CHAPTER II

PLANT STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Introduction
what would you do if you want to propagate a plant? You would
probably take some parts of the -int for example the stem or the
seeds, and plant it. What exactly are the stems and seeds of
plants? Stems and seeds are composed of several tissues, each
with particular functions.

why do we need to study the plant structures? Let us look into

our daily lives. We can propagate a PIant by marcotting. In order
to do that, we need to know the kinds of plant structures or
tissues that we should keep or throw away. Therefore, we can
carry out a marcotting correctly, according to what we desire.

In the development of Biology, tissues are used to propagate

plants by advance technology, i.e. tissue culture. A particular
plant tissue is cultured on artificial medium. The tissue can
grow into intact and complete plant. This way, plant tissue
culture will produce identical new plants in a ellatively short
time compared to traditional propagation methods. But first,
let us study the m any different types of cells and tissues of
plant. We start from a plant cell is what composes plant
tissues.

PLANT CELLS
Plant cells have specific organelles that are not found in animal
or other types of cells. Those are chloroplasts, a large central
vacuole, and a cell wall that contains cellulose. There are
many types of plant cells, such as parenchyma,
collenchymas, and sclerenchyma. These many types of plant
cells are derived from three basic processes:
Plant cell division propagation method of plant cells by
mitosis, i.e. cell division that produces two identical daughter
cells;
Plant cell growth a process that involves addition of raw
materials within cell and formation of vacuoles;
Plant cell differentiation process of physiological activities,
biochemical structures, and order that produce certain growth
pattern so that changes occur in cell form.

Adult plant cells are not structure randomly but adapt through
many ways and form groups of cells that are easy to recognize,
called plant tissues.

B. PLANT TISSUES
Tissue is a group of cells having the same characteristics in size and function. Based on
the ability to divide, plant tissues can be grouped into two, meristem and permanent
tissues.

Meristem Tissues
Meristem or young tissue is characterized by active cell division. Other
characteristics are small cell size, thin wall, large nuclei, small vacuoles, rich in
cytoplasm, and shaped in cubes or prisms.

There is a distinct region of the tissue that maintains its meristematic characteristic
as young tissue for good. Simultaneously, another part of the meristem tissue adds
new cells for other plant parts. These are the cells of the meristem tissue that
divide in a particular way so that every cell division will produce meristematic
daughter cell and the other daughter will undergo the modification.
Modified daughter cells will not be incorporated into the meristematic region.
Instead, it will be part of a cell group in the main part of the plant.

Based on the origin of formation, meristematic tissues are classified into pro-
meristem, primary meristem, and secondary meristem.

Pro-meristem
Pro-meristem is meristematic tissue that has existed in the plant since the embryonic
level.

Primary Meristem
Primary meristem is meristematic tissue found in adult plants that are still
actively undergoing cell division. Generally, the tissue is found t the tips of
thestems and roots and adds height to the plant. Primary meristematic cells at the apical
(the tip) region are called apical meristem cells. These cells grow vertically and enable
vertical growth of the root and The stem of the plant.

Secondary Meristem
secondary meristem is meristematic tissue originated from primary meristem. An
example of secondary meristem is cambium. Cambium is a layer of plant cells
characterized by active 'CII division. Cambium is located between xylem (vascular
tissue that transports water and
mineral from the root to all the plant parts) and phloem (vascular tissue that transports
potosynthesis product from the leaves to all plant parts). Cambium causes secondary
growth
by enlarging the stem or trunk of dicots (a type o Angiosperm or flowering plants) and
gymnosperm. (open-seeded) plants. Cambium grows externally to form bark and
internally to
form wood of the tree. During growth, internally grown cambium is more active than the
externally one. Consequently, tree bark is thinner than the wood.

cambium is located together with the other vascular tissues, hence the name
vascular cambium. Its shape is cylindrical. There is also other type of cambium,
i.e. cork cambium. Cork cambium (phellogen), as the name implied, is cambium
that forms cork tissue. It is located underneath old stem and root epidermis.
Based on the location, meristematic tissues are grouped into apical, intercala ry, and lateral
meristem.

