Contents

1. Introduction...........................................................................................................................4
1.1 Axes of Motion..................................................................................................................4
1.2 Equilibrium & Trim...........................................................................................................4
1.3 Stability..............................................................................................................................5
1.3.1 Static Stability.............................................................................................................5
2. Longitudinal Static Stability .................................................................................................7
2.1 Aerodynamic Centre & Centre of Pressure .......................................................................7
2.2 Neutral Point....................................................................................................................11
2.3 Function of the Tailplane (Horizontal Stabiliser)............................................................12
2.3.1 Longitudinal Dihedral & Stagger..............................................................................13
3. Lateral Static Stability.........................................................................................................14
3.1 Yawing (Directional or Weathercock) Stability..............................................................14
3.2 Rolling Stability...............................................................................................................15
4. Speed Stability ....................................................................................................................17
5. Longitudinal Dynamic Stability..........................................................................................18
5.1 Short Period Pitching Oscillation ....................................................................................18
5.2 Phugoid............................................................................................................................19
6. Lateral Dynamic Stability ...................................................................................................20
6.1 Roll Damping ..................................................................................................................20
6.2 Spiral Mode .....................................................................................................................20
6.3 Dutch Roll........................................................................................................................21
6.4 Spin..................................................................................................................................21

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 List of Figures
1.1 Axes of motion convention
1.2 Forces acting on an aircraft in trimmed conditions
1.3 Static stability examples stable, neutral and unstable
1.4 Fig 1.4 Static stability examples stable, unstable and neutral
2.1 Static longitudinal (pitching) stability examples unstable, stable and neutral
2.2 Aerodynamic centre position
2.3 Centre of pressure position
2.4 Pitching moment due to reference point selection
2.5 CM v CL plot for different reference point positions
2.6 Cambered wing aerodynamic centre position - no movement
2.7 Cambered wing centre of pressure movement
2.8 Neutral point position
2.9 Longitudinal static stability effect of neutral point and centre of gravity positions
2.10 Longitudinal static stability
3.1 Directional (yawing) static stability
3.2 Wing sweepback enhancement of directional static stability
3.3 Dorsal fin extensions
3.4 Rolling static stability dihedral, high wing and sweepback effects
4.1 Speed stability effects
5.1 Longitudinal dynamic stability possibilities
5.2 Short period pitching oscillation
5.3 Phugoid motion
6.1 Roll damping
6.2 Spiral divergence
6.3 Dutch roll
6.4 Steep and flat spin

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 Notation
AC aerodynamic centre
C non-dimensional coefficient (e.g. CL = lift coefficient, etc.)

CG centre of gravity
CP or P centre of pressure
D drag
L lift
M Mach number, pitching moment
Mo zero-lift pitching moment
N neutral point
V velocity

angle of attack

Suffices
L lift
M pitching moment
D drag
T tailplane
W wing

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1. Introduction
1.1 Axes of Motion

Both stability and control are concerned with motions (pitch, roll and yaw) about three mutually
perpendicular axes (axial, transverse and normal), as defined in Fig 1.1.

Fig 1.1 Axes of motion - convention

1.2 Equilibrium & Trim
In steady flight (climb, horizontal flight, powered descent or glide) the forces and moments
acting about an aircraft's centre of gravity (CG) must sum to zero. The vehicle is then said to be
in a state of equilibrium or trim (Fig 1.2).

Fig 1.2 Forces acting on an aircraft in trimmed conditions

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1.3 Stability
The stability of an aircraft or missile relates to the nature of the vehicle's response to
disturbances from equilibrium conditions which arise at random from external media (e.g.
gusts). This is opposed to control, whereby the disturbances are deliberate in nature. Two main
classes of stability need to be considered, namely static stability and dynamic stability.
1.3.1 Static Stability
Static stability is related to the nature of the initial tendency of the response following a
disturbance. The response can take one of three different forms.

It can act against the disturbance and attempt to return the vehicle to equilibrium
conditions. This is known as a statically stable condition.

