Engineering Structures xxx (2016) xxxxxx

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Engineering Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/engstruct

Constitutive model for full-range elasto-plastic behavior of structural

steels with yield plateau: Formulation and implementation
Fangxin Hu, Gang Shi , Yongjiu Shi
Key Laboratory of Civil Engineering Safety and Durability of China Education Ministry, Department of Civil Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, PR China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Performance-based engineering methodologies allow for the design of more reliable seismic resistant
Received 15 October 2015 structures. Nonetheless, to implement this technique, an accurate constitutive model to predict the
Revised 16 February 2016 elasto-plastic behavior of structural steel components or systems under various loadings is needed to
Accepted 22 February 2016
properly evaluate their strength, deformation and energy absorption capacities in case of severe earth-
Available online xxxx
quakes. Such a model should also be relatively simple to use for practical purposes in engineering.
With these objectives in mind, a new constitutive model is formulated to describe the elasto-plastic
Keywords:
behavior of structural steels with yield plateau. This model uses nonlinear kinematic hardening to trace
Constitutive model
Plastic behavior
well the significant Bauschinger effect in full-range cyclic loadings, and couples nonlinear isotropic hard-
Structural steel ening with a memory surface in the plastic strain space to account for the stabilization phenomena of
Yield plateau cyclic softening and hardening. An impermanent bounding surface in the stress space is employed to cor-
Formulation rectly describe the yield plateau response. The consistency condition is investigated in detail, which
Implementation results in implications that will greatly facilitate the calibration of material dependent parameters. The
implementation technique is also presented for three-dimensional and two-dimensional problems
respectively. Using the resulting integration algorithms, the proposed constitutive model is successfully
incorporated into ABAQUS/Standard by the UMAT subroutine feature.
2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction structural components, assemblages and systems is required in

1.1. Background and motivation
A review of the lessons learned from severe earthquakes that
have occurred [14] has led to the conclusion that civil engineering
structures are exposed to an increasing seismic risk in urban areas
and their safety are always challenged due to the intrinsic extreme
uncertainties of earthquakes. One of the most effective efforts to
reverse this situation in future severe earthquakes is through the
development of performance-based seismic design as a more reli-
able method to resist the effects of earthquakes [5,6]. Implementa-
tion of such a design concept results in the well-known multi-level
seismic design criteria to achieve different performance levels sub-
jected to different earthquake ground motions, and also gives rise to
the capacity design rules allowing specially designed regions within
a structure to dissipate energy under earthquake loading, in current
seismic standards and code provisions [710]. To facilitate a rea-
sonable performance-based design, the detailed and accurate
knowledge of deformation and energy absorption capacities of
Corresponding author.
addition to the strength capacity. While experimental methods
can be used to determine their seismic performance, numerical
methods making use of more and more advanced computational
capability for the analysis of structures are becoming more and
more popular, especially taking into account the high cost of
large-scale tests of structural systems. Regarding the numerical
analysis, both the geometrical nonlinearity and material nonlinear-
ity should be well simulated to improve its accuracy. The geomet-
rical nonlinearity has already been well incorporated in many
commercial general-purpose finite-element programs; however,
the material nonlinearity is not so easily captured, especially under
repeated or cyclic loading conditions. Its well recognized that accu-
rate description of the microscopic material behavior involving cyc-
lic plasticity is essential to predict the macroscopic structural
behavior [11,12], and is also the basis before proposing appropriate
damage models to characterize the material failure under uncertain
loadings [1316].
Constitutive models for cyclic plasticity of structural steels have
developed remarkably in the past decades, and a comprehensive
review of the field can be found in the literature of Chaboche
[17,18] and Ohno [19]. In the classical single-surface theories of
plasticity, it is necessary to give a yield function, a flow rule that

