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History of England

For other uses, see History of England (disambiguation). 1453), a series of conicts involving the peoples of both
English history redirects here. For the Jon English nations. Following the Hundred Years Wars, England
album, see English History (album). became embroiled in its own succession wars. The Wars
of the Roses pitted two branches of the House of Plan-
tagenet against one another, the House of York and the
England became inhabited more than 800,000 years
ago, as the discovery of int tools and footprints at House of Lancaster. The Lancastrian Henry Tudor ended
Tudor dynasty
Happisburgh in Norfolk has revealed.[1] The earliest ev- the War of the Roses and established the
idence for early modern humans in North West Europe, in 1485.
a jawbone discovered in Devon at Kents Cavern in 1927, Under the Tudors and the later Stuart dynasty, England
was re-dated in 2011 to between 41,000 and 44,000 years became a colonial power. During the rule of the Stu-
old.[2] Continuous human habitation in England dates to arts, the English Civil War took place between the Par-
around 13,000 years ago (see Creswellian), at the end of liamentarians and the Royalists, which resulted in the
the last glacial period. The region has numerous remains execution of King Charles I (1649) and the establish-
from the Mesolithic, Neolithic, and Bronze Age, such as ment of a series of republican governments rst, a
Stonehenge and Avebury. In the Iron Age, England, like Parliamentary republic known as the Commonwealth of
all of Britain south of the Firth of Forth, was inhabited by England (1649-1653), then a military dictatorship un-
the Celtic people known as the Britons, including some der Oliver Cromwell known as The Protectorate (1653-
Belgic tribes (e.g. the Atrebates, the Catuvellauni, the 1659). The Stuarts returned to the restored throne in
Trinovantes, etc.) in the south east. In AD 43 the Roman 1660, though continued questions over religion and power
conquest of Britain began; the Romans maintained con- resulted in the deposition of another Stuart king, James II,
trol of their province of Britannia until the early 5th cen- in the Glorious Revolution (1688). England, which had
tury. conquered Wales in the 13th century, united with Scot-
The end of Roman rule in Britain facilitated the Anglo- land in 1707 to form a new sovereign state called Great
Britain.[4][5][6] Following the Industrial Revolution, Great
Saxon settlement of Britain, which historians often re-
gard as the origin of England and of the English people. Britain ruled a colonial Empire, the largest in recorded
history. Following a process of decolonisation in the
The Anglo-Saxons, a collection of various Germanic peo-
ples, established several kingdoms that became the pri- 20th century, mainly caused by the weakening of Great
Britains power in the two World Wars, almost all of the
mary powers in present-day England and parts of south-
ern Scotland.[3] They introduced the Old English lan- empires overseas territories became independent coun-
guage, which largely displaced the previous British lan- tries. However, as of 2017, its cultural impact remains
guage. The Anglo-Saxons warred with British succes- widespread and deep in many of them.
sor states in Wales, Cornwall, and the Hen Ogledd (Old
North; the Brythonic-speaking parts of northern England
and southern Scotland), as well as with each other. Raids 1 Prehistory
by Vikings became frequent after about AD 800, and the
Norsemen settled in large parts of what is now England.
Main article: Prehistoric Britain
During this period, several rulers attempted to unite the
various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, an eort that led to the
emergence of the Kingdom of England by the 10th cen-
tury.
1.1 Stone Age
In 1066, a Norman expedition invaded and conquered
England. The Norman Dynasty established by William The time from Britains rst inhabitation until the last
the Conqueror ruled England for over half a century be- glacial maximum is known as the Old Stone Age, or
fore the period of succession crisis known as the Anarchy Palaeolithic. Archaeological evidence indicates that what
(1135-1154). Following the Anarchy, England came un- was to become England was colonised by humans long
der the rule of the House of Plantagenet, a dynasty which before the rest of the British Isles because of its more
later inherited claims to the Kingdom of France. During hospitable climate between and during the various glacial
this period, the Magna Carta was signed. A succession periods of the distant past. This earliest evidence,
crisis in France led to the Hundred Years War (1337 from Happisburgh in Norfolk, includes the oldest hu-

1
2 1 PREHISTORY

elds and pastures. The Sweet Track in the Somerset


Levels is one of the oldest timber trackways discovered in
Northern Europe and among the oldest roads in the world,
dated by dendrochronology to the winter of 38073806
BC; it too is thought to have been a primarily religious
structure.[7]

1.2 Later Prehistory

Stonehenge, erected in several stages from c.3000-1500BC

man footprints found outside Africa and points to dates


of more than 800,000 BP.[1] These earliest inhabitants
were hunter-gatherers, who survived by hunting game
and gathering edible plants. Low sea-levels meant that
Britain was still attached to the continent for much of this
earliest period of history, and varying temperatures over
tens of thousands of years meant that it was not always
inhabited.[7] View of the ramparts of the developed hillfort of Maiden Castle,
Dorset, as they look today
The last Ice Age ended around 10,000 BC, and England
has been inhabited ever since. This marks the begin- The Bronze Age begins around 2500 BC with the rst ap-
ning of the Middle Stone Age, or Mesolithic. Rising sea- pearance of bronze objects in the archaeological record.
levels cut Britain o from the continent for the last time This coincides with the appearance of the characteris-
around 6500 BC. The population by this period were ex- tic Beaker culture; again it is unknown whether this was
clusively of our own species of the genus Homo, Homo brought about primarily by folk movement or by cultural
sapiens sapiens, and the evidence would suggest that their assimilation, and again it may be a mixture of both. The
societies were increasingly complex and they were ma- Bronze Age sees a shift of emphasis from the commu-
nipulating their environment and their prey in new ways, nal to the individual, and the rise to prominence of in-
possibly selective burning of the then omnipresent wood- creasingly powerful elites, whose power was enshrined
land to create clearings where the herds would gather to in the control of the ow of precious resources, to ma-
make them easier to hunt. Simple projectile weapons nipulate tin and copper into high-status bronze objects
would have been the main tools of the hunt, such as the such as swords and axes, and their prowess as hunters and
javelin and possibly the sling. The bow and arrow was warriors. Settlement became increasingly permanent and
also known in Western Europe from at least 9000 BC. intensive. Towards the end of the period, numerous ex-
The climate continued to improve and it is likely the pop- amples of extremely ne metalwork begin to be found
ulation was on the rise.[8] deposited in rivers, presumably for ritual reasons and per-
The New Stone Age, or Neolithic, begins with the in- haps reecting a progressive shift of emphasis away from
troduction of farming, ultimately from the Middle East, the sky and back to the earth, as a rising population in-
around 4000 BC. It is not known whether this was caused creasingly put the land under greater pressure. England
by a substantial folk movement or native adoption of for- largely also becomes in this period bound up with the
eign practices, nor are these two models mutually exclu- Atlantic trade system, which created something of a cul-
sive. People began to cultivate crops and rear animals, tural continuum over a large part of Western Europe.[9] It
and overall lead a more settled lifestyle. Monumental col- is possible that the Celtic languages developed or spread
lective tombs were built to house the dead in the form of to England as part of this system; by the end of the Iron
chambered cairns and long barrows, and towards the end Age at the very least there is ample evidence that they
of the period other kinds of monumental stone alignments were spoken across the whole of England, as well as the
begin to appear, such as Stonehenge, their cosmic align- Western parts of Britain.[10]
ments betraying a preoccupation with the sky and planets. The Iron Age is conventionally said to begin around 800
Flint technology also developed, producing a number of BC. The Atlantic system had by this time eectively col-
highly artistic pieces as well as purely pragmatic. More lapsed, although England maintained contacts across the
extensive woodland clearance took place to make way for Channel with France, as the Hallstatt culture became
1.3 Genetic history of the English 3

