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Wear
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art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Little attention has been paid to the role of stacking fault energy (SFE) in the two-body abrasive wear of
Received 18 April 2015 austenitic steels. Using a pin-abrasion test with 220 grit garnet paper as the counterbody, three austenitic
Received in revised form steels of different SFEs were compared. The steels were: (i) FeMnAlC, (ii) Hadeld steel, and (iii) AISI
18 November 2015
316 L steel. Following a pre-conditioning procedure, the normal loads on the 3 mm diameter test pins
Accepted 22 November 2015
were 5 N, 10 N and 15 N, and the sliding speed along a spiral track of total length 430 m was 0.158 m/s.
Available online 12 December 2015
Data showed that the FeMnAlC steel had a higher wear resistance than AISI 316 L steel but lower wear
Keywords: resistance than the Hadeld steel. However, at the highest test load, all three steels had similar wear
FeMnAlC steel resistance. The steel with the lowest SFE had the highest abrasive wear resistance and the steel with the
Abrasive wear
highest SFE had the lowest abrasive wear resistance. The main wear mechanisms were microcutting and
Hadeld steel
microploughing. There was a transition from microploughing to microcutting as the normal load was
AISI 316 L steel
Stacking Fault Energy increased.
& 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2015.11.019
0043-1648/& 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
62 O.A. Zambrano et al. / Wear 348-349 (2016) 6168
Fig. 1. Microstructures of (a) FeMnAlC steel, (b) Hadeld steel and (c) AISI 316L steel.
Fig. 2. Wear resistance for various loads as a function of sliding distance for (a) Hadeld, (b) AISI 316L and (c) FeMnAlC steel.
amount of manganese and aluminium, which could be regarded as has a direct incidence in the abrasive wear resistance of austenitic
an improvement. steels. However, the validity of this hypothesis requires further
It is important to stand out, that according to the stacking fault investigations.
energy (SFE) of the steels (Table 1), a general behaviour could be
observed; high SFE of the austenitic steel leads to lower the wear 3.3. Wear mechanisms
resistance. This relation between the SFE and wear abrasion
resistance has not been reported for FeMnAlC steels, and even The main wear mechanisms observed for all steels in all con-
fewer reports in steels tested in abrasion conditions are available. ditions tested were microcutting and wedge formation due to
The results here presented seem to obey the relation proposed by microploughing. In Fig. 4(a), Fig. 5(a) and Fig. 6(a), the wear sur-
Blau (1979) [22] and Feller et al (1989) [23] in CuAl alloys in faces showed more proportion of scratches with plastic deforma-
sliding conditions and are also consistent with the role of the SFE tion at the edges (microploughing mechanism) than scratches
in other systems like: CoNi [24] and NiCo [25]. Although other without plastic deformation (microcutting mechanism) [27], in
authors have found that the wear rate increase with decreasing Fig. 4(c), Fig. 5(c) and Fig. 6(c) the opposite happens and in
the SFE in CuAl alloys [26], they explain that other factors like Fig. 4(b), Fig. 5(b) and Fig. 6(b) no predominant wear mechanism
compressive residual stress are involved. The results present here, was found. In general, it can be observed that with the increase of
show that the SFE is an important metallurgical parameter that normal load (mean contact pressure) higher proportion of
64 O.A. Zambrano et al. / Wear 348-349 (2016) 6168
microcutting mechanism in all steels occurs and lower normal them with the wear mechanisms. The qualitative results are show
loads produces lower proportion of the microcutting mechanism in the Fig. 7, Fig. 8 and Fig. 9 and quantitative results are presented
and higher proportion of microploughing mechanism. This is in the Fig. 10.
because of lower loads favoured a low degree of abrasive pene- These results (the length deviations vary from 75 to 780, but
tration on the surface and higher loads favoured a high degree of were not put in the graphic for the easy reading) shows a clear
penetration. tendency of the dependence between the load applied and the
The transition of the wear mechanism presented in this study is length of the microchips (wear debris) for all steels. In this sense,
consistent with the results of Kitsunai et al (1990) [28], who found with the increase of load there is an increase in the length of the
a wear mechanism transition from ploughing to wedge-formation microchips, which it is attributed to the transition from micro-
and to cutting with the increase in the normal load in a pin-on- ploughing to microcutting mechanism (see Section 3.3). In addi-
disk test for a AISI 304 steel. tion, it can be observed for example, that a lower volume is
According to the work of Childs (1988) [29], as harder the steel, removed (inferred indirectly for the length and thickness of the
lower is the critical angle required for cutting. However, the same microchips) from the Hadeld steel than the AISI 316L steel. This is
author also remarks the importance of the work hardening in this due to the work hardening, which makes more difcult the chip
phenomenon as follows; increase the strain hardening rate cutting/formation (difculty to obtain large microchips) [29], and
increase the threshold for cutting and reduced the fraction of the this phenomena is intimately related to the SFE of the steel; higher
material removed in the cutting regime. This means that a higher work hardening for the Hadeld steel (low SFE) produced shorter
work hardening of the steel (low SFE) more difcult will be to values for the length of the microchips when compared with the
remove material by microcutting in comparison with a lower ones of the AISI 316L steel (high SFE).
strain hardening steel (high SFE). This fact helps to clarify the role On the other hand, it is concluded that there is no clear rela-
of the SFE in the wear micromechanism and the wear resistance of tionship between load tested and the thickness of the microchips
the current steels. for all steels. Despite the relationship between the abrasive sizes,
the microchips morphology and the groove width have been stu-
died [27,30,31], the correlation between load tested and the length
3.4. Wear debris
and thickness of the microchips have not been reported in the
The abrasive papers were examined by SEM in order to identify literature.
the types of wear debris (microchips) generated and to correlate
3.5. Hardness test
Fig. 4. Scanning electron microscopy images of the wear debris of FeMnAlC steel tested at: (a) 5 N, (b) 10 N and (c) 15 N.