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2016.02.037
0141-0296/ 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article in press as: Hu F et al. Constitutive model for full-range elasto-plastic behavior of structural steels with yield plateau: Formulation
and implementation. Eng Struct (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2016.02.037
2 F. Hu et al. / Engineering Structures xxx (2016) xxxxxx
defines the evolution law of plastic strain and a hardening rule that
specifies the post-yielding behavior [20]. The von Mises yield crite-
rion and associated flow rule are commonly accepted for structural
steels, while isotropic hardening and/or kinematic hardening can
be assumed, which indicate the change in size and translation of
the yield surface, respectively. The simplest kinematic hardening
is the linear one proposed by Prager [21] and Ziegler [22], which
was then generalized to a mixed hardening rule by Hodge [23],
but they are usually inaccurate in predicting the actual hardening
behavior. Armstrong and Frederick [24] developed a nonlinear
kinematic hardening rule, which was then greatly improved by
Chaboche and Rousselier [25,26] in that multiple kinematic hard-
ening components evolve independently according to the Arm-
strongFrederick rule. This evolution law has been modified
again to better describe the ratchetting effects due to its large over-
estimations [27,28]. The isotropic hardening can be linear or non-
linear too, with respect to the equivalent plastic strain, but based
on the extensive experimental results it is generally assumed in
a nonlinear form and to saturate eventually, as proposed by Zaverl
and Lee [29] and used by Chaboche [30]. Moreover, the saturation
of isotropic hardening has been found to depend on the plastic
strain amplitude. Thus, Chaboche et al. [31] introduced the concept
of memory surface in plastic strain space; Ohno [32] then general-
ized it to measure the cyclic loading amplitude and applied it suc-
cessfully in cyclic plasticity models [33]. To describe the cyclic
behavior in the yield plateau of mild steels, Rodzik [34] extended
the integral description of the back stress evolution model and pro-
posed a new concept of the yield plateau region; Yoshida [35] pro-
posed a model to capture the phenomena of sharp yield point and
the subsequent abrupt yield drop; Ucak and Tsopelas [36,37]
assumed a threshold controlled by both the equivalent plastic
strain and the loading amplitude which is measured by the mem-
ory surface, to distinguish between the plateau and hardening
regions. The memory surface can also be defined in the stress
space, such as by Yoshida and Uemori [38] to better describe the
work hardening stagnation effect appearing in the context of sheet
metal forming [39]. Jia and Kuwamura [40] then modified the orig-
inal YoshidaUemori model to simulate behavior of structural
steels with yield plateau at large cyclic plastic strain.
Another modeling approach is the multisurface model proposed
independently by Mrz [41] and Iwan [42] based on the underlying
idea of the multilayer model by Besseling [43]. The multisurface
model utilizes a family of surfaces in stress space to trace the non-
linear plasticity. Due to its complexity in implementation and large
storage requirement in numerical analysis, the popular two-
surface models were proposed successively by Dafalias and Popov
[44,45], Krieg [46] and Tseng and Lee [47], which employ only two
surfaces in stress space, i.e., a bounding surface [4850] (or limit
surface) enclosing a yield surface (or loading surface). The plastic
modulus is then defined as a function of the distance between
the surfaces at the loading point. Petersson and Popov [51,52]
extended the DafaliasPopov model by using a number of interme-
diate surfaces between the yield and bounding surfaces to remedy
the spurious prediction if unloading and reloading are involved
without substantial plastic flow, and the cyclic softening, cyclic
hardening and mean-relaxation phenomena exhibited by struc-
tural steels can be represented [53] as well as the cyclic behavior
of structural members [54]. Minagawa et al. [5557] modified
the PeterssonPopov model further by introducing the accumu-
lated effective plastic strain and the effective plastic strain incre-
ment as the state variables. To trace the cyclic behavior within
the yield plateau, Shen et al. [5860] developed another modified
uniaxial two-surface model and generalized it to a multiaxial one
[6163]; Mahan et al. [64] developed a conceptually different
model where a fixed nonhardening bounding surface is assumed
to capture the plateau response. Goto et al. [65] refined the
Please cite this article in press as: Hu F et al. Constitutive model for full-range elasto-plastic behavior of structural steels with yield plateau: Formulation
and implementation. Eng Struct (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2016.02.037
DafaliasPopov model to formulate a three-surface model, which
is characterized by a discontinuity surface inserted between the
yield and bounding surfaces, thus representing the transition
behavior from the yield plateau to strain hardening region. The
three-surface model was later modified also by Goto et al. [66]
who introduced a new internal variable to consider the behavior
under large plastic strain. In addition, much more complicated
behavior including the non-proportional and distortional cyclic
hardening has been extensively investigated, such as by Ortiz
and Popov [67], McDowell [68,69], Chang and Lee [70,71] and Jiang
[72]. Since the fiber-model approach for nonlinear analysis of slen-
der beams and columns is more and more popular, emphasis has
been also given to the formulation of one-dimensional uniaxial
models, such as those proposed by Cofie and Krawinkler [73], San-
thanam [74], Hays [75], Mahan et al. [64] and Wang et al. [7678].
Although there are still other concepts of constitutive model
such as the endochronic theory initially developed by Valanis
[79,80] and extensively studied by other researchers [81,82], the
classical theory of yield surface based on the superposition of kine-
matic hardening and isotropic hardening is still popular for model-
ing material plasticity in structural analysis due to its relatively
simple implementation. Thus, it has been incorporated into most
commercial finite-element programs, e.g. the so-called Chaboche
model in ABAQUS [83]. However, Huang and Mahin [84] have illus-
trated that although the nonlinearity can be described to some
extent, a significant drawback of the Chaboche model is, the cali-
bration may result in widely different sets of kinematic hardening
parameters depending upon the strain range of interest. The
response in the yield plateau of mild structural steels cannot be
obtained either. As for the material parameters, most constitutive
models introduced above are not easy to calibrate, and substantial
cyclic coupon tests are generally required especially for those mul-
tisurface models, e.g., three types of cyclic loading are necessary to
calibrate 18 parameters in the two-surface model by Shen et al.
[63], or the parameters even have to be determined using the test
results of structural members whose cyclic behavior is essentially
the one to predict in the three-surface model by Goto et al. [65].
Therefore, from the view point of numerical analysis in engineering
design, if we intend to predict the full-range elasto-plastic behav-
ior and stressstrain distributions in steel structures typically
under severe earthquakes, a constitutive model that can properly
describe the yield plateau phenomena, cyclic hardening and soft-
ening behavior and is relatively simple for a straightforward cali-
bration of material dependent parameters, is in urgent need.
1.2. Scope
A constitutive model in the framework of classical theory using
a yield surface and isotropic and kinematic hardening to describe
the nonlinear behavior is explored in this paper. Cyclic softening
and hardening and the Bauschinger effect can be described by a
carefully devised combination of isotropic and kinematic harden-
ing rules, and a memory surface with a bounding surface is used
to correctly represent the plateau behavior and hardening stabi-
lization. It must be mentioned that, several implications for the
material dependent parameters can be derived from the formula-
tion, which will greatly facilitate the calibration. The nonpropor-
tional loading effects on cyclic hardening is neglected in this
work to further simplify the calibration, which is conceived to be
reasonable in practical use for structural analysis.
In this view, this paper is organized as follows: Initially, Sec-
tion 1 introduces the background, motivation and scope of this
study, whilst the critical observations and assumptions relative
to the material cyclic behavior of structural steels with yield pla-
teau are summarized in Section 2. Successively, the complete
mathematical formulation of the proposed constitutive model is
 F. Hu et al. / Engineering Structures xxx (2016) xxxxxx
illustrated in Section 3. Furthermore, Section 4 presents the imple-
mentation algorithm of the proposed model in both three-
dimensional and two-dimensional numerical problems by employ-
ing the UMAT subroutine feature provided in ABAQUS/Standard
[83]. Finally, in Section 5, main conclusions are drawn. The detailed
calibration procedure of the proposed constitutive model is pre-
sented in a companion paper as well as its validation and applica-
tion at the level of materials, members, connections and structures.
2. Observations on material behavior
During monotonic loading, the uniaxial behavior of structural
steels with yield plateau is essentially linear elastic from its virgin
state up to the sharp point of yield followed by an abrupt yield
drop and the yield plateau. The plastic deformation along the yield
plateau is caused by the Lders band propagation [35,85]. From a
macroscopic point of view, such a behavior can be treated as per-
fectly plastic, and the length of the yield plateau can be quantified
by the plastic strain at the end of the plateau, as schematically
illustrated in Fig. 1. At the end of yield plateau, the material usually
starts hardening nonlinearly up to the point corresponding to the
ultimate stress when necking initiates in a typical tension coupon
test. After ultimate stress is reached, the true stressstrain rela-
tionship is almost linear, which indicates the hardening modulus
is approximately a constant [86,87].
During cyclic loading, the material behavior of structural steels
with yield plateau is much more complex than monotonic loading
and is closely related to the strain amplitude of cycling. Generally,
cyclic loops converge to a stabilized saturation dependent only on
the loading amplitudes. The curve joining the tips of the stabilized
cycles as shown in Fig. 2(a) is known as the cyclic backbone curve,
which is an important ingredient in uniaxial constitutive models
[88,89]. There also exists one cyclic strain amplitude
epst : for cyclic
amplitudes not greater than
epst , the stabilized stress amplitude will
not exceed virgin yield stress, which characterizes cyclic softening
behavior; otherwise the observed behavior will be cyclic hardening
and the stabilized stress amplitude will exceed virgin yield stress
[36,53], as schematically illustrated in Fig. 2(b) and (c). The shape
of cyclic curves shows significant Bauschinger effect, even for very
small strain amplitude [90,91]. This suggests a contraction of elas-
tic range under small strain amplitude and then an expansion
under large strain amplitude, which is also verified by the experi-
mental studies [9294]. In addition, under constant strain ampli-
tude cycling, the stabilization of softening or hardening behavior
accompanied by the mean-stress relaxation will be observed
[40,53], as shown in Fig. 2(d). Once the strain exceeds current con-
stant amplitude, the stabilized cycle then exhibits softening or
hardening again.
Based on above observations, a reasonably accurate constitutive
model for full-range elasto-plasticity of structural steels with yield
True stress u
linear
nonlinear
y 3.1.2. Elastic behavior
st u material parameters such as the bulk modulus K and the shear
True strain
plateau hardening
region region
Fig. 1. Monotonic behavior of structural steels with yield plateau.
Please cite this article in press as: Hu F et al. Constitutive model for full-range elasto-plastic behavior of structural steels with yield plateau: Formulation
and implementation. Eng Struct (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2016.02.037
3
plateau must represent the monotonic, small and large strain
amplitude cyclic behavior, and must also be capable of predicting
the cyclic softening or hardening stabilization and mean-stress
relaxation under random cyclic loading. Therefore, several assump-
tions can be made in order to formulate such a model:
(1) There exists a plateau region followed by a hardening region
for both monotonic and cyclic loading conditions, and the
transition from the plateau region to the hardening region
depends on both loading amplitude and the accumulated
plastic strain. Such an assumption has also been employed
by Ucak and Tsopelas [36].
(2) Within the plateau region, only cyclic softening behavior can
take place which characterizes the contraction of elastic
range.
(3) Within the hardening region, only cyclic hardening behavior
can take place which characterizes the expansion of elastic
range.
(4) No matter in which region, the material is capable of mem-
orizing its current loading amplitude and then determines
the status of cyclic softening or hardening behavior. The
change of elastic range or radius of yield surface takes place
only if the plastic strain state evolves outside current mem-
ory. With this rule the stress can stabilize under cyclic load-
ings after several constant amplitudes.
3. Mathematical formulation
According to the observations and assumptions in Section 2, a
constitutive model for full-range cyclic behavior of structural steels
with yield plateau is proposed here based on the classical theory of
rate-independent plasticity. It includes general equations to define
the yield surface and flow rule in the stress space, and defines the
memory surface in the plastic strain space to memorize the plateau
region and loading history. Especially, the kinematic hardening and
isotropic hardening equations in plateau and hardening regions are
carefully devised to express those characteristics in cyclic plasticity
with less material parameters and more consistent internal
variables.
3.1. General equations
Generally, to describe the metal elasto-plasticity, it is necessary
to decomposite the total strain and then defines the elastic and
plastic behavior independently.
3.1.1. Strain rate decomposition
In the development of stressstrain relationship of the incre-
mental type, time and temperature effects are ignored herein and
the total strain rate tensor is assumed to be the sum of the elastic
and plastic strain rate components as
e_ e_ e e_ p 1
where bold face letters indicate second-order tensors.
The elastic behavior is modeled as linear isotropic and the elas-
tic strain rate is defined by the incremental Hookes law with two
modulus G, i.e.
r_ ce : e_ e 2
e
where c represents the fourth-order elasticity tensor