widespread across the country. The overall picture of player in all their dealings. In such a system, with ret-
continuity suggests this was not accompanied by any sub- rospect, it is clear that a full-scale invasion and ultimate
stantial movement of population; crucially, only a single annexation was inevitable.[12]
Hallstatt burial is known from Britain, and even here the
evidence is inconclusive. On the whole burials largely dis-
appear across England, the dead being disposed of in a 1.3 Genetic history of the English
way which is archaeologically invisible: excarnation is a
widely cited possibility. Hillforts were known since the Main article: Genetic history of the British Isles
Late Bronze Age, but a huge number were constructed in
the period 600400 BC, particularly in the South; after The Roman historian Tacitus wrote in his Agricola, com-
about 400 however new ones largely cease to be built and pleted in AD 98,[13] that the various groupings of Britons
a large number cease to be regularly inhabited, while a shared physical characteristics with continental peoples.
smaller number of others become more and more inten- The Caledonians, inhabitants of what is now Scotland,
sively occupied, suggesting a degree of regional centrali- had red hair and large limbs, indicating a Germanic ori-
sation. It is around this time that the earliest mentions ofgin; the Silures, inhabitants of what is now South Wales,
Britain begin to appear in the annals of history. The rst were swarthy with curly hair, indicating a link with the
historical mention of the region is from the Massaliote Iberians of the Roman provinces of Hispania, in what is
Periplus, a sailing manual for merchants thought to date now Portugal and Spain; and the Britons nearest the Gauls
to the 6th century BC, and Pytheas of Massilia wrote of of mainland Europe resembled the Gauls.[14] This is a
his exploratory voyage to the island around 325 BC. Both gross oversimplication which nonetheless holds fairly
of these texts are now lost; although quoted by later writ- true to the present day. Some archaeologists and geneti-
ers, not enough survives to inform the archaeological in- cists have challenged the long-held assumption that the in-
terpretation to any signicant degree. vading Anglo-Saxons wiped out the native Britons in Eng-
Contact with the continent was generally at a lower point land when they invaded, pointing instead to the possibility
than in the Bronze Age, although it was not insigni- of a more limited folk movement bringing a new language
cant. Continental goods continued to make their way into and culture which the natives gradually assimilated.[9]
England throughout the period, although with a possible Debate however is ongoing surrounding the ultimate ori-
hiatus from around 350150 BC. Numerous armed inva- gins of the people of the British Isles. In 2003 and
sions of hordes of migrating Celts are no longer consid- 2006 respectively, Bryan Sykes and Stephen Oppen-
ered to be realistic, although there are two known inva- heimer both championed the idea of continuity ever since
sions. Around 300 BC, it appears that a group from the the Mesolithic period, with a substantial input from the
Gaulish Parisii tribe took over East Yorkshire, establish- East during the Neolithic.[15][16] More recently this view
ing the highly distinctive Arras culture; and from around has been contested, by pointing out that the haplotypes
150100 BC, groups of Belgae began to control signi- which Sykes and Oppenheimer associated with Spain
cant parts of the South. These invasions would have con- hailed ultimately from Asia Minor. This might be more
stituted movements of a relatively small number of people consistent with some kind of Neolithic wipeout, however
who established themselves as a warrior elite at the top of it is impossible to date this gene ow.[17] Other theories
pre-existing native systems, rather than any kind of to- have proposed an even more substantial input in the Early
tal wipeout. The Belgic invasion was on a much larger Bronze Age than was previously thought. Ultimately, the
scale than the Parisian settlement, however the continu- genetics have in fact not yet told us anything new. Re-
ity of pottery style demonstrates clearly that the native searchers at the University College of London have con-
population basically remained in place under new rulers. ducted genetic tests which conrm biological dierences
All the same, it was accompanied by signicant socio- between the English and the Welsh, with the native En-
economic change. Proto-urban, or even urban settle- glish population having DNA which correlates to others
ments, known as oppida, begin to eclipse the old hillforts, found in Germanic parts of Northern Europe traceable
and an elite whose position is based on battle-prowess and through their Y chromosome.[18]
the ability to manipulate resources re-appears much more
distinctly.[11]
In 55 and 54 BC, Julius Caesar, as part of his campaigns 2 Roman Britain
in Gaul, invaded Britain and claimed to have scored a
number of victories, but he never penetrated further than
Hertfordshire and was unable to establish a province. Main article: Roman Britain
However, his invasions do mark a turning-point in British After Caesars expeditions, the Romans began their real
history. Control of trade, the ow of resources and pres- attempt to conquer Britain in 43 AD, at the behest of
tige goods, became ever more important to the elites of the Emperor Claudius. They landed in Kent, and de-
Southern Britain; as the provider of relatively limitless feated two armies led by the kings of the Catuvellauni
wealth and patronage, Rome steadily became the biggest tribe, Caratacus and Togodumnus, in battles at the Med-
way and the Thames. Togodumnus was killed, and Carat-
4 3 THE ANGLO-SAXON INVASION

warrior-queen Boudicca, the tribes rose in revolt against


the Romans. Camulodunum was burned to the ground,
as well as Londinium and Verulamium, there is some ar-
chaeological evidence that the same happened at Winch-
ester as well, and the Second Legion Augusta, stationed at
Exeter, refused to move for fear of revolt among the locals
there as well. The governor however, Suetonius Pauli-
nus, marched back from his campaign in Wales to face
Boudicca in battle. There was a substantial engagement,
somewhere along the line of Watling Street, at the end of
which Boudicca was utterly defeated. The province was
pacied once more.
Over the next twenty years the borders expanded just a lit-
Roman Empire, 3rd century. tle, but the governorship of Agricola saw the last pockets
of independence in Wales and Northern England nally
incorporated into the province. He also led a campaign
into Scotland, but from these conquests he was recalled
by the Emperor Domitian, and the border gradually solid-
ied along the line of the Stanegate in Northern England.
Hadrians Wall was built along this line in 138 AD; apart
from a number of temporary forays into Scotland, this
was now the border. The Romans, and their culture, were
here to stay; over the course of their three hundred and
fty years in charge, Englands landscape would become
ubiquitously impregnated with traces of their presence.

3 The Anglo-Saxon invasion


Main article: Sub-Roman Britain
In the wake of the breakdown of Roman rule in Britain

Hadrians Wall viewed from Vercovicium

acus ed to Wales. The Roman force, led by Aulus Plau-


tius, then halted as Plautius sent for Claudius to come and
nish the campaign. When Claudius arrived he led the -
nal march on the Catuvellauni capital at Camulodunum
(modern Colchester), before returning to Rome again for
his triumph. The Catuvellauni at this time held sway over
the most of the southeastern corner of England; eleven
local rulers surrendered, a number of client kingdoms
were established, and the rest became a Roman province
with Camulodunum as its capital.[19] Over the next four
years, the territory was consolidated and the future em-
peror Vespasian led a campaign into the Southwest where
he subjugated two more tribes. By 54 AD the border had
been pushed back to the Severn and the Trent, and cam- Kingdoms and tribes in Britain, c.700 AD
paigns were underway to subjugate Northern England and
Wales. In 60 AD however, under the leadership of the from the middle of the fourth century, present day
5

England was progressively settled by Germanic groups. sively spread into England, by a combination of mili-
Collectively known as the "Anglo-Saxons", these were tary conquest and cultural assimilation, until by the eighth
Angles and Saxons from what is now the Danish/German century some kind of England really had emerged.[23][24]
border area and Jutes from the Jutland peninsula. The en-
tire region was referred to as, "Hwicce" and settlements
throughout the south were called Gewisse. The Battle of 4 Heptarchy and Christianisation
Deorham was a critical battle that established the Anglo-
Saxon rule in 577.[20][21] Saxon mercenaries had been
present in Britain since before the late Roman period,
but the main inux of population is thought to have taken
place after the fth century. The precise nature of these
invasions has not been fully determined, with doubts be-
ing cast on the legitimacy of historical accounts due to
a lack of archaeological nds. Gildas Sapiens De Ex-
cidio et Conquestu Britanniae, composed in the 6th cen-
tury, states that when the Roman army departed the Isle
of Britannia in the 4th century CE, the indigenous Britons
were invaded by Picts, their neighbours to the north (now
Scotland) and the Scots (now Ireland). The Britons then
invited the Saxons into the island, hoping to repel the in-
vading armies of the north. To their dismay, the Saxons
themselves turned against the Britons after vanquishing
the Scots and Picts.
Seven Kingdoms are traditionally identied as being es-
tablished by these Saxon migrants. Three were clustered
in the South east: Sussex, Kent and Essex. The Mid-
lands were dominated by the kingdoms of Mercia and
East Anglia. The Monarchs of Mercia's lineage was de-
termined to reach as far back as the early 500s. To the
north was Northumbria which unied two earlier king-
doms, Bernicia and Deira. The development of these
kingdoms led to the eventual domination by Northumbria
and Mercia in the 7th century, Mercia in the 8th century
and then Wessex in the 9th century. Northumbria ex-
tended its control north into Scotland and west into Wales.
It also subdued Mercia whose rst powerful King, Penda,
was killed by Oswy in 655. Northumbrias power be-
gan to wane after 685 with the defeat and death of its
king Aegfrith at the hands of the Picts. Mercian power
reached its peak under the rule of Oa, who from 785
Britain c. 800
had inuence over most of Anglo-Saxon England. From
Oas death in 796 the supremacy of Wessex was estab- Main articles: Northumbria, Mercia, Oa of Mercia,
lished under Egbert who extended his control west into Heptarchy, and Anglo-Saxon Christianity
Cornwall before defeating the Mercians at the Battle of
Ellendun in 825. Four years later he received submission
and tribute from the Northumbrian king, Eanred.[22] Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England began around
AD 600, inuenced by Celtic Christianity from the north-
The sequence of events of the fth and sixth centuries west and by the Roman Catholic Church from the south-
is particularly dicult to access, peppered with a mix- east. Augustine, the rst Archbishop of Canterbury, took
ture of mythology, such as the characters of Hengist oce in 597. In 601, he baptised the rst Christian
and Horsa, and legend, such as St Germanus's so- Anglo-Saxon king, Aethelbert of Kent. The last pagan
called Alleluia Victory against the Heathens, and half- Anglo-Saxon king, Penda of Mercia, died in 655. The
remembered history, such as the exploits of Ambrosius last pagan Jutish king, Arwald of the Isle of Wight was
Aurelianus and King Arthur. However, the belief that killed in 686. The Anglo-Saxon mission on the continent
the Saxons simply wiped or drove out all the native took o in the 8th century, leading to the Christianisation
Britons from England has been widely discredited by a of practically all of the Frankish Empire by 800.
number of archaeologists since the 2000s. At any rate,
the Anglo-Saxons, including Saxonied Britons, progres- Throughout the 7th and 8th century power uctuated be-
tween the larger kingdoms. Bede records Aethelbert of
6 5 VIKING CHALLENGE AND THE RISE OF WESSEX

