GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY

INTRODUCTION
The cell is the smallest structural and
functional unit of the body
Integrated functioning of about 100 trillion
cells forms human body
These cells are organized into different
organs which in turn are combined to form
system.
For better understanding human body can
be considered to be functionally organized
into various systems like:
1. Skin and its appendages: Skin, Hair,
Nails, Sebaceous glands, Sweat glands
2. Skeletal system: Bone, Cartilage, Joints,
Ligaments
3. Muscular system: Skeletal muscles,
Smooth muscles, Cardiac muscles
4. Nervous system:
Central Nervous system
Brain Spinal Cord
Peripheral Nervous system
Cerebrospinal Nerves Autonomic Nervous System
Supplies
Body wall and Limbs
Sympathetic Parasympathetic
Supplies
Viscera (Organs)
5. Cardiovascular system:
Heart Arteries
Arterioles
Capillaries
Blood Vessels
Veins
Small venules
Sinusoids
6. Respiratory system:
_ Lungs
_ Airway: Nasal cavity _Larynx _
Pharynx _ Trachea _ Bronchi_
Bronchioles _ Alveoli
7. Digestive system:
_ Starts at mouth and ends at anus
_ Oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus,
stomach, small intestine, large
intestine
_ Also includes liver and gall bladder
and pancreas
8. Excretory system:
_ Excretion is not egestion
_ Involves kidney, ureter, bladder and
urethra
9. Reproductive system:
_ Male reproductive system _ Testis,
Epididymis, Ductus deferens,
Seminal vesicles, Prostate, Male
urethra, Penis
_ Female reproductive system _ Right
and left ovaries, Uterine tubules,
Uterus, Vagina, External genitalia,
Mammary glands
10. Endocrine system:
_ Pituitary glands, Pineal glands,
Thyroid glands, Parathyroid glands,
Suprarenal glands, Islet of
Langerhans, Interstitial cells of the
testis, Follicles and corpora lutea of
the ovaries, Some cells of the
kidneys, thymus and the placenta
11. Blood and Immune system
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BODY COMPOSITION
In an average adult male
Water (60%)
Minerals (7%)
Proteins and related substances (18%)
Fat (15%)
Total Body Water TBW (60 % of body weight)
Intracellular fluid (2/3rd of TBW)
_ 40% of body wt
Extracellular fluid (1/3rd of TBW)
_ 20% of body wt
_ Interstitial fluid (5% of body wt)
(25% of ECF)
_ Plasma (75% of body wt) (15% of
ECF)
_ Lymph
_ CSF
Measurement of body fluid volumes
Theoretically measured using formula _
_ =
A1 A2
_
V = Volume of fluid compartment
A1 = Area of indicator injected in the fluid
A2 = Area of indicator and removed by
excretion of metabolism
C = Concentration of indicators in the fluid
Most abundant
Cation
Most abundant
Anion
ECF Na+ Cl- (HCO3-)
ICF K+ (Mg2+) Proteins (PO3-4)
__
_
____ = __
_ +
_ +
____
VOLUMES MEASUREMENT
TBW
By dilution principle; used to measure other body spaces
D2O (heavy water) is most frequently used Tritium oxide and amino
pyrine are also used (Mn: DAT)
ECF
Most accurate method is by using Inulin, Mannitol and sucrose have
also been used
ICF (cannot be measured
directly)
TBW ECF (Mn: SIM)
Interstitial fluid volume
(can not be measured)
ECF Plasma volume
Plasma Volume By dyes that become bound to plasma protein Ex: Evan blue (T-
1824)
Mn: PEA
Serum Albumin labeled with radioactive iodine, I126, Na22, Thio
sulfate
Total blood volume (TBV) Plasma Vol _Pl. V_ x
!""
!""#$%&'()*+,(
Red cell volume
TBV Pl. V
Measured by injecting tagged RBCs and measuring the fraction of
red cells that is tagged.