1
ce K1  1 2G i  1  1 3
3
4 F. Hu et al. / Engineering Structures xxx (2016) xxxxxx

(a) True stress (b) True stress

Cyclic
backbone curve
Stabilized
cycle

st
p p
True strain st True strain

Plateau region

(c) True stress (d) True stress

Hardening st
p
stp True strain True strain
region Mean-stress at
each half cycle
Hardening
Stabilized cycle
Plateau region stabilization

Fig. 2. Cyclic behavior of structural steels with yield plateau: (a) steady-state response; (b) softening under small amplitudes; (c) hardening under large amplitudes and (d)
hardening stabilization and mean-stress relaxation under constant amplitudes.

where 1 is the second-order identity tenor, and i is the fourth-order Note that substituting Eq. (8) into Eq. (10) results in
e_ p k.
_
symmetric identity tensor. They can be expressed as
1 dij ei  ej 4 3.2. Memorization effects

1  As illustrated in Section 2, a memory surface is assumed in the

i dik djl dil djk ei  ej  ek  el 5 plastic strain space to determine the transition from the plateau
2
region to the hardening region, and also to determine the status
where dij is Kronecker delta and ei is unit vector. of isotropic hardening. Such a memory surface has been proposed
by Chaboche et al. [31] and then generalized by Ohno [32] as
3.1.3. Plastic behavior
r
The plastic behavior is modeled as hydrostatic pressure inde- 2 p
pendent. The generally accepted von Mises yield criterion is g e  n : ep  n  r 0 11
3
adopted to define the yield surface
r where n and r is the center and radius of memory surface respec-
3