Kent as being dominant at the close of the 6th century,


but power seems to have shifted northwards to the king-
dom of Northumbria, which was formed from the amal-
gamation of Bernicia and Deira. Edwin of Northumbria
probably held dominance over much of Britain, though
Bedes Northumbrian bias should be kept in mind. Suc-
cession crises meant Northumbrian hegemony was not
constant, and Mercia remained a very powerful kingdom,
especially under Penda. Two defeats essentially ended
Northumbrian dominance: the Battle of the Trent in 679
against Mercia, and Nechtanesmere in 685 against the
Picts.[25]
The so-called Mercian Supremacy dominated the 8th
century, though it was not constant. Aethelbald and Oa,
the two most powerful kings, achieved high status; in-
deed, Oa was considered the overlord of south Britain
by Charlemagne. That Oa could summon the resources
to build Oas Dyke is testament to his power. However,
a rising Wessex, and challenges from smaller kingdoms,
kept Mercian power in check, and by the early 9th century
the Mercian Supremacy was over.
This period has been described as the Heptarchy, though
this term has now fallen out of academic use. The England in 878
word arose on the basis that the seven kingdoms of
Northumbria, Mercia, Kent, East Anglia, Essex, Sussex
and Wessex were the main polities of south Britain. Other
prise attack.[28]
small kingdoms were also politically important across
this period: Hwicce, Magonsaete, Lindsey and Middle It was only now, with the independence of Wessex hang-
Anglia.[26] ing by a thread, that Alfred emerged as a great king.
In May 878 he led a force that defeated the Danes at
Edington. The victory was so complete that the Dan-
ish leader, Guthrum, was forced to accept Christian bap-
5 Viking challenge and the rise of tism and withdraw from Mercia. Alfred then set about
strengthening the defences of Wessex, building a new
Wessex navy60 vessels strong. Alfreds success bought Wessex
and Mercia years of peace and sparked economic recov-
Main articles: Danelaw, Viking Age, and Alfred the ery in previously ravaged areas.[29]
Great
The rst recorded landing of Vikings took place in 787 Alfreds success was sustained by his son Edward, whose
in Dorsetshire, on the south-west coast.[27] The rst ma- decisive victories over the Danes in East Anglia in 910
jor attack in Britain was in 793 at Lindisfarne monastery and 911 were followed by a crushing victory at Temps-
as given by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. However, by ford in 917. These military gains allowed Edward to fully
then the Vikings were almost certainly well-established in incorporate Mercia into his kingdom and add East An-
Orkney and Shetland, and many other non-recorded raids glia to his conquests. Edward then set about reinforc-
probably occurred before this. Records do show the rst ing his northern borders against the Danish kingdom of
Viking attack on Iona taking place in 794. The arrival Northumbria. Edwards rapid conquest of the English
of the Vikings (in particular the Danish Great Heathen kingdoms meant Wessex received homage from those
Army) upset the political and social geography of Britain that remained, including Gwynedd in Wales and Scot-
and Ireland. In 867 Northumbria fell to the Danes; East land. His dominance was reinforced by his son thelstan,
Anglia fell in 869. Though Wessex managed to contain who extended the borders of Wessex northward, in 927
the Vikings by defeating them at Ashdown in 871, a sec- conquering the Kingdom of York and leading a land and
ond invading army landed, leaving the Saxons on a defen- naval invasion of Scotland. These conquests led to his
sive footing. At much the same time, thelred, king of adopting the title 'King of the English' for the rst time.
Wessex died and was succeeded by his younger brother The dominance and independence of England was main-
Alfred. Alfred was immediately confronted with the task tained by the kings that followed. It was not until 978 and
of defending Wessex against the Danes. He spent the rst the accession of thelred the Unready that the Danish
ve years of his reign paying the invaders o. In 878, Al- threat resurfaced. Two powerful Danish kings (Harold
freds forces were overwhelmed at Chippenham in a sur- Bluetooth and later Sweyn, his son) both launched dev-
7

astating invasions of England. Anglo-Saxon forces were fredian model. On thelreds death, his wife (Edwards
resoundingly defeated at Maldon in 991. More Dan- sister) theld ruled as Lady of the Mercians and
ish attacks followed, and their victories were frequent. continued expansion. It seems Edward had his son thel-
thelreds control over his nobles began to falter, and stan brought up in the Mercian court, and on Edwards
he grew increasingly desperate. His solution was to pay death Athelstan succeeded to the Mercian kingdom, and,
the Danes o: for almost 20 years he paid increasingly after some uncertainty, Wessex.
large sums to the Danish nobles in an attempt to keep thelstan continued the expansion of his father and aunt
them from English coasts. Known as Danegelds, these and was the rst king to achieve direct rulership of what
payments slowly crippled the English economy and even-
we would now consider England. The titles attributed
tually became too expensive.[30] to him in charters and on coins suggest a still more
thelred then made an alliance with Normandy in 1001, widespread dominance. His expansion aroused ill-feeling
through marriage to the Dukes daughter Emma, in the among the other kingdoms of Britain, and he defeated a
hope of strengthening England. He then made a great combined Scottish-Viking army at the Battle of Brunan-
error: in 1002 he ordered the massacre of all the Danes burh. However, the unication of England was not a
in England, which had serious consequences. It angered certainty. Under thelstans successors Edmund and
Sweyn, who unleashed a decade of devastating attacks on Eadred the English kings repeatedly lost and regained
England. Northern England, with its sizable Danish pop- control of Northumbria. Nevertheless, Edgar, who ruled
ulation, sided with Sweyn. By 1013, London, Oxford, the same expanse as Athelstan, consolidated the king-
and Winchester had fallen to the Danes. thelred ed to dom, which remained united thereafter.
Normandy and Sweyn seized the throne. Sweyn suddenly
died in 1014, and thelred returned to England, con-
fronted by Sweyns successor, Cnut. However, in 1016, 7 England under the Danes and the
thelred also suddenly died. Cnut swiftly defeated the
remaining Saxons, killing thelreds son Edmund in the Norman conquest
process. Cnut seized the throne, crowning himself King
of England.[31] Main articles: Ethelred the Unready, Canute the Great,
Eirkr Hkonarson, and Norman conquest of England
There were renewed Scandinavian attacks on England at
6 English unication
Main articles: Athelstan and Edgar of England
Alfred of Wessex died in 899 and was succeeded by