O.A. Zambrano et al. / Wear 348-349 (2016) 6168 65
Fig. 5. Scanning electron microscopy images of the wear surfaces of Hadeld steel tested at: (a) 5 N, (b) 10 N and (c) 15 N.
Fig. 6. Scanning electron microscopy images of the wear debris of AISI 316L steel tested at: (a) 5 N, (b) 10 N and (c) 15 N.
Additionally, from Fig. 11 and Table 2, it is clear that; i) the hardness registered, while at higher loads, the hardened layers are
Hadeld steel presented the lowest initial and nal hardness, as removed by the microcutting mechanism therefore the nal
well as the lowest strain hardening of the matrix and ii) the AISI hardness is obtained mainly over the fresh surface without the
316L steel presented the highest nal hardness, as well as the hardened layer.
highest strain hardening of the matrix. However, these hardness These hypotheses need further investigations, and it is
evolution results do not explain satisfactorily the better wear recommended to control carefully the hardness measurement
resistance of the Hadeld steel. during the test and particularly during the running-in period in
All samples tested presented a matrix hardening after the wear future works.
process in all normal loads, the amount of strain hardening mea-
sured decreased with the increase in the normal load (mean
contact pressure). This behaviour is related to predominant
4. Disussion
microploughing mechanism at lower loads (see Section 3.3), which
is responsible for the increment in strain hardening of the matrix
The superior abrasive wear resistance was obtained for the
due to ample plastic deformation eld.
Hadeld steel, followed by the FeMnAlC steel and AISI 316L
The models proposed by Lim et al (1987) [33], Ashby et al
stainless steel (see Section 3.2). In this sense, neither the initial
(1991) [34] and KuhlmannWilsdorf (1985) [35] have been
hardness (Fig. 11) nor the total strain hardening of the matrix
developed to study the frictional heating in sliding contact and,
(Table 2) of the austenitic steels seems to play per se a decisive role
the authors are in agreement that the heat generated increase
on the abrasion wear resistance under the studied conditions.
directly with the normal load, the friction coefcient and the
sliding velocity and inversely with the nominal contact area. Rather, it was found that the stacking fault energy could be
In this case, with the increases of the normal load there is also directly related to the abrasion wear. This fact is due to the strain
an increase of the temperature in the interface which produce hardening rate rather than the total strain hardening of the matrix
high temperature gradients which in turn produce softening and i.e. how quick the surface creates twins, or 0 -martensite laths
shear failure of the near-surface layer [36]. According to the due to the plastic deformation of the surface and retard the plastic
aforementioned facts, two possible explanations arise to explain deformation by the accumulation of dislocations in these obstacles
the hardness results; (i) as the normal load increases (mean con- [7]. In this sense, it is suggested that the strain hardening rate
tact pressure), frictional heat generated at the contact surface also could be a determinant factor on the abrasive wear behaviour of
increases, and these conditions produce a dynamic equilibrium austenitic steels. However, this hypothesis requires further inves-
between the dislocations generated and the dynamic recovery tigations and it is recommended the use of abrasives of lower
(decreasing the dislocations density) which in turn decreases the hardness than the ones used in this investigation. This is recom-
strain hardening, as compared with the matrices tested at lower mended, to induce a severe to mild wear transition and be able to
loads and/or (ii) at lower loads, the strain hardened layer remains study the running-in period of wear, which could clarify the role of
adherent to the surface (microploughing) and the presence of the SFE and hardness evolution on the worn surface during the
strain hardened layers are responsible for the high values of nal running-in.
66 O.A. Zambrano et al. / Wear 348-349 (2016) 6168
Fig. 7. Scanning electron microscopy images of the wear debris of FeMnAlC steel tested at: (a) 5 N, (b) 10 N and (c) 15 N.
Fig. 8. Scanning electron microscopy images of the wear debris of Hadeld steel tested at: (a) 5 N, (b) 10 N and (c) 15 N.
Fig. 9. Scanning electron microscopy images of the wear debris of AISI 316L steel tested at: (a) 5 N, (b) 10 N and (c) 15 N.
Fig. 11. Relationship micro-hardness before and after the wear test for each load
condition of the Hadeld steel, FeMnAlC steel and AISI 316L steel.
Fig. 10. Length (L) and thickness (T) of the microchips for Hadeld, FeMnAlC and
AISI 316L steels as a function of each load tested.
wear debris of the Hadeld steel. That is, the wear groves in the AISI
The wear debris (Fig. 10) could help to elucidate the role of the 316L steel were deeper than the groves of the Hadeld steel. It is
SFE on the wear behaviour; the thickness and length of debris know that the work hardening inuences the width of the wear
microchips for the AISI 316L steel were thicker and longer than the groove i.e. the groove width decrease with increasing work
O.A. Zambrano et al. / Wear 348-349 (2016) 6168 67
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