R
f r s  a : s  a  R 0 6 tively, whose evolution are defined as
2  
2
where r
is the effective von Mises stress and R is the radius of yield n_ 1  cHg m : e_ p m 12
surface; a is the back stress tensor and s is deviatoric stress tensor 3
which is defined as
r_ cHghn : mi
e_ p 13
1
s r  trr1 7
3 where c is a scalar material parameter which determines the rate of
where tr indicates the trace operator and r is the stress tensor. expansion of the memory surface; Hg is Heaviside function, i.e.
Associated flow rule is assumed for which the plastic strain rate Hg 1 if g = 0 and Hg 0 if g < 0; h i denotes the Macaulay
tensor can be expressed as brackets, i.e. hai a if a > 0 and hai 0 if a < 0; m is the direction
p
normal to the memory surface with the norm kmk 3=2
@f 3
e_ p k_ nk_ 8 ep  n
@r 2 m 14
r
where k_ is a positive scalar determined using the consistency con-
dition df 0, and n is the flow direction normal to the yield surface It is clear that the material parameter c controls the relative rate
of the isotropic (increase of radius defined by Eq. (13)) and
sa kinematic components (translation defined by Eq. (12)) in the
n 9
r
evolution of memory surface, and it is usually taken as
Note that for the sake of implementation simplicity, n is not a unit 0 < c 6 1=2 [32].
p
vector and its norm is knk 2=3. To distinguish between the plateau and hardening region, the
The equivalent plastic strain rate is defined as following criterion proposed by Ucak and Tsopelas [36] is assumed
r if r 6
epst or
ep 6 epst ! plateau region
2 p p 15

e_ p e_ : e_ 10 if r >
epst and
ep > epst ! hardening region
3

Please cite this article in press as: Hu F et al. Constitutive model for full-range elasto-plastic behavior of structural steels with yield plateau: Formulation
and implementation. Eng Struct (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2016.02.037
 F. Hu et al. / Engineering Structures xxx (2016) xxxxxx 5

where epst is the plastic strain at the end of yield plateau in mono-
tonic stressstrain curve (see Fig. 1),
epst is a threshold amplitude
of plastic strain (see Fig. 2(b) and (c)) and they are both material
dependent parameters. This criterion ensures that the material will
not experience any cyclic hardening for fully reversed loading
amplitudes smaller than
epst ; while for amplitudes larger than
epst ,
the cyclic hardening will not take place until the accumulated plas-
tic strain reaches epst .
3.3. Plateau region
According to Mahan et al. [64] and Ucak and Tsopelas [36], in
the plateau region a bounding surface can be incorporated into
the deviatoric stress space which is identical to the yield surface
of the virgin material but is not allowed to translate or change size,
as shown in Fig. 3(a). This bounding surface is defined as
r stress no longer evolves as in Eq. (20). Now, the back stress in Eq.
3
l s : s  ry 0
2
where ry is the initial yield stress of the virgin material. Such a
bounding surface will ensure the equivalent stress in the plateau
region cannot exceed ry , which is consistent with the observations
in Section 2. Contraction of the yield surface is then described with
the following nonlinear isotropic softening equation
3.3.1. Initial loading
During the monotonic plastic loading on yield plateau, the
bounding surface is treated as the loading surface and consistency
is guaranteed by assuming the outward normal direction of yield
surface in Eq. (6) and the bounding surface in Eq. (16) to be iden-
tical [36], i.e. @f =@ r @l=@ r, which yields the following evolution
of back stress on the yield plateau


R
a 1 s 20
ry
It is easy to recognize that during the initial plastic loading,
although the yield surface contracts and translates according to
Eqs. (19) and (20), it is always in contact with the bounding surface
at the loading point.
3.3.2. Unloading and reloading
Once unloadingreloading occurs on the yield plateau, the back
16 (20) is assumed to be decomposed into several short-range compo-
nents as proposed by Chaboche and Rousselier [25,26], and for
each component, the evolution law initially proposed by Arm-
strong and Frederick [24] is used to describe the nonlinear kine-
matic hardening in the form
2
a_ sj C sj e_ p  csj asj
e_ p 21
3

R_ b ry Q s  R
e_ p where C sj and csj are short-range material dependent parameters. For
s
17
the simulation in engineering application, it is generally recognized
s
where b and Q s are both short-range material parameters repre- that superposition of two short-range back stresses is sufficient to
senting the rate of softening and the saturated change produce acceptable results in describing the cyclic behavior at small
(ry < Q s < 0 of the size of yield surface, respectively. With initial plastic strain, i.e.
values of R and
ep equal to ry and zero in the virgin state, integra- X
2
tion of Eq. (17) yields a asj 22
s
s
 j1
R ry Q 1  exp b
ep 18
Eq. (21) can be manipulated to obtain
0 1
which indicates that the saturated size of the yield surface is r! r r
n : a s
ry Q s . Based on the assumptions in Section 2, cyclic softening of a : aj B as : asj C
3 s s 3 3
Ad
ep
j
d @ C s q  csj
the yield surface defined by Eq. (17) or (18) can only take place 2 j 2 j as : as 2 j
j j
when the loading is directed outwards of current memory surface r!
shown in Fig. 3(b) and defined in Eqs. (11)(14) with initial values 3 s s
of zero and short-range scalar material parameter cs , i.e. 6 C sj  csj a : aj d
ep 23
2 j

   
R_ b ry Q s  R
e_ p when g 0 and n : m > 0
s
   
19 where the inequality n : asj 6 knkasj  is used and asj  denotes the
R_ 0; otherwise   q
 
norm of asj , i.e. asj  asj : asj . Integration of Eq. (23) yields
To simulate simultaneously the plateau behavior during mono- h i
r
3 s s C j exp cj
e const
tonic loading and softening behavior during cyclic loading in the pla- s s p

teau region, it is imperative to deal with the initial monotonic plastic a : aj 6 s  24

2 j cj csj
loading and subsequent unloading or reloading independently.

(a) (b)
Stress space Strain space
R
p
s s s
+
1 2
r
O O
Yield
surface
y
Bounding
surface Memory surface

Fig. 3. Multiaxial stress and strain space representation in plateau region: (a) yield surface and bounding surface and (b) memory surface.