Silver brooch imitating a coin of Edward the Elder, c. 920, found


in Rome, Italy. British Museum. The rune stone U 344 was raised in memory of a Viking who
went to England three times.
his son Edward the Elder. Edward, and his brother-in-
law thelred of (what was left of) Mercia, began a pro- the end of the 10th century. thelred ruled a long reign
gramme of expansion, building forts and towns on an Al- but ultimately lost his kingdom to Sweyn of Denmark,
8 8 NORMAN ENGLAND

though he recovered it following the latters death. How-


ever, thelreds son Edmund II Ironside died shortly af-
terwards, allowing Cnut, Sweyns son, to become king of
England. Under his rule the kingdom became the centre
of government for an empire which also included Den-
mark and Norway.
Cnut was succeeded by his sons, but in 1042 the native
dynasty was restored with the accession of Edward the
Confessor. Edwards failure to produce an heir caused a
furious conict over the succession on his death in 1066.
His struggles for power against Godwin, Earl of Wes-
sex, the claims of Cnuts Scandinavian successors, and
the ambitions of the Normans whom Edward introduced
to English politics to bolster his own position caused each Depiction of the Battle of Hastings (1066) on the Bayeux
to vie for control Edwards reign. Tapestry
Harold Godwinson became king, in all likelihood ap-
pointed by Edward the Confessor on his deathbed and
endorsed by the Witan. William of Normandy, Harald monopolised all senior positions in the government and
Hardrde (aided by Harold Godwins estranged brother the Church. William and his nobles spoke and conducted
Tostig) and Sweyn II of Denmark all asserted claims to court in Norman French, in England as well as in Nor-
the throne. By far the strongest hereditary claim was that mandy. The use of the Anglo-Norman language by the
of Edgar the theling, but his youth and apparent lack of aristocracy endured for centuries and left an indelible
powerful supporters caused him to be passed over, and he mark in the development of modern English.
did not play a major part in the struggles of 1066, though
Upon being crowned, on Christmas Day 1066, William
he was made king for a short time by the Witan after the
immediately began consolidating his power. By 1067 he
death of Harold Godwinson.
faced revolts on all sides and spent four years systemat-
In September 1066, Harald III of Norway landed in ically crushing each one. He then went about imposing
Northern England with a force of around 15,000 men and his superiority over Scotland and Wales, forcing each to
300 longships (50 men in each boat). With him was Earl recognise him as overlord.
Tostig, who had promised him support. Harold Godwin-
The English Middle Ages were characterised by civil
son defeated and killed Harald III of Norway and Tostig
war, international war, occasional insurrection, and
and the Norwegian force at the Battle of Stamford Bridge.
widespread political intrigue amongst the aristocratic and
On 28 September 1066, William of Normandy invaded monarchic elite. England was more than self-sucient in
England with a force of Normans, in a campaign known cereals, dairy products, beef and mutton. The nations
as the Norman Conquest. On 14 October, after having international economy was based on the wool trade, in
marched his exhausted army all the way from Yorkshire, which the produce of the sheepwalks of northern Eng-
Harold fought the Normans at the Battle of Hastings, land was exported to the textile cities of Flanders, where
where Englands army was defeated and Harold was it was worked into cloth. Medieval foreign policy was as
killed. Further opposition to William in support of Edgar much shaped by relations with the Flemish textile indus-
the theling soon collapsed, and William was crowned try as it was by dynastic adventures in western France.
king on Christmas Day 1066. For the next ve years he An English textile industry was established in the 15th
faced a series of English rebellions in various parts of the century, providing the basis for rapid English capital ac-
country and a half-hearted Danish invasion, but he was cumulation.
able to subdue all resistance and establish an enduring
Henry I, the fourth son of William I the Conqueror, suc-
regime.
ceeded his elder brother William II as King of England
in 1100. Henry was also known as Henry Beauclerc
(because of his educationas his older brother William
8 Norman England was the heir apparent and thus given the practical train-
ing to be king, Henry received the alternate, formal edu-
The Norman Conquest led to a profound change in the cation), worked hard to reform and stabilise the country
history of the English state. William ordered the com- and smooth the dierences between the Anglo-Saxon and
pilation of the Domesday Book, a survey of the entire Anglo-Norman societies. The loss of his son, William
population and their lands and property for tax purposes, Adelin, in the wreck of the White Ship in November
which reveals that within twenty years of the conquest 1120, undermined his reforms. This problem regarding
the English ruling class had been almost entirely dispos- succession cast a long shadow over English history.
sessed and replaced by Norman landholders, who also Henry I had required the leading barons, ecclesiastics and
9.1 Magna Carta 9

ocials in Normandy and England, to take an oath to ac- Angevin Empire. Henry destroyed the remaining adulter-
cept Matilda (also known as Empress Maud, Henry Is ine castles and expanded his power through various means
daughter) as his heir. England was far less than enthusi- and to dierent levels into Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Flan-
astic to accept an outsider, and a woman, as their ruler. ders, Nantes, Brittany, Quercy, Toulouse, Bourges and
There is some evidence suggesting Henry was unsure of Auvergne.
his own hopes and the oath to make Matilda his heir. In The reign of Henry II represents a reversion in power
likelihood, Henry probably hoped Matilda would have a back from the barony to the monarchical state in England;
son and step aside as Queen Mother, making her son the it was also to see a similar redistribution of legislative
next heir. Upon Henrys death, the Norman and English power from the Church, again to the monarchical state.
barons ignored Matildas claim to the throne, and thus This period also presaged a properly constituted legisla-
through a series of decisions, Stephen, Henrys favourite tion and a radical shift away from feudalism. In his reign
nephew, was welcomed by many in England and Nor- new Anglo-Angevin and Anglo-Aquitanian aristocracies
mandy as their new ruler. developed, though not to the same point as the Anglo-
On 22 December 1135, Stephen was anointed king with Norman once did, and the Norman nobles interacted with
the implicit support of the church and nation. Matilda their French peers.
and her own son stood for direct descent by heredity from Henrys successor, Richard I the Lion Heart (also
Henry I, and she bided her time in France. The follow- known as The absent king), was preoccupied with for-
ing civil war from 11391153 is known as the Anarchy. eign wars, taking part in the Third Crusade, being cap-
In the autumn of 1139, she invaded England with her il- tured while returning and pledging fealty to the Holy Ro-
legitimate half-brother Robert of Gloucester. Her hus- man Empire as part of his ransom, and defending his
band, Georoy V of Anjou, conquered Normandy but French territories against Philip II of France. His succes-
did not cross the channel to help his wife, satised with sor, his younger brother John, lost much of those territo-
Normandy and Anjou. During this breakdown of central ries including Normandy following the disastrous Battle
authority, the nobles ran amok building adulterine castles of Bouvines in 1214, despite having in 1212 made the
(i.e. castles erected without government permission). Kingdom of England a tribute-paying vassal of the Holy
See, which it remained until the 14th century when the
Stephen was captured, and his government fell. Matilda
was proclaimed queen but was soon at odds with her sub- Kingdom rejected the overlordship of the Holy See and
re-established its sovereignty.
jects and was expelled from London. The period of insur-
rection and civil war that followed continued until 1148, From 1212 onwards, John had a constant policy of main-
when Matilda returned to France. Stephen eectively taining close relations with the Pope, which partially ex-
reigned unopposed until his death in 1154, although his plains how he persuaded the Pope to reject the legitimacy
hold on the throne was still uneasy. As soon as he re- of the Magna Carta.
gained power, he began the process of demolishing the
adulterine castles, which were hated by the peasants due
to their being employed as forced labour to build and 9.1 Magna Carta
maintain them. Stephen kept a few castles standing how-
ever, which put him at odds with his heir. During the con- Main article: Magna Carta
fused and contested reign of Stephen, there was a major Over the course of his reign a combination of higher
swing in the balance of power towards the feudal barons,
as civil war and lawlessness broke out. In trying to ap-
pease Scottish and Welsh raiders, he handed over large
tracts of land.

9 England under the Plantagenets


Further information: House of Plantagenet

Empress Matilda and Georoys son, Henry, resumed the


invasion; he was already Count of Anjou, Duke of Nor-
mandy and Duke of Aquitaine when he landed in Eng- One of only four surviving exemplications of the 1215 text, Cot-
land. When Stephens son and heir apparent Eustace died ton MS. Augustus II. 106, property of the British Library
in 1153, the king reached an accommodation with Henry
of Anjou (who became Henry II) to succeed Stephen and taxes, unsuccessful wars and conict with the Pope had
in which peace between them was guaranteed. England made King John unpopular with his barons, and in 1215
was part of a greater union, retrospectively named the some of the most important decided to rebel against him.
10 10 14TH CENTURY