It can act to increase the disturbance still further away from equilibrium; a statically
unstable situation.

There may be no reaction whatsoever, resulting in the disturbed position being

maintained. This is a neutral static stability case.

Fig 1.3 Static stability examples stable, neutral and unstable

Fig 1.3 shows the three different possibilities regarding static stability for a simple case
involving a cone mounted on its apex, base or side. Fig 1.4 shows a similar case involving a call
on a concave, convex and flat surface. For an aircraft, these must be analysed for each separate
motion (yaw, pitch and roll).

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Fig 1.4 Static stability examples stable, unstable and neutral

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2. Longitudinal Static Stability
A particular case involving an aircraft is illustrated in Fig 2.1. Here, the aircraft is initially in
steady trimmed flight (i.e. with no net forces or moments) and is then subjected to a positive (i.e.
nose-up, according to the standard convention) pitch disturbance. The response to applied
pitching disturbances is known as longitudinal stability. There are three different possible modes
of response (Fig 2.1).

Fig 2.1 Static longitudinal (pitching) stability examples unstable, stable and neutral
In Fig 2.1a, the initial response is for the aircraft to move further away from equlibrium
conditions (i.e. it is longitudinally statically unstable). In Fig 1b, the response is to move back
towards equilibrium from the disturbance (it possesses longitudinal static stability). Fig 1c
shows the neutral case, whereby the disturbance is retained.
The following important relevant issues and terms will now be addressed:

aerodynamic centre and centre of pressure

neutral point

function of the tailplane (or horizontal stabilizer)

2.1 Aerodynamic Centre & Centre of Pressure
The analysis of static stability relates to a consideration of the aerodynamic moments produced
by a disturbance from initial trim. This applies to pitching, rolling and yawing motions, though

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only pitching (or longitudinal) stability will be considered for the moment in this section of the
notes.
An important term in stability and control analysis is the aerodynamic centre (AC) of a lifting
surface. This, effectively, is the position on the axis of the body through which any lift force
increments act, for a given change in angle of attack. Consequently, it must also be the position
on the surface at which the pitching moment remains unaffected with a change in angle of attack
(since the lift increments act through this point), see Fig 2.2 and refer to the following
discussions for more details.

Fig 2.2 Aerodynamic centre position

In Fig 2.2, the wing angle of attack is increased by , from 1 to 2, causing an increase in lift
of L, from L1 to L2. This lift increment, L, passes through the aerodynamic centre, so that
there is no resultant change in the pitching moment.
The aerodynamic centre should not be (but often is) confused with the centre of pressure (or
centre of lift) position (P or CP). The centre of pressure is the resultant point along the chordline
through which the total lift can be considered to act (Figs 2.2 and 2.3). In the case of a cambered
wing, its position varies with changes in angle of attack. In the case of a symmetrical wing
section, its position is fixed and is coincident with the aerodynamic centre.

Fig 2.3 Centre of pressure position

If a moment balance is done on the wing for the case shown in Fig 2.3, with moments taken
about CP as a reference point, then there will clearly be no pitching moment present. If the
reference point is either ahead or behind CP then there will be a pitching moment (Fig 2.4). This

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will either be nose-up (positive), for a rearward reference point position, or nose-down
(negative), for a forward reference point position.

Fig 2.4 Pitching moment due to reference point selection

If the pitching moment is plotted against lift (in coefficient terms) then the resultant plot will
depend upon the reference point chosen (Fig 2.5). For a rear reference point the pitching
moment will linearly increase (i.e. become more positive or nose-up) with increasing or CL.
The further back the reference point, the higher the gradient. The situation will reverse in the
case of a forward reference point. There will also be a position, somewhere along the chord line,
which will produce a zero change in pitching moment. This must be the position through which
the lift increments are acting, and thus is the aerodynamic centre position, as defined above.