Please cite this article in press as: Hu F et al. Constitutive model for full-range elasto-plastic behavior of structural steels with yield plateau: Formulation
and implementation. Eng Struct (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2016.02.037
6 F. Hu et al. / Engineering Structures xxx (2016) xxxxxx

!
X2
 X
where const represents a scalar constant determined by the initial @f 2
C sj 3 s
conditions. With asj and ep denoting the uniaxial back stress and C j  cj aj :
s s s
cj s  aj : n
s

j1
@r j1
cj 2
plastic strain, Eqs. (21) and (24) can be rewritten in a given mono- !
 X 2
C sj 3
tonic load path (e.g. a half-cycle) as
P min csj  a:n 32
j cs 2
a_ sj C sj e_ p  csj asj je_ p j 25 j1 j

! where the inequality holds since

C sj C sj  
a s
a s
 exp csj ep  ep0  26 C sj
3 C sj 3  
 
 asj : n P s  knkasj  P 0
j j;0
csj csj 33
c 2
s
j cj 2
where  indicates the direction of loading, a and e are initial val- s
j;0
p
0
by making use of Eq. (24). On the other hand, the following relation
ues of the back stress and plastic strain respectively. Eqs. (24) and
can be obtained by using Eqs. (6) and (9)
(26) are asymptotic functions which approach to C sj =csj regardless

  3 3 a : s  a 1 3 3
 
of initial conditions (asj  6 C sj =csj for uniaxial and a:n s : s  a : a  R2 34
q 2 2 R 2R 2 2
3=2aj : aj 6 C j =cj for multiaxial loading). Hence, with reference
s s s s
With reference to Fig. 3(a), the following triangle inequality holds
to Fig. 2(b), the equivalent stress always locates inside the yield pla- r  r
 3 
teau upon the stabilization of cyclic softening in the plateau region,   3
 s : s  R 6 a:a 35
which makes it reasonable to assume the following condition  2  2
adopted by Ucak and Tsopelas [36]
Substituting Eq. (35) into Eq. (34) yields
X
2
C sj s r
Q 27 3 3
j1
csj a:n6 s : s  R 6 ry  R 36
2 2
Eq. (27) means the saturated absolute value of total back stress
by making use of the bounding condition in Eq. (16). Combining
equals to the saturated contraction of the yield surface. Thus, it
Eqs. (27), (32) and (36) leads to
ensures that the yield surface approaches to a limiting surface
X2
 
which is identical to the initial yield surface or bounding surface. @f

C sj  csj asj : P min csj R  Q s  ry 37

The consistency condition of the yield surface leads to
j1
@r j

@f @f @f _
f_ : r_ : a_ R0 28 At this instant, it is obvious that the consistency condition pre-
@r @a @R
sented in Eq. (31) is always satisfied as long as
Assuming the isotropic softening is activated and substituting Eqs. 
s
(8), (17) and (21), (22) into Eq. (28) while making use of min csj P b 38
@f =@ a @f =@ r and @f =@R 1, the following relation can be
j

obtained which implies that the rate of saturation of the size of yield surface

 should be less than that of any short-range back stress component.
1 @f
k_ : r_ 29 Eqs. (27) and (38) will be used as guidance for calibration of mate-
H @r
rial parameters.
2
 Another issue is the determination of initial values of back
X @f s

H C sj  csj asj : b ry Q s  R
j1
@r
where H is hardening modulus. Note that k_ is a positive scalar,
which requires the hardening modulus H to be positive, since for
plastic loading the term @f =@ r : r_ in Eq. (29) is always positive
[20]. Thus, the material dependent parameters that appear in the
kinematic hardening and isotropic softening have to be carefully
calibrated such that the following equation holds for any given load
path
X2

@f s
tency condition always holds. Nonetheless, the bounding condition
C sj  csj asj : P b R  Q s  ry
j1
@ r
To satisfy the internal consistency in Eq. (31) regardless of the load-
ing amplitude, Ucak and Tsopelas [36] adopted a crucial assumption
s
that the material parameter b in Eq. (17) is large enough to achieve
close to instantaneous saturation of the size of yield surface in the
initial plastic loading, such that the right term in Eq. (26) can be
treated as nearly zero. However, such an assumption will definitely
overestimate the cyclic softening in plateau region, since experi-
mental results have shown that the yield surface does contract
gradually with the equivalent plastic strain within the yield plateau
[62,93]. To further elaborate on the restrictions associated with
material parameters, substituting Eq. (8) into the term on the left
hand side of Eq. (31) leads to
30 stress components at the first unloading from the yield plateau.
Ucak and Tsopelas [36] have proposed a convenient approach to
ensure the internal consistency, which reads
s
1 Cj
asj  s s a 39
Q cj
where a is determined according to Eq. (20).
So far, a complete framework for cyclic behavior in the plateau
region is elaborated as illustrated in Fig. 3. The material dependent
parameters should satisfy Eqs. (27) and (38) such that the consis-
31
in Eq. (16) could be violated in cycles with very small plastic strain
amplitudes, since the evolution of back stress according to Eq. (21)
could reach some magnitude larger than the contraction of yield
surface before sufficient saturation. Hence, Eq. (16) is monitored
at any time and activated with Eq. (20) when violated. Once
unloadingreloading from the bounding surface takes place again,
the back stress evolution is switched from Eq. (20)(22) with the
initial condition Eq. (39).
3.4. Hardening region
Once the criterion in Eq. (15) is satisfied, hardening region is
activated. At this instant, the bounding surface defined by
Eq. (16) vanishes as shown in Fig. 4(a), and the existing memory

Please cite this article in press as: Hu F et al. Constitutive model for full-range elasto-plastic behavior of structural steels with yield plateau: Formulation
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 F. Hu et al. / Engineering Structures xxx (2016) xxxxxx 7

(a) (b) Memory surface

Stress space Strain space
Yield r
s surface p Memory is reset
R
p0
p
st
s s l l O O
1 + 2+ 1 + 2 Bounding
surface
vanishes
y
Existing memory
is erased

Fig. 4. Multiaxial stress and strain space representation in hardening region: (a) yield surface and vanished bounding surface and (b) reset memory surface.