He met their leaders along with their French and Scot al- this. The kings enemies, including his cousin Thomas of
lies at Runnymede, near London on 15 June 1215 to seal Lancaster, captured and murdered Gaveston in 1312.
the Great Charter (Magna Carta in Latin), which imposed Edwards downfall came in 1326 when his wife, Queen
legal limits on the kings personal powers. Because he Isabella, travelled to her native France and then, along
had sealed under duress, however, John received approval with her lover Roger Mortimer, invaded England. De-
from the Pope to break his word as soon as hostilities had spite their tiny force, they quickly rallied support for
ceased, provoking the First Barons War and an invited their cause. The king ed London, and his companion
French invasion by Prince Louis of France (whom the since Piers Gavestons death, Hugh Despenser, was pub-
majority of the English barons had invited to replace John
licly tried and executed. Edward was eventually captured
on the throne and had him proclaimed king in London in and charged with breaking his coronation oath. He was
May 1216). John travelled around the country to oppose
deposed and remained imprisoned in Gloucestershire un-
the rebel forces, directing, among other operations, a two- til he was murdered some time in the autumn of 1327,
month siege of the rebel-held Rochester Castle.
presumably by agents of Isabella and Mortimer.
Johns son, Henry III, was only 9 years old when he be- Millions of people in northern Europe died in the Great
came king (12161272). He spent much of his reign Famine of 13151317.[33] In England, half a million peo-
ghting the barons over the Magna Carta [32] and the ple died, more than 10% of the population.[34]
royal rights, and was eventually forced to call the rst
"parliament" in 1264. He was also unsuccessful on the Edward III, son of Edward II, was crowned at age four-
Continent, where he endeavoured to re-establish English teen after his father was deposed by his mother and her
control over Normandy, Anjou, and Aquitaine. consort Roger Mortimer. At age seventeen he led a suc-
cessful coup against Mortimer, the de facto ruler of the
His reign was punctuated by numerous rebellions and civil country, and began his personal reign. Edward III reigned
wars, often provoked by incompetence and mismanage-
13271377, restored royal authority and went on to trans-
ment in government and Henrys perceived over-reliance form the Kingdom of England into the most ecient mil-
on French courtiers (thus restricting the inuence of the
itary power in Europe. His reign saw vital developments
English nobility). One of these rebellionsled by a dis- in legislature and governmentin particular the evolu-
aected courtier, Simon de Montfortwas notable for its
tion of the English parliamentas well as the ravages of
assembly of one of the earliest precursors to Parliament. the Black Death. After defeating, but not subjugating,
In addition to ghting the Second Barons War, Henry III
the Kingdom of Scotland, he declared himself rightful
made war against Saint Louis and was defeated during heir to the French throne in 1338, but his claim was de-
the Saintonge War, yet Louis IX did not capitalise on his nied due to the Salic law. This started what would be-
victory, respecting his opponents rights. come known as the Hundred Years War.[35] Following
some initial setbacks the war went exceptionally well for
England; victories at Crcy and Poitiers led to the highly
favourable Treaty of Brtigny. Edwards later years, how-
10 14th century ever, were marked by international failure and domestic
strife, largely as a result of his inactivity and poor health.
The reign of Edward I (reigned 12721307) was rather
In 1373, England signed an alliance with the Kingdom of
more successful. Edward enacted numerous laws
Portugal, which is claimed to be the oldest alliance in the
strengthening the powers of his government, and he sum-
world still in force.
moned the rst ocially sanctioned Parliaments of Eng-
land (such as his Model Parliament). He conquered In 1381, a Peasants Revolt led by Wat Tyler spread across
Wales and attempted to use a succession dispute to gain large parts of England. It was suppressed by Richard II,
control of the Kingdom of Scotland, though this devel- with the death of 1500 rebels.
oped into a costly and drawn-out military campaign.
His son, Edward II, proved a disaster. A weak man who
preferred to engage in activities like thatching and ditch-
10.1 Black Death
digging rather than jousting, hunting, or the usual enter-
tainments of kings, he spent most of his reign trying in Main article: Black Death in England
vain to control the nobility, who in return showed con-
tinual hostility to him. Meanwhile, the Scottish leader The Black Death, an epidemic of bubonic plague that
Robert Bruce began retaking all the territory conquered spread over the whole of Europe, arrived in England in
by Edward I. In 1314, the English army was disastrously 1348 and killed as much as a third to half the population.
defeated by the Scots at the Battle of Bannockburn. Ed- Military conicts during this period were usually with
ward also showered favours on his companion Piers Gave- domestic neighbours such as the Welsh, Irish and Scots,
ston, a knight of humble birth. While it has been widely and included the Hundred Years War against the French
believed that Edward was a homosexual because of his and their Scottish allies. Notable English victories in the
closeness to Gaveston, there is no concrete evidence of Hundred Years War included Crcy and Agincourt. The
11

nal defeat of the uprising led by the Welsh prince, OwainKing Charles VII of France. However, in 1429, Joan of
Glyndr, in 1412 by Prince Henry (who later became Arc began to lead a military eort by the French to pre-
Henry V) represents the last major armed attempt by the vent the English from gaining control of France. With
Welsh to throw o English rule. her help, the French forces were able to push the English
Edward III gave land to powerful noble families, includ- forces back and to regain control of French territory.
ing many people of royal lineage. Because land was In 1437, Henry VI came of age and began to actively rule
equivalent to power, these powerful men could try to as king. In an attempt to forge peace, he married a French
claim the crown. The autocratic and arrogant methods of noblewoman, Margaret of Anjou in 1445, as provided in
Richard II only served to alienate the nobility more, and the Treaty of Tours. Hostilities resumed with France in
his forceful dispossession in 1399 by Henry IV increased 1449. When England lost the Hundred Years War in Au-
the turmoil. gust 1453, Henry fell into a period of mental breakdown
Henry spent much of his reign defending himself against that lasted until Christmas 1454. With his inability to
plots, rebellions and assassination attempts. control the feuding nobles, civil war began in 1455.

Rebellions continued throughout the rst ten years of The conicts are known as the Wars of the Roses (1455
Henrys reign, including the revolt of Owain Glyndr, 1485), and although the ghting was very sporadic and
who declared himself Prince of Wales in 1400, and the small, there was a general breakdown in the authority
rebellion of Henry Percy, 1st Earl of Northumberland. and power of the Crown. The royal court and Parliament
The kings success in putting down these rebellions was moved to Coventry, in the Lancastrian heartlands, which
due partly to the military ability of his eldest son, Henry eectively became the capital of England until 1461.
of Monmouth, who later became king (though the son Henrys cousin, who deposed Henry in 1461 and became
managed to seize much eective power from his father Edward IV, went a little way to restoring the power of the
Crown. Edward defeated the Lancastrians at the Battle
in 1410).
of Mortimers Cross. He was briey expelled from the
throne in 14701471 when Richard Neville, Earl of War-
wick, brought Henry back to power. Six months later, Ed-
11 15th century Henry V and the ward defeated and killed Warwick in battle and reclaimed
Wars of the Roses the throne. Henry was imprisoned in the Tower of Lon-
don and died there.
Further information: Lancastrian War and Wars of the Edward died in 1483, only 40 years old. His eldest son
Roses and heir Edward V, aged 13, would have succeeded him,
but the kings brother Richard, Duke of Gloucester de-
clared his marriage to be bigamous and invalid, making
Henry V succeeded to the throne in 1413. He renewed
all his children illegitimate. Edward V and his 10-year-
hostilities with France and began a set of military cam-
old brother Richard were imprisoned in the Tower of
paigns which are considered a new phase of the Hundred
London and their uncle made himself king as Richard III.
Years War, referred to as the Lancastrian War. He won
The two princes were never seen again and presumably
several notable victories over the French, including at the
died in the Tower. It was widely believed that Richard
Battle of Agincourt. In the Treaty of Troyes, Henry V was
had them murdered, although their exact fate remains a
given the power to succeed the current ruler of France,
mystery. Regardless of what really happened, the king
Charles VI of France. The Treaty also provided that he
was reviled as a treacherous end who murdered his own
would marry Charles VIs daughter, Catherine of Valois.
nephews to gain the throne. This hatred of Richard ob-
They married in 1421. Henry died of dysentery in 1422,
scured his able governance during his brief reign. In the
leaving a number of unfullled plans, including his plan
summer of 1485, Henry Tudor, the last Lancastrian male,
to take over as King of France. (Another unfullled plan
landed in England from his exile in France. He defeated
was to lead a new crusade to retake Jerusalem from the
and killed Richard in battle at Bosworth Field on 22 Au-
Muslims.)
gust of that year and became king as Henry VII.
Henry Vs son, Henry VI, became king in 1422 as an in-
See also: Black Death in England, English historians in
fant. His reign was to be marked by constant turmoil due
the Middle Ages, List of English chronicles, and Bayeux
to his political weaknesses. While he was growing up,
Tapestry
England was ruled by the Regency Government of Eng-
land 142237.
The Regency Council attempted to install Henry VI as
the King of France, as provided by the Treaty of Troyes
signed by his father Henry V, and led English forces to 12 Tudor England
take over areas of France. It appeared they might suc-
ceed due to the poor political position of the son of King Main article: Tudor period
Charles VI, who had claimed to be the rightful king as Further information: Early Modern Britain and English
12 12 TUDOR ENGLAND

Renaissance to recognize him as king and stop sheltering pretenders.