Fig 2.5 CM v CL plot for different reference point positions

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For a positively cambered wing, as used on most conventional aircraft, there is a constant
negative (i.e. nose-down) pitching moment about the aerodynamic centre at pre-stall angles of
attack (Mo). This is due to CP being behind AC. Its value will be that of the zero-lift condition,
and, in coefficient terms, is known as the zero-lift pitching moment coefficient (CMo). In the case
of a symmetrical wing, the pitching moment (and therefore also CMo) about the aerodynamic
centre is zero (since CP is coincident with AC). For subsonic sections, the aerodynamic centre
lies at approximately the quarter-chord position, i.e. 25% of the chord length back from the
leading edge. For supersonic sections, the position moves rearwards, close to the half-chord
position (the notes on High Speed Flight explain why).
The major advantage of using the aerodynamic centre for stability and control analysis relates to
its fixed position (ignoring compressibility effects for the moment), see Fig 2.6. It is therefore a
much more useful reference point than the centre of pressure which, at least for cambered
sections, varies with angle of attack (Fig 2.7). Additionally, at the aerodynamic centre, the
pitching moment remains unaffected with changes in . By definition, there is a zero pitching
moment about the centre of pressure.

Fig 2.6 Cambered wing aerodynamic centre position - no movement

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 Fig 2.7 Cambered wing centre of pressure movement
2.2 Neutral Point
In the case of a complete aircraft, the concern is with the overall aerodynamic centre, with the
main wing, tail surfaces and fuselage being the major contributors. This position, through which
all net lift increments act for a change in angle of attack, is usually referred to as the neutral
point (N), Fig 2.8. It will generally lie somewhere between the individual aerodynamic centre
positions of the wing and tailplane. The more powerful the tailplane contribution, then the
further rearward the neutral point will move.

Fig 2.8 Neutral point position

The determining factor, regarding whether a situation is statically stable or not, is the
relationship between the vehicle's centre of gravity (CG) and neutral point (N). If N lies ahead of
CG then a destabilising moment will be produced in reaction to a disturbance. Conversely, a
stabilizing moment will be produced if N lies aft of the CG.
The case involving the neutral point ahead of the CG is therefore statically unstable. Static
stability results when the neutral point is behind the CG (Fig 2.9). The rearward limit of the CG
is thus dictated by the vehicle's desired stability characteristics. If the CG is coincident with the

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neutral point then the condition is neutrally statically stable; in fact, this is the origin of the
neutral point term.

Fig 2.9 Longitudinal static stability effect of neutral point and centre of gravity positions
The condition for longitudinal static stability is that a nose-up change of angle of attack
produces a nose-down change in pitching moment. This is represented mathematically by the
requirement for dM / d < 0, where M is the pitching moment and is the pitch angle (Fig 2.10).

Fig 2.10 Longitudinal static stability

2.3 Function of the Tailplane (Horizontal Stabiliser)
Most conventional aircraft are designed to possess inherent static stability. Here, longitudinal
static stability is provided by the tailplane or horizontal stabiliser. This can be considered to
effectively produce a rearwards shift of the neutral point. The larger the tailplane and its moment
arm about the CG, then the more stable the aircraft becomes, though there is always a direct
trade-off in terms of pitching manoeuvrability. Nowadays, combat aircraft are frequently being

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designed to possess inherent instability in order to improve manoeuvrabilty. Sophisticated and
costly computer-controlled autostabiliser systems have to be used (covered in the Controls
notes).
2.3.1 Longitudinal Dihedral & Stagger
The tailplane is usually set at an angle less than that of the main wing. The angle between the
main wing chord-line and the tailplane chord-line is known as longitudinal dihedral. This tends
to improve longitudinal stability.
Longitudinal stability is also improved if the tailplane is situated so that it lies outside the
influence of the main wing downwash. Tailplanes are therefore often staggered and mounted at
a different height in order to improve their stabilising effectiveness. Disadvantages of this design
technique include mass penalties due to aeroelastic effects and deep stall (when the tailplane lies
in the separated flow-field caused by a main wing, making stall recovery more difficult or even
impossible).