of the material defined by Eqs. (12)(14) is erased and reset with memory surface and cyclic hardening instead of softening. The
the following initial conditions [36] consistency condition can be given as well, and it is easy to find
that the hardening modulus is definitely positive due to progres-
n ep0 and r 0 40
sive hardening of the yield surface.
where e is the plastic strain at the onset of hardening region, as
p
0
shown in Fig. 4(b). The evolution law of the memory surface is
4. Numerical implementation
defined in the same Eqs. (12)(14) but with initial conditions in
Eq. (40) and long-range scalar material parameter cl .
Although the mathematical equations formulated in Section 3
Cyclic hardening behavior is described with the following non-
are generally given in rate form, in numerical analysis the state
linear isotropic hardening equation
 variables of a material constitutive model such as stress, elastic
R_ b ry Q s Q l  R
e_ p and plastic strains are updated from one discrete time to the next,
l
41
known as time integration. The integration procedure is con-
l
where b and Q l are both long-range positive material parameters ceived as a strain-driven algorithm, where the object is to calculate
representing the rate of hardening and the saturated change of the current values of state variables based on the preceding values
the size of yield surface, respectively. For convenience, the size of for a given strain increment. It is also necessary to compute the
yield surface is assumed to have been saturated from contraction algorithmic consistent tangent modulus which is used to carry
when hardening region is activated, which indicates the parameter out the iterative solution of the global equilibrium equations
s [95]. Therefore, the corresponding discretization and update proce-
b controlling the rate of saturation should be large enough to
dure of these state variables and the consistent tangent modulus,
achieve close to full saturation for an equivalent plastic strain at
i.e., implementation of the proposed constitutive model is pre-
least being epst . Thus, with initial values of R and
ep equal to
sented in this section. The general procedure for implementation
ry Q s and
ep0 (
ep0 P epst at the onset of hardening region, integra- in three-dimensional (or plane-strain) problems is described first,
tion of Eq. (41) yields followed by the special treatment in two-dimensional (e.g. plane-
h i
stress) cases.
R ry Q s Q l 1  exp b
ep0  b
ep
l l
42

which indicates that the saturated size of the yield surface is

4.1. Three-dimensional problem
ry Q s Q l . Based on the assumptions in Section 2, cyclic harden-
ing of the yield surface defined by Eq. (41) or (42) can only take For a three-dimensional problem, all six components of the
place when the loading is directed outwards of current memory state variables such as stress and strain tensors are evaluated. First,
surface to simulate the stabilization of hardening, i.e. to discretize the state variables, an implicit backward Euler differ-
 ence scheme is employed. Next, the state variables are updated
R_ b ry Q s Q l  R
e_ p when g 0 and n : m > 0
l

43 using a two-step algorithm: an elastic trial predictor followed by

R_ 0; otherwise a plastic corrector that performs projection of the trial states onto
the yield surface, as illustrated by Fig. 5. The elastic predictor
In the hardening region, two long-range back stress compo-
nents are activated to simulate better cyclic behavior at large plas-
tic strain and added to the existing short-range components, while trial
they also evolve in the ArmstrongFrederick hardening rule [24], i +1
i.e., Eqs. (21) and (22) are now modified as
2 E
a_ lj C lj e_ p  clj alj
e_ p 44
3 i +1
X
2 X
2
a asj alj 45 E
j1 j1
(elastic domain)
where C lj and clj are long-range material dependent parameters. i
So far, a concise framework for cyclic behavior in the hardening
region is also established as illustrated in Fig. 4. The basic idea
behind is similar to that in the plateau region, except for the reset Fig. 5. Geometric illustration of closest point projection for implementation.

Please cite this article in press as: Hu F et al. Constitutive model for full-range elasto-plastic behavior of structural steels with yield plateau: Formulation
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8 F. Hu et al. / Engineering Structures xxx (2016) xxxxxx

p
obtains the trial elastic states by freezing plastic flow during the Thus, upon exploiting kni1 k 2=3, a scalar equation is obtained
increment (i.e. Dk 0 as as
q

ep;trial
epi 46
i1 s
3 trial
2 i1
: strial
i1  ry
Dk 62
3G
i1 ri c : De
rtrial 47
e

Once Dk is determined, the state variables can be updated

1
accordingly.
strial
i1 r trial
i1  tr rtrial
i1 1 48 To update the memory surface, the following discretization is
3
given
ee;trial eei De 49
i1
ni1 ni 1  cs CDkmi1 63

e p;trial
e p
50
i1 i
ri1 r i cs CDk 64
De 0p
51
epi1  ni1
mi1 65
Then the plastic return-mapping corrector updates the states as r i1

epi1
ep;trial
i1 Dk 52 where

C H g i1 hni1 : mi1 i 66
ri1 r trial
i1  c : De
e p
53
Substituting Eqs. (63) and (64) into Eq. (65) yields
i1  2GDe
si1 strial 54
p
epi1  ni
mi1 67
r i C Dk
eei1 ee;trial
i1  De
p
55
p
and making use of kmi1 k 3=2, another scalar equation is
e p
i1 e p;trial
i1 De p
56 obtained as
*r +
3 2 p
p

De p
ni1 Dk 57 CDk e  ni : ei1  ni  ri 68
2 3 i1
where subscript i represents the increment number, Dk is equiva-
lent plastic strain increment to be determined, and De and Dep are which indicates that the memory surface should be updated if the
strain increment and plastic strain increment, respectively. updated plastic strain locates outside it.
The plastic corrector can be implemented based on the theory To update the size of yield surface, Eq. (19) is discretized as
of radial return algorithm originally proposed by Wilkins [96], s

which was then generalized as the closest point projection method Ri1 Ri b ry Q s  Ri1 CDk 69
by Simo and Hughes [97]. A similar fully implicit integration tech-
which gives
nique for nonlinear isotropic and kinematic hardening plasticity
has been proposed by Doghri [98], while Mahnken [99], Hartmann

Ri ry Q s bs CDk
and Haupt [100] have shown that such a computation problem can Ri1 s 70
1 b C Dk
be reduced to a one-dimensional scalar equation, in which only the
plastic multiplier (i.e. Dk) appears as the unknown. The develop- The consistent tangent modulus necessary for a rapid convergence
ment of integration algorithms for the proposed constitutive model of the solution of global equilibrium equations requires the deriva-
in Section 3 is shown below. tive of the stress ri1 with respect to the total strain ei1 . According
to Eqs. (47), (48), (53), (57), (61) and (62), the following partial
4.1.1. Plateau region, on the bounding surface derivatives can be obtained
In the plateau region, when plastic flow occurs on the bounding
surface such as in the initial monotonic loading or in occasions for @strial