Apical Meristem
Apical meristem or tip meristem is always found at the tip of plant root and stem. It
produces elongation of the root and stem of the plant. In the elongation of the
apical meristem, apical shoot is produced. Apical shoot develops into lateral branches,
leaves, and flower. Growth
That has originated from apical meristem is called primary growth. All tissues that are
produced from it are called primary tissues.

Awercalary Meristem
baercalary meristem or intermediate meristem is meristematic tissues located between
primary meristem tissues and adult tissues. Actually, it is part of apical meristem that is
separated from the main part of the meristem sod isolated during growth. Intercalary
somistern can maintain its activeness but only, after cells of the upper nodes have grown
completely. Cells growth by intercalary meristem produces flowering. Tissues formed
from intercalary meristem are similar to those of apical meristem. Hence, they are
grouped into primary tissues. An example of a plant structure tilt has intercalary meristem
is the stem grass family (Graminae).
Lateral Meristem
Lateral meristem is meristem that produces secondar-, growth. Secondary growth is the
thickening of roots and stems of plant resulted in their enlargement. Lateral meristem is
also called cambium. Cambium appears from the inner part of existing meristematic
tissues root and plant and forms secondary tissues-
There are two types of cambium in plants that produces secondary growth, i.e. vascular
and cork cambiums (phellogen). Vascular cambium thickens plant during secondary
growth While cork cambium produces protective layer called periderm (cork). Periderm is
formed on the outside of root and stem tat enlarge as a result of vascular cambium
activities. Periderm protects the breaking of epidermis during this time of growth.

Permanent Tissues
Permanent tissues are non-meristematic tissue. They do not grow and develop anymore.
formed from the differentiation process of meristematic cells, both primary and
secondary. Plant permanent tissues are also specialized tissues. Plant tissue specialization
is the specialization of plant cells to support a particular function. Permanent tissues
include epidermal, parenchymal, supporting, vascular. and cork tissues.

Epidermal Tissue
Tissue is found on the outer most pwt of every plant organ in roots, stems, and leaves, his
tissue functions as the protector of the inner parts of the plant organ. In specific, epidermal
tissue protects the plant from losing water from transpiration, mechanical damage,
temperature change, and lack of nutrition.

Generally, the characteristics of epidermal tissue are as follows:

consist of viable cells;
rectangular in shape;
compact and intercellular space;
lack chlorophyll;
the epidermal cell walls that are exposed to undergo thickening but not the inner
part;
capable of forming the derivatives of epidermal tissues.

Epidermal tissue acts as a protective layer. It can be modified into stomata, trichomata,
spine, velamen, fan cells, and silica cells.

Stomata
stomata are openings in the epidermal tissue bordering by two guard cells. Guard cells
contain chloroplast and are shaped differently, from the rest of epidermal cells that they
are originated from. Stomata function as:
entrance for CO2 in the air and exit 02 during the process of photosynthesis in
daylight;
transpiration route;
respiration route, i.e. the entering of 02 and of CO2.
Trichomes
Tricomes are modification of epidermal tissue as found Trichomes are found on almost all
of The surfaces of plant organs, for example on room skins. leaves, flowers, fruits, and
seeds. Therefore, there are terms for root hair, stem hair, and flower hair, etc. Trichomes
are classified into non-glandular and glandular trichomes. Non-glandular trichomes are
protective hairs that do not produce secretive subtance. On the contrary, glandular
trichomes are protective hairs that produce secretive substance.
Trichomes functions are as follows:
Reduce evaporation;
Relay a stimulus;
Reduce disturbance from human and animals;
Help seed distribution;
Help seed germination;
Help flower pollination;
A means of "climbing".

Spine (thorn)
Spina or thorn is an additional tool of plant epidermal cells located on the stem. There are
W kinds of spina, artificial (emergentia) and original. Artificial spina is thorns formed by
sub-epidermal tissue at the region of stem (a tissue located underneath epidermis). The
thorns of roses are examples of this kind of spina. On the other hand, original spina are
thorns formed by the tissues in the inner part of stem (or central cylinder is tissue located
under cortex). Example of original spina is the thorns of Bougainville plant.