Commonly used tag is Ca51 and Fe59, P32
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BODY ELECTROLYTES
7% of total body weight
Ionic concentration in ECF and ICF
ION
ICF
(mMol/L)
ECF
(mMol/L)
Total percentage
available for
exchange across
cell membrane
Na+ 12 145 65 70%
K+ 155 4 100%
H+ 13 x 10 -5 3.8 x 10 -5
Cl- 3.8 120
HCO3- 8 27
Anions
(proteins)
155 0
PO4 Non exchangeable
K+ _ Efflux along concentration and
Na+ _ Influx electrical gradient
High proteins in plasma than in interstitial
fluid plays important role in maintaining
fluid balance.
Ca2+ (predominant in ECF) and Mg2+
(predominant in ICF) are non exchangeable.
Only exchangeable solutes are osmotically
active.
Functions of Electrolytes
_ Electrolytes are main solutes in the body
fluids for maintenance of acid base balance
_ Electrolytes maintain the proper
osmolarity and volume of body fluids
_ The concentration of certain electrolytes
determines their specific physiological
functions. Eg: The effect of calcium ions on
neuromuscular excitability
INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT
AND HOMEOSTASIS
Claude Bernarde (1949), the great French
Physiologist, introduced the term Internal
environment of the body or the Milieu interiew
for the extra cellular fluid (ECF) of the body
because all the body cells depends on ECF
for maintenance of cellular life.
Homeostasis is a term introduced by W.B
Cannon, refers to the mechanism by which
the constancy of the internal environment is
maintained and ensured.
Cell membrane and vascular endothelium
with varying permeability play an important
role in maintenance of homeostasis.
Factors involved in the maintenance of Internal
Environment
1. Maintenance of pH of ECF (acid-base
balance)
2. Regulation of temperature
3. Maintenance of water and electrolytic
balance
4. Supply of nutrients, oxygen, enzymes and
hormones
5. Removal of metabolic and other waste
products
All systems of the body play vital role in an
integrated manner for the maintenance of
internal environment
Mode of action of Homeostatic control system
Feedback Mechanism
1. Negative feedback mechanism
Most control systems of body act by this
mechanism
That is, in general if the activity of a
particular system is increased or
decreased a control system initiates a
series of changes that returns the activity
towards normal.
Stabilizes homeostatic mechanism
Feedback mechanism
Is through
Negative Positive
Adaptive control system
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Ex:
1. When the blood pressure suddenly
rises or lowers, it initiates a series of
reactions that tries to bring the BP to
normal levels.
2. Other examples: ACTH secretion,
aldosterone K+ glucose regulation,
GH secretion.
2. Positive feedback mechanism
It is better known as a Vicious circle
Usually it is harmful and in some
instances even death can occur due to
positive feedback
Destabilizes homeostatic mechanism
Ex:
1. When a person has suddenly bled 2
liters of blood, a vicious circle of
progressively weakening of the heart
is set which ultimately cause death.
If it of mild degree can be overcome
by negative feedback mechanism.
2. Sometimes positive feedback can
serve useful purposes. Ex: child birth
(parturition) during labour is
facilitated by progressively
increasing uterine contractions due
to positive feedback from stretching
of cervix by head of the body.
