‘Choosing the y axis parallel to g a, se find that ‘equation (2-3) may be integrated between point B and the sutface, The pressure gradient becomes Playe, with the selection of the y axis parallel to g ~ a as shown in Figure 2.4, Thus, Gon Ae ae — pve Fee, Vent Fuel e a — Totter pump Figure 2.3. Fuel tank at rest, " these performance standard sea-level conditions should no be confused With gala standard conditions Of P= 2892 in. Hy = 14,696 Ibn? = 101 325 Pa, T= 492°R = 32°F = 273 K20° Chapter 2 Fluid Staties Figure 2.4 Uniformly ‘accelerated fuel tanks Ttegrating between » = 0 and y ~a yields Pam ~Pa= pV Fae ad Pa Pan = eV EFA "Tae depths of the uid, 4, at point Big determined from the take geometry snd the angle @. 2.3. FORCES ON SUBMERGED SURFACES Determination of the foree on submerged surfaces is done frequently in fluid staties. As these forces are due to pressure, use will be made of the relations describing the point-to point variation in pressure which have been developed in the previous sections. The plane surface illustrated in Figure 2,5is inelined at an angle a to the susface of the fluid, The area of the inclined plane is A, and the density of the fluid is p. Figure 2.5 A submerged plane surface{ECHANICS mental abstrac- and is insufficient heat conduetion, e of importance or viseous fluids Tn general, how- b phenomena as 12 volumes AV® be regarded en viscous fluids free path of the with the dimen bs energy) depends ed at the bottom e place from the Is) to regions of nid will have the librium. Let n of diffusion (and ean be derived fs assumed to be rential equations red to investigate 10 make a critical for stable, but values (such as lest volume A¥° \part from these treatment that ths of negligible yntinuous media, aces liquids and are sometimes RQUILIBRIUM AND STABILITY u 2. The Concept of Fluid Pressure.—The taken as a kind of axiom on tl “A continuum is fn equilibrium when, and only when, tbe resultant of all the forces acting on any part of itis zero. “The forees acting can be divied into 1, Surface forees, which are the forees acting on the surface of a body and are proportional to the superficial area 2 Volume forces, mass forees, or body forees, which aro proportional to the volume or mass. ‘The attraction of the Tn any body in equilibrium, on which external f corresponding internal forces must be present (Fis, easy to see that at the volume of the body is redueed to the limit and all foreasaeting om it are summed up, the internal forces disppenr, since they ean be separated into equal and opposite pairs, Thus we obtaia as the condition necessary for the equilibrium of a tinuum that the geometrical sum of ll / the external forces must, be zero. Tho. De—Body |e equill- We an obiain an insight into the farts drs sty ‘nano intornal forces at any part of the body mip,” eal in pide by imagining the body to be eut along the external forces soting on a plane K passing through the point ‘he body bounded by X. under consideration, thus converting the internal forces into external ones. Sinee each half ofthe body isin equilibrium, the reaullant of the internal frogs over the cut surface must be equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to tho resultant of the about the distribution of the internal forees over the eat surface is obiained in this manner A second characteristic (which may be treated eit Gefnition or as an experimental fact) of fui Is perpendicular to the surface on which it acts and is directed from the outside to the inside. This normality of the surface forces means nothing more thaa the complete absence of any frictional forees. "The surface foree per unit area is known following may be subject which we are going to12 FUNDAMENTALS OF HYDRO. AND AEROMECHANTCS “pressure” and, as was first shown by Euler,’ this force has particularly simple meaning for fluids in a state of equilibrium By combining the experimental fact, or definition of a liquid, given above with the axiom enunciated at the beginning of this discussion, we shall now derive a fundamental conclusion bout the pressure in a fluid. In doing so we shall make use for the first time of the statement contained in the axiom that it is applicable to a volume in the fiuid of any form that we like to choose. To the volume thus chosen we apply tho re ‘equilibrium condition that the surface forees are normal to the surface. Consider then a volume of liquid in the form of a prism of unit height and