Velamen
Velamen is a layer of dead cells inside the epidermal tissue of the hanging root
(aerial root) of orchid plants. Velamen and epidermis are together called multiple
epidermises. Velamen functions as water containers.

Fan Cells
Fan cells are also called motor cells or bulliform cells. Fan cells are additional
tool on the upper leaf epidermis, especially found in the Germinae family
such as bamboo and Cypereceae, such as teki grass. Fan cells consist of a number
of cell which have bigger size than epidermis cells.

Silica Cells
Silica cells are epidermal cells that contain silica crystals (Si02). They are found
especially on the members of Graminae family. The presence of silica cells on
the stems of Germinae, such as sugar cane, gives a hard surface texture to the plant.
Parenchymal Tissues
Parenchymal tissues are ground tissues found in almost all plant structures
(organs). They are called ground tissues because they:
compose most tissues of roots, stems, leaves, and fruits;
are present in between other tissue types, such as xylem and phloem;
are found as the wrapper of vascular bundles.

Parenchymal tissues can be differentiated from other tissues by the following

characteristics:
viable cells with large size but thin, mostly hexagonal;
have many vacuoles;
nuclei are close to the cell base;
are capable of embryonic or meristematic activity by the cells' ability to divide;
have a lot of interstitial space, and thus is spread out very thinly.

Based on the functions, parenchymal tissues are grouped into many as the followings:

Assimilation parenchyma
Assimilation parenchyma is parenchymal tissue where food is made by
photosynthesis process, such as in green plants.

Storage Parenchyma

Storage parenchyma is parenchymal tissue which store excess food because they
have large vacuoles. The tissue is found in tubers, rhizomes, and seeds that
store starch, oils, and alkaloid compounds.

Water Parenchyma
Water parenchyma is parenchymal tissue that holds water. The leaves of xerophytes,
such as cactus (that live in dessert conditions), have large cells with thin walls
and a large central vacuole filed with water.

Vascular Parenchyma
Vascular parenchyma is parenchymal tissue that is found around xylem that
transport water and nutrients and around phloem that distribute the products of
photosynthesis.

Aerenchyma
Aerenchyma is parenchymal tissue that can store air because of the presence
of large intercellular spaces. In aquatic plants, large intercellular space is the only place
where air can accumulate.

Wound Covering Parenchyma

Wound covering parenchyma is parenchymal tissue that has regeneration
ability (self- healing) by becoming embryonic (meristematic) again. This
parenchyma can become meristematic again by dividing to for new cells or
tissues. It is also cork cambium (phellogen).

Connective Tissues
Connective tissues or mechanical tissues are tissues that act to support the shape
of the plant to stand up right and rigid. These tissues are also called
strengthening tissues because they have many cells with strong and thick walls.
These cells also have undergone specialization. The functions of the connective
tissues are as follows:
strengthen the upright position of stems and leaves (to strengthen against
mechanical disturbance);
protect seeds and embryos;
strengthen parenchymal tissue that stores air;
protect the vascular bundles (xylem and phloem);

There are two kinds of connective tissues, collenchyma and sclerenchyma tissues.

Collenchyma Tissues
Collenchyma tissue is living tissue that shows a lot of parenchymal characteristics and
can be considered structurally as, special parenchymal tissue that supports
plant's young organs. When collenchyma and parenchyma are located side by side,
both will mix into a transitional form. The similarity between collenchyma and
parenchyma is also shown by the frequent presence of chloroplasts in
collenchyma and its ability to continue meristematic activity. Collenchyma is
located directly underneath or next to the young stem surface and young leaf
stalks. However, it is rarely found in roots. Collenchyma cells elongate along the
direction of the length of the organ where they reside. It is marked by the
presence of the primary cells with thick walls and lack lignin (wood substance).