3. Other examples: Clotting blood, Ca2+
entry into sarcoplasmic reticulum,
LH surge during ovulation, Milk
ejection reflex, Action potential,
Shock
Adaptive Control System
This refers to a delayed type of negative
feedback mechanism
Seen in nervous system
CELL STRUCTURE
A typical cell as seen by the light microscope
consists of three basic components
_ Cell membrane
_ Cytoplasm
_ Nucleus
CELL MEMBRANE
Cell membrane/plasma membrane is the
protective sheath, enveloping the cell
body
It separates ECF from ICF
It is a unit membrane consisting of two
electron dense layers separated by an
electro lucent layer
Biochemically, cell membrane is mainly
made up of
_ Lipids (40%)
_ Proteins (55 %)
_ Carbohydrates (5 %)
Ratio of proteins to lipids in different
membranes
Inner mitochondrial membrane 3.2 (max)
Sarcoplasmic reticulum 2.0
Outer mitochondrial membrane 1.1
Myelin 0.23
In almost all the membrane of the body
proteins are equal or exceed the quantity of
lipid. The only exception is Myelin (high lipid
content provide good insulation)
Two types of proteins are recognized
1. Lipoproteins enzymes, ion channels
2. Glycoproteins receptors,
neurotransmitters
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PHOSPHOLIPIDS
PROTEINS
Integral/Transmembrane proteins Peripheral proteins
Are present embedded in either the inner
or outer leaflet of the lipid bilayer and are
respectively called as
Intrinsic proteins or Extrinsic/Surface
proteins
They do not interact directly with the
phospholipids in the bilayer and do not
require use of detergents for their release
They are weakly bound to the
hydrophilic region of specific integral
proteins
They interact with the phospholipids and
requires the use of detergents for their
solubilisaiton
Generally span the lipid bilayer
Distributed asymmetrically across the lipid
bilayer
Are usually globular proteins
On the basis of function they have been
described as
_ Channel proteins
_ Carries proteins
_ Receptor proteins
_ Antigen
_ Pumps
Caveolae
Lipid rafts + specific
protein Cavedin-I
Proteins detected in
Caveolae form various
components of signal
transduction system
Lipid rafts
Dynamic areas of
exoplasmic leaflets of
lipid bilayer enriched in
cholesterol and
phospholipid
Involved in signal
transduction
Along with Cholesterol
Maintains fluidity of
membrane
As membrane fluidity _
its permeability to water
_ and small hydrophilic
molecules increases
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Properties of Cell Membrane
Membranes are asymmetrical shut like enclosed
structures with distinct out and inner
surface. This asymmetry is attributed to
_ Irregular distribution of protein within
the cell membrane
_ External location of carbohydrate
attached to membrane protein
_ Specific enzymes are located exclusively
on the outside or inside of membranes
_ Gap junction, synapses and tight
junctions occupy only smaller regions of
membrane and generate local
asymmetry
The choline containing phospholipids
(phosphotidylcholine and sphinomyelin) are
located mainly in the outer molecular layer;
The amino phospholipids (phosphotidyl
serine and phosphotidylethanolamine) are
preferentially located in inner leaflet
Membranes are dynamic structures
_ Major lipids in mammalian membranes
are phospholipids, glycolipids and
cholesterol.
_ Membrane lipids are amphipathic i.e.,
contain both hydrophobic and
hydrophilic regions
_ Membrane lipids are bilayered
_ Proteins are associated with lipid bilayer
and may be integral or peripheral in
location
Ion channels are transmembrane proteins
that allow selective entry of various ions;
ionophores are molecules that act as
membrane shuttle for various ions;
aquaporins are proteins that form water
channels in certain molecules.
Arrangement of Carbohydrates in the cell
membrane
The carbohydrates are attached either to the
proteins (glycoproteins) or the lipids
(glycolipids).
 Throughout the cell membrane,
carbohydrate molecules form a thin layer of
loose covering called Glycocalyx
Functions
1. Being negatively charged the
carbohydrate molecules of the cell
membrane do not allow the negatively
charged particles to move out of the cell
2. The glycocalyx helps in tight fixation of
the cells with one another
3. Some of carbohydrates molecules also
serve as receptors
Arrangement of Lipid bilayer of the cell
membrane
Each lipid molecule in the lipid bilayer of the
cell membrane consists of phospholipids,
cholesterol and glycolipids.
The lipid molecules are cloth pin shape and
consists of a head and a tail end
The head end/globular end of the molecules
contains phosphate moiety of
phospholipid/hydroxyl radical of
cholesterol. It is positively charged and quite
water soluble (hydrophilic)
The tail end consists of two chain of fatty
acids/steroid radical of cholesterol. It is water
insoluble and is hydrophobic