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3. Lateral Static Stability
The second class of static stability to consider is known as lateral stability, which loosely
combines the closely-related responses to yawing and rolling disturbances. Lateral stability can
be considered independently of longitudinal stability, as there is only a very weak cross-
coupling effect between the two for most classes of aircraft.
3.1 Yawing (Directional or Weathercock) Stability
Directional (or weathercock) stability (from yaw disturbances) can be treated in a similar fashion
to longitudinal stability. Of concern are the relative positions of the aerodynamic centre (or
neutral point) and the CG in terms of yawing moments. In this case it is mainly the fin which
provides most of the stabilising contribution, though the fuselage can also assist if dorsal and/or
ventral extensions are used (see Fig 3.1). Once again, for static yaw stability, the yaw neutral
point has to lie behind the CG. The bigger the fin and the bigger the moment arm then the more
stable will be the aircraft (in terms of yaw response). There are many disadvantages, however,
including reduced manoeuvrability, increased drag and weight, etc. As with tailplane sizing, fin
sizing therefore involves a lengthy optimisation exercise.

Fig 3.1 Directional (yawing) static stability

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There are other contributory factors to directional stability, e.g. wing sweepback (Fig 3.2).
Dorsal fin extensions may also be added, though these are usually fitted to increase the fin
stalling angle and improve performance at high sideslip angles (Fig 3.3).

Fig 3.2 Wing sweepback enhancement of directional static stability

Fig 3.3 Dorsal fin extensions

3.2 Rolling Stability
If the aircraft rolls slightly from its level-wing position, then the lift force will have a sideways
(or sideslip) component. This sideslip component can be used to provide the aircraft with rolling
stability by any combination of three traditional wing design methods (Fig 3.4):

Wing dihedral

High wing position

Wing sweepback

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 Fig 3.4a Rolling static stability dihedral effect

Figs 3.4b & 3.4c Rolling static stability high wing and sweepback effects
Each produces a restoring moment due to the sideslip of the aircraft as it banks after a roll
disturbance. In each case, a higher lift force is produced on the lower wing.
Excessive rolling stability can often lead to undesirable dynamic stability problems due to roll
and yaw cross-couplings (e.g. the Dutch Roll motion discussed below). Swept-wing and high-
wing aircraft are therefore often given negative dihedral (or anhedral) to counter these problems.

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4. Speed Stability
The Performance set of notes will explain that there is a particular airspeed at which the total
aircraft drag is at a minimum value (see Fig 4.1). When the aircraft is flown slower than its
minimum drag speed, then any speed decrease will result in an increase in drag and a consequent
deceleration. This will slow the airspeed even more, produce another increase in drag and so on.
This undesirable flight characteristic is known as speed instability. For it to be avoided, the
aircraft must operate to the right of the minimum drag speed. Here, a reduction in airspeed
produces a drop in drag and a consequent acceleration back up to its equilibrium speed. The
aircraft is then said to possess speed stability. This is a simplistic account and neglects changes
in the propulsion systems thrust output associated with airspeed changes. Generally speaking,
turbojet aircraft are more prone to speed instability problems than piston-prop aircraft.

Fig 4.1 Speed stability effects

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5. Longitudinal Dynamic Stability
Dynamic stability is concerned with the total time history of the motions resulting from a
disturbance. For a statically stable condition, dynamic stability requires that the restoring
motions or oscillations are convergent (i.e. damped out). Dynamic instability will arise if the
oscillations diverge. Two general categories have to be considered - longitudinal and lateral.
This particular section will deal with longitudinal dynamic stability considerations.
Fig 5.1 represents three different possibilities for aircraft motions resulting from a pitching
disturbance.