However, the thickening of the collenchyma cell walls is not evenly distributed in
the inner side; instead, they thicken at the cell corners. Thick cellulose wall in
collenchyma tissue results in flexible plant organs. Therefore, collenchyma is
good to support actively growing organs because its cells can stretch to adapt with
organ elongation.
Sclerenchyma tissue
Sclerenchyma tissue is a connective tissue that is found at adult plant organs. The
cells have thick walls, are lignified, and their protoplasm is dead and inactive at
adult. Sclerenchyma tissues are highly variable, but can be grouped into two
kinds, sclerenchyma fiber and sclereid.

Sclerenchyma fibers
Sclerenchyma fibers are long and narrow cells with sharp tip. These cells
are usually together to forma long path while their tips are overlapping and
combined strongly. Sclerenchyma fibers are found on most plant structures.
Based on the location, the fibers are grouped into two kinds: xyler and
extraxyler fibers. Xyler fibers are sclerenchyma fibers found in the xylem
tissues. They are the main component of wood. Extraxyler fibers are
sclerenchyma fibers found outside the xyler fibrous tissues. Extraxyler fibers are
mainly used to make rope, sack, and textile materials for clothing.

Sclereid
Sclereids are the dead plant cells in round shape or varying and hard cell
walls that resistance to pressure. Sclereids can be found in singular or in small
groups between other cells, such as grain in the guava's fruit flesh and pears.
Sclereids can also act as continuous mass, such as in the hard coconut shell.

Vascular Tissues
Vascular tissues or bundles are tissues that transport water and nutrients and
distribute photosynthesis products from one part of the plant to another. Based on
their function, there are two kinds, xylem (wood vascular) and phloem (sieve
vascular).

Xylem
Xylem is vascular tissue to transport and distribute water and nutrients from the
root to the leaves. Xylem is composed of xylem parenchyma and xylem fibers as
explained before, also tracheids, and vascular components.

Tracheids
Tracheids are plant cells that have lignified cell walls (lignin-thicken cell walls).
The cells die when they become adult cells. Tracheids are the component of
xylem vascular bundles in long-pointed shape and have porous (perforated) cell
walls called pit.

Tracheids have two functions, i.e. supporting components and water pumps.
For certain vascular plants such as plants such as pine, ferns, and less
complex plants from Angiosperm, tracheids are the only xylem cells that are
separated from the parenchyma. According to the evolutionary theory, tracheids
diversified by two pathways. First, to they evolved in the direction that favored
increased mechanical efficiency and produced xylem fibers. Second, they
 evolved in a direction that favored more efficient water transportation and
produced vascular components. However, tracheids were assumed to be retained
when fibers and vascular components were thought to evolved.

Vessel elements
Vessel elements are cylindrical cells that die at maturation. Their tips unite to
form a multicellular water transporter cylinder. The tip cell walls (sometimes also
the lateral ones) of the vessel elements have holes like a sieve so water can pass
through easily from one cell to another. However, the vascular shape is not a
chain of overlapping cells. Instead, it is more like a long cylinder such as the
pipes that drain water in houses. Vessel elements are generally shorter and wider
than tracheids. However, they have lignified secondary cell wall like in
tracheids. There are many types of vessel elements: wide with simple
perforated plate or narrow with scalariform perforated plate.

Phloem
Phloem is transporting tissue that functions to distribute the products of the
photosynthesis from the leaves to all parts of the plant. Phloem tissue is composed
of pyramidal cells. Just as in xylem, phloem also has parenchyma and phloem fibers.
Phloem parenchyma functions to store food reserve and act as a separator between a
phloem tissue and another. Phloem fibers are sclerenchyma tissue that
functions to strengthen vascular tissue. Besides, phloem is characterized by the
presence of the sieve tube elements and companion cells.

Sieve tube elements

Sieve tube elements are long cells whose tips combined to form a vascular
tube. They consist of cells that function only when they are alive.

Companion cells
Companion cells are smaller in size than sieve tube elements cells. Their function is
to feed living sieve tube elements cells. Companion cells are only found in Angiosperms.

Types of Vascular Bundles Formed by Xylem and Phloem

Xylem and phloem form vascular bundle tissues. Several types of vascular
bundles are collateral and radial vascular bundles.