with triangular end surfaces (Mig. 3). Let Pu, Ps) Ps be the surface forces per unit area, i¢., the pressures on the surfaces; for equilibrium the sum of all the vertical and of all the horizontal components Fro, 3—Reuiltsium of a must be sero. ‘The forees normal to the {uid gobs al three Pr end faoes do not come into the problom Fa since they have no component in the plane under consideration. Assuming volume forees to be absent, and representing the magnitude of the vectors ps, Ps, Ds by ps, Pa Bry Fig, Bsbiows that: Pra = pre 008 (a, ¢) = 0 - 0 1 — prc 008 (6) = 0. But f a= 6008 (6,0) and ; b= 6.008 (0), 20 that pi-p=0 and Pipi 0, and therefore P= P= De qa) ‘This last equation does not depend upon the size of the prisin or upon its orientation in space. If the volume of the prism ‘eonverges to zero in such a way that the diagonal surface ¢ X 1 'Bousn, L., General Principles on the Rquilibrium of Fluide (French), “Histoire de Facadémie,” vol. XT, Berlin, 1755. | 1 EQUILIBRIUM ANT moves parallel to itself toward A, | stating that in a fluid in equitibri or the pressure, at @ point Ais j of the surface element on whieh it ¢ In other continua, such as elastic ina state of equilibrium, the press the direction of the plane on which j only by the form and orientation by six parameters. Ina fluid in « or not, this ellipsoid degenerates in Now it is a fact of experience { fluid to take up tangential surfa decreases with the viscosity. ‘Thu zero viscosity we ean ascribe to fuid” the property of heing unabi in frictionless fluids the scrface for always (not only in the state of ¢ rium) normal to the surfece of any e of yolumo in the fluid. ‘The press any point in an ideal frictionless 4 therefore always independent, orientation of the surface eleme which it acts, that is to say the flui sure is uniquely determined bs parameter. ‘Thus the pressure el degenerates into ® sphere in the « frictionless fiuids even when they s ina state of equilibrium. ‘The pres fluid is therefore determined by ase pressure in a viscous fid is charaete (qf. Art. 44). ‘The resultant of the cut is always perpendicular to the | a frietionless fluid, while in viseou resultant is generally not perpendi ‘The faet that, even for viscous to the surface of every fluid eleme can be seen as follows. Consider moved along a plane E and subj (Fig, 4); the resultant of the forece body will be inclined at an angle « is a property of fluids, in contraANICS ore has a uilibrium, Fa liquid, rinning of conclusion xiom that form ths apply the 1¢ surface uid in the and with 3). Let s per unit surfaces; mponents nal to the = problem ot in the pe absent, Ps by py, ‘he prism, he prism nce X 1 (rene EQUILIBRIUM AND STABILITY 1B moves parallel to itself toward A, Eq. (1) can be interpreted stating that in a fluid in equilibrium the force per unit area, or the pressure, ala point A is independent of the direction of the surface clement on which it ate. In other continua, stich as elastic bodies or viseous liquids not, ina state of equilibrium, the pressure at a point does depend on the direction of the plane on which it aots, and it ean be deseribed, only by the form and orientation of an ellipsoid and therefore by six par In a fluid in equilibrium, whether viscous or not, this ellipsoid degenerates into » sphere «is e fact of experience that the ability of a viscous fuid to take up tangential surfaco forees (shearing stresses) deere zero viscosity we ean ascribe to euch an “ideal frictionless fluid” the property of being unable to resist shearing stresses. In frietiontess fluids the srface forces are always (not only in the state of equilib: with the viscosity. Thus taking the limiting ease of rium) normal to the surface of any element § fe of volumne in the fluid, ‘The pressure at 777i” any point in an ideal frictionless fluid is aiflw therefore independent of the J orientation of the surface element on 4—Motion of 4 which it acts, that is to sny the fluid pros- gid body of weight cure is‘ uniquely determined by one {othe cian af a tretional parameter, ‘Thus the pressure ellipsoid fore FIs equim dogenerates into a sphere in the ease of Sontant sew sig but is frictionless fluids even when they are not dee are fui in astate of equilibrium, The prossure at a point in a frictionless {uid is therefore determined by a sealar, while the general state of pressure in a vi luid is characterized by asymmetrical tensor (q. Azt. 44). The resultant of the internal