Shortly afterwards, they became preoccupied with adven-
tures in Italy and turned their attention away from Eng-
land. Henry also reached an understanding with Scotland,
12.1 Henry VII agreeing to marry his daughter Margaret to that countrys
king James IV.
With Henry VII's accession to the throne in 1485, the
Upon becoming king, Henry inherited a government
Wars of the Roses came to an end, and Tudors would
severely weakened and degraded by the Wars of the
continue to rule England for 118 years. Traditionally, the
Roses. The treasury was empty, having been drained by
Battle of Bosworth Field is considered to mark the end
Edward IVs Woodville in-laws after his death. Through
of the Middle Ages in England, although Henry did not
a tight scal policy and sometimes ruthless tax collection
introduce any new concept of monarchy, and for most of
and conscations, Henry managed to rell the treasury
his reign his hold on power was tenuous. He claimed the
by the time of his death. He also eectively rebuilt the
throne by conquest and Gods judgement in battle. Par-
machinery of government.
liament quickly recognized him as king, but the Yorkists
were far from defeated. Nonetheless, he married Edward In 1501, the kings son Arthur, having married Catherine
IVs eldest daughter Elizabeth in January 1486, thereby of Aragon, died of an illness at the age of 15, leaving his
uniting the houses of York and Lancaster. younger son Henry, Duke of York, as his heir. When the
king himself died in 1509, the position of the Tudors was
Most of the European rulers did not believe Henry would
secure at last, and his son succeeded him unopposed.
survive long, and were thus willing to shelter claimants
against him. The rst plot against him was the Staord
and Lovell Rebellion of 1486, which presented no serious 12.2 Henry VIII
threat. But Richard IIIs nephew John de la Pole, Earl of
Lincoln, hatched another attempt the following year. Us-
ing a peasant boy named Lambert Simnel, who posed as
Edward, Earl of Warwick (the real Warwick was locked
up in the Tower of London), he led an army of 2,000 Ger-
man mercenaries paid for by Margaret of Burgundy into
England. They were defeated and de la Pole killed at the
dicult Battle of Stoke, where the loyalty of some of the
royal troops to Henry was questionable. The king, realiz-
ing that Simnel was merely a dupe, employed him in the
royal kitchen.
A more serious menace was Perkin Warbeck, a Flemish
youth who posed as Edward IVs son Richard. Again en-
joying the support of Margaret of Burgundy, he invaded
England four times from 14951497 before he was -
nally captured and put in the Tower of London. Both
Warbeck and the Earl of Warwick were too dangerous
to keep around even in captivity, and Henry had to exe-
cute them in 1499 before Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain
would allow their daughter Catherine to come to England
and marry his son Arthur.
In 1497, Henry defeated Cornish rebels marching on
London. The rest of his Henry VIIs reign was relatively
peaceful, despite worries concerning succession after the
death of his wife Elizabeth of York in 1503.
Henry VIIs foreign policy was a peaceful one. He had
formed an alliance with Spain and the Holy Roman Em- King Henry VIII
peror Maximilian I, but in 1493, when they went to war
with France, England was dragged into the conict. With Henry VIII began his reign with a high degree of opti-
his crown impoverished and his hold on power insecure, mism. The handsome, athletic young king stood in sharp
Henry had no desire to go to war. He quickly reached an contrast to his wary, miserly father. Henrys lavish court
understanding with the French and renounced all claims quickly drained the treasury of the fortune he had inher-
to their territory except the port of Calais, realizing also ited. He married the widowed Catherine of Aragon, and
that nothing could be done to stop them from incorporat- they had several children, but none survived infancy ex-
ing the Duchy of Brittany. In return, the French agreed cept a daughter, Mary.
12.3 Edward VI and Mary I 13

In 1512, the young king embarked on a war in France. beth. The king was devastated at his failure to obtain a
Although England was an ally of Spain, one of Frances son after all the eort it had taken to remarry. Gradu-
principal enemies, the war was mostly about Henrys de- ally, he came to develop a disliking of his new queen for
sire for personal glory, regardless of the fact that his her strange behaviour. In 1536, when Anne was preg-
sister Mary was married to the French king Louis XII. nant again, Henry was badly injured in a jousting acci-
The war accomplished little. The English army suered dent. Shaken by this, the queen gave birth prematurely
badly from disease, and Henry was not even present at to a stillborn boy. By now, the king was convinced that
the one notable victory, the Battle of the Spurs. Mean- his marriage was hexed, and having already found a new
while, James IV of Scotland (despite being Henrys other queen, Jane Seymour, he put Anne in the Tower of Lon-
brother-in-law), activated his alliance with the French don on charges of witchcraft. Afterwards, she was be-
and declared war on England. While Henry was dally- headed along with ve men (her brother included) ac-
ing in France, Catherine, who was serving as regent in cused of adultery with her. The marriage was then de-
his absence, and his advisers were left to deal with this clared invalid, so that Elizabeth, just like her half sister,
threat. At the Battle of Flodden on 9 September 1513, became a bastard.
the Scots were completely and totally defeated. Most of Henry immediately married Jane Seymour, who became
the Scottish nobility were killed along with James him- pregnant almost as quickly. On 12 October 1537, she
self. When Henry returned from France, he was given gave birth to a healthy boy, Edward, which was greeted
credit for the victory even though he had nothing to do with huge celebrations. The kings quest for a son was -
with it. nally over, so long as Edward could be kept healthy. How-
Eventually, Catherine was no longer able to have any ever, the queen died of puerperal sepsis ten days later.
more children. The king became increasingly nervous Henry genuinely mourned her death, and at his own pass-
about the possibility of his daughter Mary inheriting ing nine years later, he was buried next to her.
the throne, as Englands one experience with a female The king married a fourth time in 1540, to the German
sovereign, Matilda in the 12th century, had been a catas- Anne of Cleves for a political alliance with her Protestant
trophe. He eventually decided that it was necessary to di- brother, the Duke of Cleves. He also hoped to obtain an-
vorce Catherine and nd a new queen. The Church would other son in case something should happen to Edward.
not simply grant this favour, so Henry cited the passage Anne proved a dull, unattractive woman and Henry de-
in the Book of Leviticus where it said, If a man taketh clined to consummate the marriage. He quickly divorced
his brothers wife, he hath committed adultery; they shall her, and she remained in England as a kind of adopted sis-
be childless. However, Catherine insisted that she and
ter to him. So he married again, to a 19-year-old named
Arthur had never consummated their brief marriage and Catherine Howard. But when it became known that she
that the prohibition did not apply here. The timing of
was neither a virgin at the wedding, nor a faithful wife
Henrys case was very unfortunate; it was 1527 and the afterwards, she ended up on the scaold and the mar-
Pope had been taken prisoner by the emperor Charles V,
riage declared invalid. His sixth and last marriage was to
Catherines nephew and the most powerful man in Eu- Catherine Parr, more a nursemaid to him than anything
rope, for siding with his archenemy Francis I of France.
else, as his health was failing (it had declined ever since
As there was no possibility of getting a divorce in these the jousting accident in 1536).
circumstances, Henry decided to simply secede from the
Church, in what became known as the English Reforma- In 1542, the king embarked on a new campaign in France,
tion. but unlike in 1512, he only managed with great diculty.
The war netted England the city of Boulogne, but noth-
The newly established Church of England amounted to ing else, and the French retook it in 1549. Scotland also
little more than the existing Catholic Church, but with the declared war and at Solway Moss was once again totally
king rather than the Pope as its head. It took a number defeated.
of years for the separation from Rome to be completed,
however, and many were executed for resisting the kings Henrys paranoia and suspicion worsened in his last years.
religious policies. The total number of executions during his 38-year reign
numbered in the tens of thousands. He died in January
In 1530, Catherine was banished from court and spent the
1547 at the age of 55 and was succeeded by his son, Ed-
remainder of her life (until her death in 1536) alone in an ward VI.
isolated manor home, barred from any contact with Mary
(although her ladies-in-waiting helped the two maintain
a secret correspondence). Their marriage was declared 12.3 Edward VI and Mary I
invalid, making Mary an illegitimate child. Henry mar-
ried Anne Boleyn in secret in January 1533, just as his Although he showed piety and intelligence, Edward VI
divorce from Catherine was nalised. After this, they was only nine years old when he took the throne in 1547.
had a second, public wedding. Anne soon became preg- His uncle, Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset tam-
nant and may have already been when they wed. But on pered with Henry VIIIs will and obtained letters patent
7 September 1533, she gave birth to a daughter, Eliza- giving him much of the power of a monarch by March
14 12 TUDOR ENGLAND