Collateral vascular bundles

Collateral vascular bundles are bundles of vascular tissues formed from xylems and
phloem that are located side by side. Xylems are at the most inner part and
phloems are on the outside. This type of bundle is grouped into two, open
collateral and close collateral. Open collateral is when cambium is present between
xylem and phloem, such as in dicots. On the contrary, close collateral is when
cambium is lacking between xylem and phloem, such as in monocots.

Radial vascular bundles

Radial vascular bundles are vascular bundles composed of xylems and phloems
forming cylindrical ring. There are two types of this kind, i.e. amphicribal
and amphivasal. In .amphicribal type, the xylems are at the center and
surrounded by phloem, such as in ferns. On the other hand, amphivasal type is the
reverse of amphicribal where the phloems are at the center and surrounded by
xylem, such as in monocots with cambium from the family Liliaceae.

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Cork Tissue
Cork tissue is composed of cork parenchyma cells. Cork cells are long with
cork-containing cell walls. In dead cork cells, protoplasm is gone and replaced
 by air. Cork cells function to protect other tissues located underneath them from
drought and mechanical disturbances.

In dicots, cork tissue is formed by cork cambium (phellogen) located

underneath epidermis layer. Cork tissue that is formed inward is composed
of living cells called phelloderm. Phelloderm consists of parenchyma-like
cells. Cork tissue that is formed outward are composed of dead cells called
phelem. Phelem is composed of cubed cells whose cell walls undergo thickening
by suberin and are impermeable to water (impenetrable by water).

C. PLANT TISSUE SYSTEM

Just as individual cells are arranged into different types of tissues, so are
individual tissues arranged into clear patterns throughout a plant. For instance,
tissues related to water and food transport form an interconnected system that
spread out throughout the whole plant. That tissue connects the water
source and food synthesis source with structures needed for carrying out life
functions, such as growth or storage.

Simple tissues (parenchyma, sclerenchyma, xylem, phloem, etc.) combine to

form bigger groups called tissue systems. Tissue systems in plant are dermal,
vascular, and ground tissue systems.

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Dermal Tissue System
The dermal tissue system forms the outer cover of plant bodies. This cover is
composed of epidermis and periderm. Periderm is protective tissue that replaces
epidermis near the stem and root surfaces that undergo secondary
thickening. Dermal tissue owns specific characteristics such as its cell walls
are covered with wax, chitin, and suberin. This covering has something to do with
the tissue location as outer covering.

Vascular Tissue System

Vascular tissue system is involved in water and food transport to the whole plant
body. There are two types of vascular tissue system: xylem and phloem. The
presence of fibers in the two vascular tissues (especially xylem) gives them a
connective tissue role.

Ground Tissue System

Ground tissue system includes tissues that form basic materials covering
vascular tissues. The main ground tissues of plant are parenchyma, collenchyma, and
sclerenchyma.

D. PLANT ORGANS
Many plant tissues undergo differentiation into three main structures of a plant
body, i.e. roots, stem, or leaves. Other structures of plant bodies can be
considered as modifications of one or two main parts of a plant (change in shape,
characteristics, or may even be function).

The structures of a plant that can be considered as a modification or

combination of main structures are as follows:
shoots and flowers are modifications of leaves;
thorns are modifications of stems or leaves;
tubers are modifications of stems and roots;
rhizomes are a modification of stems and leaves.

Three main structures of plant organs will be explained in the following.

Roots
Roots are the structures of seeded plants that mostly underground, white, and
pointed shape, so that they can penetrate soil more easily. Root function is
also strengthen the upright position of plants, absorb water and dissolved
nutrients from the soil, and sometimes to store food.
 A radical root or future root has been present when the plant is still in the
form of radical ~k lthin seed. When a seed grows into a seedling, a radical
root shows a different rooting <vstem between dicots and monocots. Roots
of dicots are tap roots, while monocots' are fibrous roots.

.In dicots, the radical root continuously grows into main root with branches. In
monocots, the radical root will eventually die in its growth, so several lines of
similar size roots grow from the base of the stem.

0 Roots consist of several structures: neck or the root base, root tips, root stems,

root branches, root fibers, root hairs, and root cap.