forees acting seross a eut is always perpendicular to the plane of the eut in the ease of ess fluid, while in viscous fluids or elastic bodies this resul jendicular to the plane of the cut. The fact that even for viscous fluids the pressure is normal to the surface of every fluid element in the case of equilibrium ean be seen as follows. Consider a body of weight W whieh is moved along a plane Z and subjected to a frictional force F, Fig. 4); the resultant of the forces exerted on the plane by the body will be inclined at an angle a to the normal of Z. Now i is a property of fluids, in contradistinetion to clastic solids, nt is generally not p14 FUNDAMBNTALS OF HYDRO- AND ABROMECHANICS that as the velocity of deformation decreases, a converges to zero. Thus, in equilibrium a is zer0, so that even viseous fluids in equilibrium cannot sustain shearing forces, We have neglected volume forces in deriving our idess on fluid pressure, but we ean easily generalize the above discussion to include cases where volume foroes are present. Since surface forces are proportional to the second power and volume forces to the third power of the linear dimensions of any fluid element, the volume forces ean be made negligible by making the fluid element small enough. But since in the derivation of the equa tion of fuid pressure the volume of the prism converged to sero, the above derivation is absolutely valid for the general ‘ease, in which both volume and surface forces are present. 8, Relation between Pressure Distribution and Volume Force. We shall now consider how the pressure depends upon the volume (=a ‘Fic. 5,—Eauiibrium of a id plinder whose generators ao perpendicular to the ‘aoction of Held of force: 91 = De ‘or body forces in a fluid in equilibrium. Let the unit of the gravity force-g be the foree acting on unit mass; this unit has the dimensions of an acceleration. ‘Though the following ‘treatment is applicable to any kind of body foree, we shall diseuss here only gravity sinco it is the most important body force in connection with aeronautical applications. AA field of force is characterized by a foree veetor g assumed to be @ continuous funetion of position, Consider a narrow cylinder whose generator is perpendicular to g. For equilibrium in a fluid the resultants in three mutually perpendicular direc- tions must be zoro. Considering only the direction parallel to the axis of the cylinder it is clear that all the body forces and also the forces on the curved surface of the cylinder are perpendicular to the axis of the eylinder. We have, therefore, todeal only with the forces Ap: and SAp: (Fig. 5). ‘These are in opposite directions and therefore the equilibrium condition is: PL Pe ‘The position of the cylinder in the surface orthogonal to g was chosen quite arbitrarily. Tt is possible to arrange a great EQUILIBRIUM AND number of such eylinders alongside the whole surface perpendicular tc making the eross-seetional area of th wwe can derive the following principle The pressure is consiani in any su force. ‘These surfaces of equal pressure ir as “level surfaces,” in analogy to th the surfaces perpendicular to the tal or level planes. If a field is ne to say has no continuous surfaces equilibrium eannot exist. A helies orthogonal surfaces; a fluid mass any of foree would begin to revolve and of equilibrium, A particularly important surfac tho one whose vector & has a forve fi is the gradient of a sealar U = f(z, & = ard or in coordinates ou, av Be any Such a field of foree is called a “ surfaces of U = constant are orth g and are also, as shown above, st the preseure in a potential field is a paKu If the vector field g has no force not surface normal; however, the which a vector field has no potential Such fields can always be brought i = Sz, y,2)4 In general, however, equilibriura i with very special density distributio rium is always unstable. We shall now investigate the « fon the body force in the direction « purpose we consider a eylinder when of @ fluid aterial clement of fluid iggy tum. mination of the distribu , and oy. The volume fog he earth’ gravitational »priate expression for F 3. The stress tensor prese of internal reactions ia. he fluid, in a manner tay dynamics require use of tig ome particular version of togral relation specifying leads directly to the req momentum balance suts cly, and is then preferebiet nsideration of the balan face A fixed in space is mos ody of fluid, so that