1547. He took the title of Protector. Whilst some see vided the country since Henry VIII was in a way put to
him as a high-minded idealist, his stay in power culmi- rest by the Elizabethan Religious Settlement, which re-
nated in a crisis in 1549 when many counties of the realm established the Church of England. Much of Elizabeths
were up in protest. Ketts Rebellion in Norfolk and the success was in balancing the interests of the Puritans and
Prayer Book Rebellion in Devon and Cornwall simulta- Catholics. She managed to oend neither to a large ex-
neously created a crisis during a time when invasion from tent, although she clamped down on Catholics towards the
Scotland and France were feared. Somerset, disliked by end of her reign as war with Catholic Spain loomed.[38][39]
the Regency Council for his autocratic methods, was re- Despite the need for an heir, Elizabeth declined to marry,
moved from power by John Dudley, who is known as
despite oers from a number of suitors across Europe,
Lord President Northumberland. Northumberland pro- including the Swedish king Erik XIV. This created end-
ceeded to adopt the power for himself, but his methods
less worries over her succession, especially in the 1570s
were more conciliatory and the Council accepted him. It when she nearly died of smallpox. It has been often
was during Edwards reign that England became a Protes-
rumoured that she had a number of lovers (including
tant nation as opposed to a Catholic one in schism from Francis Drake), but there is no hard evidence.
Rome.
Edward was beginning to show great promise when he
fell violently ill with tuberculosis in 1553 and died that
August two months short of his 16th birthday.
Northumberland made plans to place Lady Jane Grey on
the throne and marry her to his son, so that he could
remain the power behind the throne. His plot failed in
a matter of days, Jane Grey was beheaded, and Mary
I (15161558) took the throne amidst popular demon-
stration in her favour in London, which contemporaries
described as the largest show of aection for a Tudor
monarch. Mary had never been expected to hold the
throne, at least not since Edward was born. She was a de-
voted Catholic who believed that she could turn the clock
back to 1516, before the Reformation began.[36]
Returning England to Catholicism led to the burnings of
274 Protestants, which are recorded especially in John
Foxe's Book of Martyrs. Mary then married her cousin
Elizabeth I
Philip, son of Emperor Charles V, and King of Spain
when Charles abdicated in 1556. The union was a di-
cult one, since Mary was already in her late 30s and Philip
was a Catholic and a foreigner, and so not very welcome
in England. This wedding also had the eect of provok- Elizabeth maintained relative government stability apart
ing the hostility of the French, already at war with Spain from the Revolt of the Northern Earls in 1569, she was
and now alarmed at the prospect of being completely en- eective in reducing the power of the old nobility and
circled by the Habsburgs. Calais, the last English outpost expanding the power of her government. Elizabeths gov-
on the Continent, was then taken by France. King Philip ernment did much to consolidate the work begun under
(15271598) had very little power, although he did pro- Thomas Cromwell in the reign of Henry VIII, that is, ex-
tect Elizabeth. He was not popular in England, and spent panding the role of the government and eecting com-
little time there.[37] Mary eventually became pregnant, or mon law and administration throughout England. During
at least believed herself to be. In reality, she may have the reign of Elizabeth and shortly afterwards, the popu-
had uterine cancer. Her death in November 1558 was lation grew signicantly: from three million in 1564 to
greeted with huge celebrations in the streets of London. nearly ve million in 1616.[40]
The queen ran afoul of her cousin Mary, Queen of Scots,
who was a devoted Catholic and had been forced to abdi-
12.4 Elizabeth I cate her throne as a consequence (Scotland had recently
become Protestant). She ed to England, where Eliza-
Main article: Elizabethan era beth immediately had her arrested. Mary spent the next
19 years in connement, but proved too dangerous to
The reign of Elizabeth I restored a sort of order to the keep alive, as the Catholic powers in Europe considered
realm following the turbulence of the reigns of Edward her, not Elizabeth, the legitimate ruler of England. She
VI and Mary I when she came to the throne following the was eventually tried for treason and sentenced to death,
latters death in 1558. The religious issue which had di- being beheaded in February 1587.
12.4 Elizabeth I 15

12.4.1 Elizabethan era sion would be limited until the signing of the Treaty of
London the year following Elizabeths death.
England during this period had a centralised, well-
The Elizabethan era was the epoch in English history of
organised, and eective government, largely a result of
Queen Elizabeth I's reign (15581603). Historians often
the reforms of Henry VII and Henry VIII. Economically,
depict it as the golden age in English history. The symbol
the country began to benet greatly from the new era of
of Britannia was rst used in 1572 and often thereafter to
trans-Atlantic trade.
mark the Elizabethan age as a renaissance that inspired
national pride through classical ideals, international ex-
pansion, and naval triumph over the hated Spanish foe.
In terms of the entire century, the historian John Guy
(1988) argues that England was economically healthier,
more expansive, and more optimistic under the Tudors"
than at any time in a thousand years.[41]
This golden age[42] represented the apogee of the
English Renaissance and saw the owering of poetry, mu-
sic and literature. The era is most famous for theatre, as
William Shakespeare and many others composed plays
that broke free of Englands past style of theatre. It was
an age of exploration and expansion abroad, while back
at home, the Protestant Reformation became more ac-
ceptable to the people, most certainly after the Spanish
Armada was repulsed. It was also the end of the period
when England was a separate realm before its royal union
with Scotland.
The Elizabethan Age is viewed so highly largely because
of the periods before and after. It was a brief period
of largely internal peace between the English Reforma-
tion and the battles between Protestants and Catholics and
the battles between parliament and the monarchy that en-
gulfed the seventeenth century. The Protestant/Catholic
divide was settled, for a time, by the Elizabethan Re-
ligious Settlement, and parliament was not yet strong The National Armada memorial in Plymouth using the Britannia
enough to challenge royal absolutism. image to celebrate the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588
(William Charles May, sculptor, 1888)
England was also well-o compared to the other nations
of Europe. The Italian Renaissance had come to an end
under the weight of foreign domination of the peninsula.
France was embroiled in its own religious battles that 12.4.2 Foreign aairs
would only be settled in 1598 with the Edict of Nantes.
In part because of this, but also because the English had In foreign policy Elizabeth played against each other the
been expelled from their last outposts on the continent, major powers of France and Spain, as well as the pa-
the centuries long conict between France and England pacy and Scotland. These were all Catholic and each
was largely suspended for most of Elizabeths reign. wanted to end Protestantism in England. Elizabeth was
The one great rival was Spain, with which England cautious in foreign aairs and only half-heartedly sup-
clashed both in Europe and the Americas in skirmishes ported a number of ineective, poorly resourced military
that exploded into the Anglo-Spanish War of 15851604. campaigns in the Netherlands, France and Ireland. She
An attempt by Philip II of Spain to invade England with risked war with Spain by supporting the "Sea Dogs, such
the Spanish Armada in 1588 was famously defeated, but as Walter Raleigh, John Hawkins and Sir Francis Drake,
the tide of war turned against England with an unsuc- who preyed on the Spanish merchant ships carrying gold
cessful expedition to Portugal and the Azores, the Drake- and silver from the New World. The major war came with
Norris Expedition of 1589. Thereafter Spain provided Spain, 15851603. When Spain tried to invade and con-
some support for Irish Catholics in a debilitating rebellion quer England it was a asco, and the defeat of the Spanish
against English rule, and Spanish naval and land forces Armada in 1588 associated Elizabeths name forever with
inicted a series of reversals against English oensives. what is popularly viewed as one of the greatest victories
This drained both the English Exchequer and economy in English history. Her enemies failed to combine and
that had been so carefully restored under Elizabeths pru- Elizabeths foreign policy successfully navigated all the
dent guidance. English commercial and territorial expan- dangers.[43]
16 13 17TH CENTURY

12.5 End of Tudor era

In all, the Tudor period is seen as a decisive one which


set up many important questions which would have to be
answered in the next century and during the English Civil
War. These were questions of the relative power of the
monarch and Parliament and to what extent one should
control the other. Some historians think that Thomas
Cromwell aected a Tudor Revolution in government,
and it is certain that Parliament became more important
during his chancellorship. Other historians say the Tu-
dor Revolution really extended to the end of Elizabeths
reign, when the work was all consolidated. Although the
Privy Council declined after the death of Elizabeth, while
she was alive it was very eective.
Captain John Smith landing in Jamestown, Virginia, 1607

13.3 English Civil War


13 17th century
Further information: English Civil War
Main article: 17th century England The First English Civil War broke out in 1642, largely as

13.1 Union of the Crowns

Elizabeth died in 1603 at the age of 69. Her closest male


Protestant relative was the King of Scots, James VI, of the
House of Stuart, who became King James I of England
in a Union of the Crowns. King James I & VI as he was
styled became the rst monarch to rule the entire island
of Great Britain, although it was merely a union of the
English and Scottish crowns, and both countries remained
separate political entities. Several assassination attempts
were made on James, notably the Main Plot and Bye Plots
of 1603, and most famously, on 5 November 1605, the
Gunpowder Plot, by a group of Catholic conspirators, led
by Sir Robert Catesby, which caused more antipathy in
England towards the Catholic faith. Upon taking power,
James immediately made peace with Spain, and for the
rst half of the 17th century, England remained largely
inactive in European politics.