Neck or root base is root part that connects with the stem base;
Root t i p is the youngest part of the root that consists of growing tissues
(meristematic tissues);
Root stem is root part located between root neck and root tip;
Root branches are parts that do not connect directly to the stem base but arise
from the main root;
Root fibers are the smooth and fibrous branches of root;
Root hairs are the true protrusion of outer skin (ep!idermis);
Root cap (calyptras) is root part that is located at the most tip of the root as the
protector of the young root tip.

The root cap determines the direction of the root growth according to the earth's
gravity, known as geotropism. It also protects the meristem and also reduces
friction between root tip and soil particle when the root penetrates the ground. A
root cap consists of thin-walled parenchyma cells, is rich in protoplasm, and has
few vacuoles. Behind the root cap, there is growth point in the form of the
meristematic cells that are always dividing.

Behind the meristematic growth point, there are a group of large elongated
cells. This is the elongation region. Right after elongation region, there are
differentiates cells (tissue that will become epidermis) and procambium (tissue
that will become stele). This is the differentiated region. Here epidermal cells
differentiate to become root hairs.

Plant Root Arrangement

Observation by microscope on the cross section of young plant root shows the
arrangement of tissues from outward-inward direction: epidermis cortex stele
(central cylinder)
Epidermis
Root epidermis is a layer of thin-walled cells with cuticles and arranged
compactly in the root. Most epidermis cells form root hairs by lateral elongation
from the outward wall. Root hairs function to increase cell surface area so that
absorption is more efficient.

Cortex
Root cortex is formed of layers of thin-walled parenchyma cells arranged loosely.
The root cortex occupies most of the plant root. Across section of a root shows that
the cortex appears as a circle. A lateral section shows the cortex as elongated form.
This, in whole, the cortex is cylindrical shape.

There is intercellular space parallel to the root length in cortex. One or several
layers of cortex cells have suberin (cork materials that covers plant cell wall)
underneath epidermis. This cortex part is called exodermis or the first skin layer.
The innermost cortex cells are arranged compactly without intercellular space and
are shaped in cubes called endodermis. Endodermis cells undergo cell wall
thickening radially and laterally by the addition of suberin, forming a band.
The band is called Casparian strip according to the man who discovered it,
Caspary. Casparian strip prevent water from entering cell wall. However, water can
still pass through endodermis through cells whose walls do not thicken.

Stele
Stele or root central cylinder is the innermost part of the root part of the root,
inside the endodermis. Tissues of stele are perisicle tissue, vascular bundles, and pith.
 Perisicle
Perisicle or pericambium is the most outward layer of stele. During the next
stage of development, perisicle cells that are parallel to xylem will become
meristematic tissue. Those cells divide outward and form root branches. Since root
branches arise from stele (on the perisicle layer) then root branches formation is
endogenic (from inside out).

Vascular bundles
Vascular bundles consist of xylem and phloem. In dicots root, primary xylems are
located at the center of the root and have star-shaped. Primary phloems are
located just outward surrounding primary xylem. In monocot roots, primary
xylem alternate with primary phloem.

In dicots roots, cambium is present between xylem and phloem layers (open
collateral type). In monocots roots, cambium is not found (close collateral
type). Cambium is secondary growth point to produce xylem inward and phloem
outward.

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Pith
Pith is parenchymal tissue located between vascular bundles in stele.

-ketivity 2.1
The Root Structure

Objective
["nderstand the root structure and function.

Tools and Materials

1. Microscope
2. Tissue paper
3. Ethanol 70%
4. Root cross section prepare slides

Steps
1. Clean microscope with tissue paper and ethanol.
2. Put the prepared slide on the microscope stage.
3. Observe using the microscope:
a. The structure of epidermis tissue.
b. Parenchyma tissue located in cortex region inside epidermis.
c. Endodermis, region that borders cortex and stele.
d. Central cylinder which has many tissue types, such as perisicle, vascular
tissue, and cambium.
4. Draw your observation and give label at each part.

Question
Explain the function of root parts that you have observed.
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