we beg (21) in the way in wi pa +foynaa, | volume V bounded by Ae omentum balance in ite of (3.2.3) can be write xen the details of the t. The contribution from face integral when pF ain is possible when pis ives in this latter case tmass, Theremaining v0 » normally prevents Us ticular case of steady written as ym) 4A, t that the convective The equation of motion 139 sad the resultant force at the boundary arising from the stress system quivalent to the body force he relation (3.2.4) for steady motion is often termed the momentum and the bounding surface 4, which may be chosen freely, the control surface. Examples of the use of the momentum theorem will wren in subsequent chapters to illustrate the point that, although the ciple ofthe theorem is evident enough, thoughtful choice of the control sface can lead to surprisingly strong results which would otherwise be ificl to obtain. ‘The particular flow fields to which the theorem is applied f§5,15 involve viscous forces in a significant way whereas those considered are cases of approximately irrotational flow of an incompressible dd in which viscous forces are negligible, mation of motion relative to moving axes the external boundary to a fluid is in motion, it may be convenient to ase a frame of reference relative to which the boundary is at rest. The ation of an clement of fuid relative to the moving frame of reference yihen be different from the absolute acceleration in the Newtonian frame eference, and the equation of motion must be modified accordingly. The eases are axes in translational motion and axes in uniform rotational n, but there is no difficulty in obtaining an expression for the accelera~ ‘an element relative to axes in general motion. Any substantial book eshanics of particles gives the required expression, but we include the von here for completeness, ‘suppose that instantaneously the moving frame of reference is ag with angular velocity © about a point O which itself is moving re to the Newtonian frame with acceleration f,. The absolute accelera- an element is then = hf, fis the acceleration ofthe element relative to the point O.'The relation een f and the acceleration of the element relative to the rotating frame ined in the following way, j,k) isa triad of orthogonal unit vectors fixed in the moving frame, ar P can be written as S P=PRitPjeRk Hinge of with respect to ¢ then occurs as 2 result of both change of the nts BP, P, in the moving frame and change of the unit vectors the frame rotates about O; that is, the cate of change of P as it B to an observer at O is (2), axr, dt,ca TRS ue Equations governing the motion of a fluid b The expression where (dPyat), denotes the rate of change of Pas it appears to an observer the rotating frame. ‘This relation may be applied frst with P taken asthe vector y epresenting the position of a material element of fluid relative to 0, sanical definition of pressure wee then with P as the vector ¥, representing its velocity relative to a non, Mechanical definition of pressure in rotating frame moving with O, giving Faves shown in §7 3 that, in = ert, the normal stess ia indep w= (@) 2 fhesiceelemen acon which a) in (Gj) s8°% Up te prmmterg i testi ‘position in the fluid, ‘There is nor ora fluid in motion, and itis clea tangential stresses are then non-zes Now (@y/dé"),, =f say, is the acceleration of the element relative to - pf the stcess acting across a surface translating and fotating frame of reference, and (dy/de), = v say, is a -gormal to the element, ‘The simple locity of the element inthis frame; also the rate of change of Qisthesane SEO lost in most cases of a Tey ns fro onthe rotating frame.The absolute scceleraton ofan =< dei Meh es gmoving fluid which is analogous 3.3, ‘The expressii and 2) (08) xeciay element is thus ia < sine Ta vie ee tet yzanve xy +ax(axy) say | _ tiatit ine mesure ofthe joa! int fa ah XY 2x(OXY). Gad) _aquantity i provided by (minus) ‘This expression may be equated to the local force acting per unit mass of ore a 7 ere, ik {prariant under rotation ofthe axes fluid to give the equation of motion in the moving frame. : In terins of the velocity u(x,t) in the Eulerian specification of the fo Pie i which does not involve as field, relative to the moving frame, we have _average value ofthe normal compe position x over all directions of th au Du Beuva= Fe und the clement position y and velocity v in (3.2.8) may be replaced by x snd a. The equation of motion of 2 Buid ja the moving frame is theory Bee ncmeecnt jdlentical in form with that in an absolute frame provided we suppose that if eutace of somall phere centr He in om with elma econ aificance which raakes it an app fon of ‘pressure’ for a situation ‘ot independent of direction o fore define the pressure ai apo ese with sign reversed, and den 1 Fa talrans ae ~Qx(Qxx) (329) jer unit mass acts upon the fluid in addition to the real body and surface forces. 