(a) no overshoot - heavily damped (dead-beat)

(b) oscillations die away - slightly damped

(c) oscillations divergent

Fig 5.1 Longitudinal dynamic stability possibilities

Cases (a) and (b) are dynamically stable while case (c) is an example of dynamic instability. An
additional case is possible, whereby the aircraft exhibits simple harmonic motion; this is a
neutral dynamic stability case, with the oscillations being neither convergent nor divergent. Note
that the aircraft is statically stable in each case, since the initial response is back towards
equilibrium.
There are two general cases to consider regarding longitudinal dynamic stability: (i) the short
period pitching oscillation, and (ii) the phugoid.
5.1 Short Period Pitching Oscillation
Most aircraft are designed to exhibit longitudinal dynamic stability, somewhere between the first
two cases above. In most instances a slight overshoot takes place, though heavily damped and

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typically lasting no more than about two oscillations. This is known as the short period pitching
oscillation (SPPO).

Fig 5.2 Short period pitching oscillation

5.2 Phugoid
This is an oscillatory motion involving changes in aircraft speed and altitude. For an initial
disturbance in terms of either speed or height, there will effectively be a resultant interchange of
aircraft potential and kinetic energy. The motion is very lightly damped by the drag force, which
changes with the aircraft speed. The motion tends to be of a very low frequency, typically taking
about a minute to complete a cycle. This long period of oscillation usually presents few
problems to either the pilot or control system designer. If left unchecked, however, peak-to-peak
height changes of around 300m are possible - potentially dangerous during landing!

Fig 5.3 Phugoid motion

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6. Lateral Dynamic Stability
The asymmetrical lateral motion is made up three factors: sideslip, yaw and roll. A complicated
series of motions take place simultaneously, though each may be treated independently to a
reasonable degree of accuracy.
6.1 Roll Damping
Any rolling motion will be damped, mainly by the wings. The magnitude of the roll damping
moment depends on the rate of roll and not the roll angle itself and the resultant motion is non-
oscillatory in nature. Most aircraft are heavily roll damped, though the effect is significantly
reduced for low aspect ratio aircraft due to the lower moment arm lengths involved, e.g.
Concorde.

Fig 6.1 Roll damping

6.2 Spiral Mode
This is a fairly complicated motion, involving a mixture of side force and moments in both the
rolling and yawing senses. An initial sideslip will produce yawing and rolling motions, mainly
due to the forces acting on the fin. If the resultant rolling motion is dynamically unstable then
the sideslip will increase further, resulting in the aircraft slowly diverging into a spiral path. This
phenomenon is commonly known as spiral divergence. As with roll damping, it is a non-
oscillatory motion. Normally the motion is fairly slow and can be easily controlled by increasing
the wing dihedral. This, however, affects other oscillatory motions, so a small degree of spiral
instability is often tolerated.

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 Fig 6.2 Spiral divergence
6.3 Dutch Roll
This oscillatory motion consists mainly of a combination of roll and yaw - supposedly
resembling the staggering behaviour of a drunken Dutch sailor, hence the name. The effects are
quite unpleasant for the aircraft's occupants, so is not tolerated in the majority of aircraft designs.
This usually results in a trade-off with the spiral divergence behaviour discussed above,
particularly regarding the wing dihedral angle of the design. Typically, the motion has a period
of 5 seconds or so. It tends to be more of a problem for swept-wing aircraft than straight-wing
aircraft.

Fig 6.3 Dutch roll

6.4 Spin
If one wing tip stalls before the other, then a large rolling moment will be set up (due to the loss
of lift at the stalled wing tip). This will be accompanied by a yawing moment so that the aircraft
can lock in to a spin. The overall motion is again complicated, being a mixture of roll, sideslip
and yaw. The spin can be steep or flat in nature, with the flat spin being particularly hazardous
and difficult to recover from.

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Once established, correction can sometimes be very difficult to achieve. As in stall recovery, it
requires the separated flow from the stalled wing to be reattached. This is usually done by

applying the rudder to remove the yaw;

establishing a steady dive; and

pulling out through use of the elevators.

Fig 6.4 Steep and flat spin

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