@ Dk strial
i1 : @ ei1
i1
strial : 2G i  13 1  1 1
which the bounding condition Eq. (16) is violated in subsequent i1 q
q ni1 : i  1  1 ni1
@ ei1 2G 3 strial : strial 2G s : strial
3 trial 3
unloading and reloading, the back stress in Eq. (20) is discretized as 2 i1 i1 2 i1 i1

 71
Ri1
ai1 1 si1 58
ry
@strial
@ Dk
resulting in @ni1
i1
@ ei1
ry 3GDk  3Gstrial
i1  @ ei1

2
Ri1
@ ei1 ry 3GDk
si1  ai1 strial
i1  3Gni1 Dk 59

ry 2G i  13 1  1  3Gni1  ni1
72
The yield function gives ry 3GDk
si1  ai1 Ri1 ni1 60
@ ri1 @ Dk @ni1
ce  3Gni1   3GDk 73
Combining Eqs. (59) and (60) leads to @ ei1 @ ei1 @ ei1
strial Thus, substituting Eqs. (3), (71) and (72) into Eq. (73), the consistent
ni1 i1
61
ry 3GDk tangent modulus is obtained as

Please cite this article in press as: Hu F et al. Constitutive model for full-range elasto-plastic behavior of structural steels with yield plateau: Formulation
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 F. Hu et al. / Engineering Structures xxx (2016) xxxxxx 9

@ ri1 The state variables are updated after convergence of Eqs. (79)(84).
cep
i1
@ ei1 Because ei1 is fixed in the plastic corrector


ry 1 @h @h @ Dk @h @s trial
K1  1 2G i  1  1 0 Dk : i1
ry 3GDk 3 @ ei1 @ Dk @ ei1 @si1
trial @ ei1
ry
 3Gni1  ni1 74 @h @ Dk
ry 3GDk Dk 3Gni1 85
@ Dk @ ei1

4.1.2. Plateau region, inside the bounding surface So

In the plateau region, when plastic flow occurs inside the @ Dk 3G @h
ni1 where k  Dk 86
bounding surface in subsequent unloading and reloading, the back @ ei1 k @ Dk
stress should be now discretized using Eq. (21) as
   and
asj asj C sj ni1  csj asj Dk 75
i1 i i1 @ni1 @ni1 @fi1 i  32 ni1  ni1
:
resulting in @ ei1 @fi1 @ ei1 r~ i1
2  3
" #
 X
X
2
C sj 6 1 2 cs
j a s
j @ D k 7
si1  ai1 fi1  3G Dkni1 76 : 42G i  1  1
i
2  5 87
j1
1 csj Dk 3 j1 1 cs Dk
@ ei1
j

where  Thus, substituting Eqs. (3), (86) and (87) into Eq. (73), the consistent
X
2 asj tangent modulus is obtained as
fi1 strial  i
77

i1
j1
1 c s
j D k @ ri1 1
cep
i1 K1  1 2Ghi1 i  1  1
@ ei1 3
The yield function gives Eq. (60). Hence, the direction ni1 is deter-
~
 3Ghi1 ni1  ni1  e
c i1 88
mined exclusively in termsrof fi1
f 3
ni1 ~ i1
i1 where r kf k 78 where
r~ i1 2 i1
3GDk
Therefore, combining Eqs. (60), (76)(78) renders the following hi1 1  89
r~ i1
nonlinear scalar equation
" #
X
2
C sj
~ i1  3G
0 hDk r Dk  Ri1 79 ~hi1 3G  1  hi1 90
j1
1 csj Dk k
2  3
which is solved with the following Newton method 2   X 2 c s
a s
9G Dk 3 6 j j 7
 1 e i  ni1  ni1 : 4 i
2  ni1 5 91
@h k  
c i1
~ i1
kr 2
Dkk1 Dkk  Dk h Dkk 80 j1 1 c Dk
s
@ Dk j

@h k  3 k 4.1.3. Hardening region

Dk ni1
@ Dk 2 In the hardening region, the back stress definition is switched
2  3
6X
2 csj asj 7 X2
C sj
from Eqs. (20)(22), (44), (45). A similar derivation to Section 4.1.2
:4
i
2 5  3G  2 can be carried out. The nonlinear scalar equation to solve Dk is
j1 1 cs Dkk j1 1 cs Dkk obtained as
j j

@Ri1 k  0 hDk
 Dk 81 " !#
@ Dk X
2
C sj C lj
~ i1  3G
r Dk  Ri1 92
where the index k refers to the iteration steps. The update procedure
j1
1 csj Dk 1 clj Dk
for memory surface and the size of yield surface is the same with
that in Section 4.1.1. Thus, from Eqs. (50), (56), (57), (68) and (70) where
r
@Ri1 k  s ry Q s  Ri @ CDk k  3
Dk b 2 Dk 82 r~ i1 kf k and fi1
@ Dk @ Dk 2 i1
1 b CDkk
s
0   1
8 X 2 asj alj
strial @ i A
i1  93
i
@ CDk k  < 0 @n
when CDkk 0 1 cj Dk 1 clj Dk
s
Dk Dkk Dkk @Di1k Dkk nk :ep ni j1
@ Dk : i1 i
when CDkk > 0
CDkk r i
To update the memory surface and the size of yield surface, Eqs.
83 (63), (64) and (70) are now modified as

where according to Eqs. (77) and (78) ni1 ni 1  cl CDkmi1 94

 2  3
P2 csj asj csj asj
6 k P2 7 k ri1 ri cl CDk 95
j1 i
2  432 ni1 : j1 i
2 5ni1
@ni1 k  1csj Dkk 1csj Dkk 
Dk l
Ri ry Q s Q l b CDk
@ Dk r~ k
i1 Ri1 l
96
84 1 b C Dk

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10 F. Hu et al. / Engineering Structures xxx (2016) xxxxxx

Eq. (92) is solved with Newton method as shown in Eq. (80), but Beginning of Analysis
now
@h k  3 k Define Initial Conditions
Dk ni1
@ Dk 2
0   1 Start of Step
X2
B
c s
j a s
j c l
j a l
j C
: @ i
2
i
2 A  3G Start of Increment
k k
j1 1 cj Dk
s
1 cj Dk
l