4, ia simply the apparent body-force that compensates for translational acceleration ofthe frame; ~282 x nis the deflecting or Corl force, which is perpendicular to both w and &; and ~Qx (Sx x) i tht : centrifugal force. No name is in general use for the remaining tem § Sajna: alii be noted that thin ep "The case of aves of reference which are rotating steadily relative to he aa that nothing is implied, for th absolute frame and for which f, = 0 is of particular interes, and wil Be = Bes mechanical quantity and the precise connection isnot asin feferred to in later sections. The fictitious body force (3.2.9) 8 thet uch'ag the equation of state for 2Qxu-Qx (Axx). (20hFluid Mechanics 2nd edition Landau and Lifshitz Course of Theoretical Physics Volume 6 L.D. Landau and E.M. Lifshitz In Physicnatically, (20.12) that the (40.13) ety. The e angle @ (10.14) tangent, along it; contour es on the surface; wn to be Chence iC. The s of fluid (10.15) Incompressible fluids 2 Finally, let us consider the conditions under which the fluid may be regarded as incompressible. When the pressure changes adiabatically by Ap, the density changes by ‘p= (@pldplAp. According to Bernoull’s equation, however, Ap is of the order of po? in steady flow. We shall show in §64 that the derivative (@p/d, isthe square ofthe velocity ‘of sound in the fluid, so that Ap ~ pv*/c?, The fluid may be regarded as incompressible if p/p <1. We see that a necessary condition for this is that the fluid velocity be small compared with that of sound: vee (10.16) However, this condition is sufficient only in steady flow. In non-steady flow, a Further condition must be Fulliled. Let rand ('be a time and a length of the order ofthe times and distances over which the fluid velocity undergoes significant changes. If the terms dv/dt and (1yp) grad p in Euler's equation are comparable, we find, in order of magnitude, o/¢ ‘~ Apilp or Ap ~ Ipv/t, and the corresponding change in p is Ap ~ Ipv/zc?. Now comparing the terms dp/2: and pdivy in the equation of continuity, we find that the derivative dp/dt may be neglected (i.e. we may suppose p constant) if Ap/t < po/l; or tlle (40.17) If the conditions (10.16) and (10.17) are both fulfilled, the fluid may be regarded as incompressible. The condition (10.17) has an obvious meaning: the time i/c taken by a sound signal (0 traverse the distance { must be small compared with the time « during Which the flow changes appreciably, so that the propagation of interactions in the fluid may be regarded as instantaneous. PROBLEMS ProsueM 1, Determine the shape of the surface of an incompressible dud subjct to gravitational il, contained in cylindrical vessel which rotates about is (verUea) ans with a constant angular velocity SOLUTION. Let us ake the ans of thecyinder a the axis, Then y, = — yo, = x0,0, = 0. Theequation of continwity is satisfied identically, and ules equation (10.1) gives 2 hep at 1, oF these equations is bio = 40 (32+ y*)—g2 constant [A the fee surface p = constant, so thatthe surface isa paraboloid FeIOnsyVa, the oxigin being taken atthe lowest point ofthe surface, ProsLem 2. A sphere, with radius R, moves with velocity win an incompresible ideal Pid. Determine the potential fos of the Hid past tbe sphere, SOLUTION. The fluid velocity must vanish at infty, The solutions of Laplace's equation Ag ~ 0 ‘which vanish at infinity are well Knows to be 1/r andthe derivatives, of various orders, of Ir with respect to the coordinates (the origins taken at the centre of the sphere) On account of the complet symmety of he ephre, ‘nly one constant vector, the velocity, can appeae in the seutiog, and, on account ofthe nearity of bath Laplace's equation and the boundary condition, 8 must involve nearly The ony scalar which ean be formed tom w and the derivatives of 1/r isthe scalar produet wgrad(l/r)- We therefore sosk in the form = Asgrad(tin = —(A-myr2, Where mis a unit vector in the direction of. The constant A is determined from the coalition that the ormal