0 1 Calculate Integration Point Field Variables from Nodal Values

X 2
B C s
j C l
j C
 @ 2 2 A Start of Iteration
k k
j1 1 cj Dks
1 cj Dk l

@Ri1  Calculate
 Dkk 97
@ Dk Call UMAT
where NDI=3 NDI=2
 s l 
@Ri1 l r y Q Q  R i @ C Dk
3D Solid Elements Plane Stress Elements
Dkk b 2 Dkk 98
@ Dk @ Dk
1 b CDkk
l
r st or st ?
p p p


Yes No
and @ CDk Dkk =@ Dk is defined in Eq. (83) but in which
0   1 Plateau Region Hardening Region
P2 B csj asj clj alj
C
j1 @
i
2 i
2 A Check the Bounding Condition
@ni1  1csj Dkk 1clj Dkk
3
Dkk l= s: s y < 0
@ Dk r~ k 2
i1
2 0   13
csj asj clj alj Yes No
63 k P2 B C7 k
42 ni1 : j1 @ i
2 i
2 A5ni1 Inside the On the
1csj Dkk 1clj Dkk Bounding Bounding
 k
Surface Surface
r~ i1
99 Update , SDVs, /

After convergence, the consistent tangent modulus is obtained as Obtain Element Stiffness Matrix [Kel]
Eq. (88) but in which
  Definition of System Stiffness Matrix [K]
9G2 Dk 3
e
c i1 i  ni1  ni1
kr ~ i1 2 Definition of Loads {F}
2 0   1 3
X
6 B
2 cs
j a s
j c l
j a l
j C 7 Solve [K]{U}={F}
: 4 @ i
2
i
2 A  ni1 5 100
j1 1 cj Dk
s
1 cj Dk
l
No
Converged?
Yes
Write Output
4.2. Two-dimensional problem
No Yes
End of Step?
For a two-dimensional problem such as the plane-stress case,
the normal and transverse shear stresses are assumed to be zero, Fig. 6. Flow chart of UMAT in ABAQUS/Standard.
i.e., r3i  0 for i 1; 2; 3. This form of the equations make a simple r
radial return algorithm no longer applicable, but as proposed by 3 T

R
f r v Pv  R 0 where v r  b 105
Simo and Taylor [101], its viable to perform it directly in the con- 2
strained plane-stress subspace, where the general equations in
tensor form in Section 3 can be rephrased in vector form. Denote @f 3 Pv _
e_ p k_ k 106
the vector space of symmetric second order tensors by S, then @r 2 r

the plane-stress subspace is denoted by
where r r11 r22 r12 T , e e11 e22 e12 T , b b11 b22 b12 T is the
SP : fr 2 Sjr13 r23 r33 0g 101 back stress vector hypothetically defined in SP , and the elastic stiff-
Similarly, the subspace of deviatoric symmetric second-order ten- ness matrix C and projection matrix P are defined as
sors is denoted by 2 3 2 3
1 m 0 2 1 0
E 6
0 7 6 7
SD : fs 2 Sjs13 s23 0; trs skk 0g 102 1
C 4 m 1 5 and P 4 1 2 0 5 107
1  m2 1m
3
Thus, Eqs. (1), (2), (6) and (8) are rewritten as 0 0 2 0 0 6
e ee ep 103 where E is elastic modulus and m is the Poisson ratio. The back stress
evolution in Eq. (20), (21) and (44) are now rewritten as, while mak-
r Ce e
104 ing use of Eq. (106)

Please cite this article in press as: Hu F et al. Constitutive model for full-range elasto-plastic behavior of structural steels with yield plateau: Formulation
and implementation. Eng Struct (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2016.02.037
 F. Hu et al. / Engineering Structures xxx (2016) xxxxxx


R [3] Nakashima M, Inoue K, Tada M. Classification of damage to steel buildings
b 1 r 108
ry
! [4] Watanabe E, Sugiura K, Nagata K, Kitane Y. Performances and damages to
C sj s s _
b_ sj v  cj bj k 109
R [5] Bertero RD, Bertero VV. Performance-based seismic engineering: the need for
! 2002;31(3):62752.
C lj
b_ lj v  clj blj k_ 110
R 2006;35(1):11533.
Following a similar integration algorithm to that in Section 4.1, the
update procedure for the state variables and consistent tangent
matrix can be established as well. For the sake of simplicity, the
detailed development of these algorithms is omitted here.
4.3. Implementation using UMAT subroutine in ABAQUS/Standard
The proposed constitutive model is implemented in the
general-purpose finite-element package program ABAQUS/Stan-
dard [83] by the UMAT subroutine feature. UMAT is called for each
material point at each iteration of every increment. It is provided
with the material state at the start of the increment (stresses and
solution-dependent state variables, i.e. SDVs including elastic and
plastic strains, back stresses, the center and radius of memory sur-
face, equivalent plastic strain and a predefined variable to indicate
whether the material is in plateau region or hardening region) and
with the strain increment, the stresses and those solution-
dependent state variables will be updated at the end of the incre-
ment. In addition, UMAT also provides the material Jacobian
matrix, i.e., the consistent tangent modulus. The flow chart of
UMAT in ABAQUS/Standard is shown in Fig. 6.
5. Conclusions
A new constitutive model is developed and aimed at providing
an easy to calibrate, yet complete and rigorous, approach to
describe the structural steel response with yield plateau under var-
ious loading conditions, monotonic or cyclic, periodic or random.
Such an ability to address all these various loadings is based on
the fundamental principles of classical theory of plasticity. The
model consists of a yield surface with isotropic and kinematic
hardening, a memory surface to measure the dependency of
response on the loading amplitude, and a bounding surface specif-
ically to deal with the behavior within yield plateau. While there
are many models for plasticity of structural steels, what distin-
guishes the present model is the particular handling of restrictions
on material dependent parameters from the consistency condition,
and correct description of cyclic softening and hardening behavior
using unified kinematic hardening and isotropic hardening coupled
with the memorization effects. This essential characteristic is nec-
essary for an easy implementation and application for practical
purposes in structural engineering.
Acknowledgement
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support for this work,
which was sponsored by the National Natural Science Foundation
of China (No. 51478244), and the Excellent Young Scientist
Programme of the National Natural Science Foundation of China
(No. 51522806).
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