Maps of territory held by Royalists (red) and Parliamentarians


13.2 Colonial England (green) during the English Civil War (16421645)

In 1607 England built an establishment at Jamestown. a result of an ongoing series of conicts between James
This was the beginning of colonialism by England in son, Charles I, and Parliament. The defeat of the Roy-
North America. Many English settled then in North alist army by the New Model Army of Parliament at the
America for religious or economic reasons. Approx- Battle of Naseby in June 1645 eectively destroyed the
imately 70% of English immigrants to North Amer- kings forces. Charles surrendered to the Scottish army
ica who came between 16301660 were indentured ser- at Newark. He was eventually handed over to the English
vants. By 1700, Chesapeake planters transported about Parliament in early 1647. He escaped, and the Second
100,000 indentured servants,[44] who accounted for more English Civil War began, although it was a short conict,
than 75% of all European immigrants to Virginia and with the New Model Army quickly securing the country.
Maryland.[45] The capture and subsequent trial of Charles led to his be-
17

pressing for his Protestant daughter Mary and her hus-


band, Prince William III of Orange, to replace him in
what became known as the Glorious Revolution.
In November 1688, William landed in England with an
invading force, and succeeded in being crowned king.
After this, James attempted to retake the throne by
force in the Williamite War, and was nally defeated by
William at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690.
In December 1689, one of the most important constitu-
tional documents in English history, the Bill of Rights,
was passed.[46] The Act, which restated and conrmed
many provisions of the earlier Declaration of Right, es-
tablished restrictions on the royal prerogative. It pro-
vided, amongst other things, that the Sovereign could not
suspend laws passed by Parliament, levy taxes without
King Charles I, who was beheaded in 1649 parliamentary consent, infringe the right to petition, raise
a standing army during peacetime without parliamentary
heading in January 1649 at Whitehall Gate in London, consent, deny the right to bear arms to Protestant sub-
making England a republic. The trial and execution of jects, unduly interfere with parliamentary elections, pun-
Charles by his own subjects shocked the rest of Europe ish members of either House of Parliament for anything
(the king argued to the end that only God could judge said during debates, require excessive bail or inict cruel
him) and was a precursor of sorts to the beheading of and unusual punishments.[47] William was opposed to the
Louis XVI 145 years later. imposition of such constraints, but he chose not to engage
in a conict with Parliament and agreed to abide by the
The New Model Army, under the command of Oliver statute.[48]
Cromwell, then scored decisive victories against Royal-
ist armies in Ireland and Scotland. Cromwell was given In parts of Scotland and Ireland, Catholics loyal to James
the title Lord Protector in 1653, making him 'king in all remained determined to see him restored to the throne,
but name' to his critics. After he died in 1658, his son and there followed a series of bloody though unsuccess-
Richard Cromwell succeeded him in the oce but he was ful uprisings. As a result of these, any failure to pledge
forced to abdicate within a year. For a while it looked as loyalty to the victorious King William was severely dealt
if a new civil war would begin as the New Model Army with. The most infamous example of this policy was the
split into factions. Troops stationed in Scotland under the Massacre of Glencoe in 1692. Jacobite rebellions con-
command of George Monck eventually marched on Lon- tinued on into the mid-18th century until the son of the
don to restore order. last Catholic claimant to the throne, (James III & VIII),
mounted a nal campaign in 1745. The Jacobite forces of
Prince Charles Edward Stuart, the Bonnie Prince Char-
13.4 Restoration of the monarchy lie of legend, were defeated at the Battle of Culloden in
1746.
The monarchy was restored in 1660, with King Charles
II returning to London.
In 1665, London was swept by a visitation of the plague,
and then, in 1666, the capital was swept by the Great Fire,
14 Formation of the United King-
which raged for 5 days, destroying approximately 15,000 dom
buildings. After the Restoration, there was an overall re-
duction in the power of the crown, and by the 18th cen- The Acts of Union between the Kingdom of England and
tury England rivaled the Netherlands for being one of the the Kingdom of Scotland were a pair of Parliamentary
freest countries in Europe. Acts passed by both parliaments in 1707, which dissolved
them in order to form a Kingdom of Great Britain gov-
erned by a unied Parliament of Great Britain according
13.5 Glorious Revolution
to the Treaty of Union. The Acts joined the Kingdom of
In 1680, the Exclusion crisis occurred due to widespread England and the Kingdom of Scotland (previously sepa-
objections to a Catholic serving as the King of England, rate states, with separate legislatures but with the[49]same
since James was the heir presumptive to Charles, who monarch) into a single Kingdom of Great Britain.
was the king at that time. After the death of Charles II The two countries had shared a monarch since the Union
in 1685, his Catholic brother King James II & VII was of the Crowns in 1603, when King James VI of Scotland
crowned. From that point, there were various factions inherited the English throne from his double rst cousin
18 15 MODERN ENGLAND, 18TH19TH CENTURIES

twice removed, Queen Elizabeth I. Although described as 15 Modern England, 18th19th


a Union of Crowns, until 1707 there were in fact two sep-
arate Crowns resting on the same head. There had been
centuries
three attempts in 1606, 1667, and 1689 to unite the two
countries by Acts of Parliament, but it was not until the Main article: History of the United Kingdom
early 18th century that the idea had the will of both politi- Further information: Social history of England and
cal establishments behind them, albeit for rather dierent History of local government in England The evolution
reasons. of modern local government (18321974)
The Acts took eect on 1 May 1707. On this date,
the Scots Parliament and the English Parliament united Following the formation of the United Kingdom, the his-
to form the Parliament of Great Britain, based in the tory of England is no longer the history of a sovereign
Palace of Westminster in London, the home of the En- nation, but rather the history of one of the countries of
glish Parliament.[50] Hence, the Acts are referred to as the United Kingdom.
the Union of the Parliaments. On the Union, histo-
rian Simon Schama said What began as a hostile merger,
would end in a full partnership in the most powerful going 15.1 Industrial Revolution
concern in the world ... it was one of the most astonishing
transformations in European history.[51] Main article: Economic history of Britain
In 1714 the reign of Queen Anne ended. Anne was the
last monarch of the House of Stuart. She was succeeded During the late 18th century and early 19th century, there
by her second cousin, George I, of the House of Hanover, was considerable social upheaval as a largely agrarian so-
who was a descendant of the Stuarts through his maternal ciety was transformed by technological advances and in-
grandmother, Elizabeth, daughter of James VI & I.[52] creasing mechanization, which was the Industrial Revo-
A series of Jacobite rebellions broke out in an attempt lution. Much of the agricultural workforce was uprooted
to restore the Stuart monarchy, but all ultimately failed. from the countryside and moved into large urban cen-
Several Planned French Invasions were attempted, also tres of production, as the steam-based production fac-
with the intention of placing the Stuarts on the throne. tories could undercut the traditional cottage industries,
because of economies of scale and the increased output
per worker made possible by the new technologies. The
consequent overcrowding into areas with little supporting
infrastructure saw dramatic increases in the rate of infant
mortality (to the extent that many Sunday schools for pre-
working age children (5 or 6) had funeral clubs to pay for
each others funeral arrangements), crime, and social de-
privation.
The transition to industrialization was not wholly seam-
less for workers, many of whom saw their livelihoods
threatened by the process. Of these, some frequently sab-
otaged or attempted to sabotage factories. These sabo-
teurs were known as "Luddites".

15.2 Local governance


The rst general laws against child labour, the Factory Acts, were
passed in Britain in the rst half of the 19th century. Children
younger than nine were not allowed to work and the work day Further information: History of local government in Eng-
of youth under the age of 18 was limited to twelve hours.[53] land
The Local Government Act of 1888 was the rst sys-
tematic attempt to impose a standardised system of local
government in England. The counties of England at the
time (today known as the historic counties, since the ma-
The Act of Union of 1800 formally assimilated Ireland jor boundary changes of 1974) were used as the basis of
within the British political process and from 1 January the system. A second Act in 1894 (Local Government
1801 created a new state called the United Kingdom of Act 1894) also created a second tier of local government.
Great Britain and Ireland, which united the Kingdom of Henceforth, all administrative counties and county bor-
Great Britain with the Kingdom of Ireland to form a sin- oughs would be divided into either rural or urban districts,
gle political entity. The English capital of London was allowing more localised administration.
adopted as the capital of the Union. By 1888, it was clear that the piecemeal system that had
19

rotulorum, justices, militia, coroner, or other. With the


advent of elected councils, the oces of lord lieutenant
and sheri became largely ceremonial.
The statutory counties formed the basis for the so-called
'administrative counties. However, it was felt that large
cities and primarily rural areas in the same county could
not be well administered by the same body. Thus 59
counties in themselves, or 'county boroughs, were cre-
ated to administer the urban centres of England. These
were part of the statutory counties, but not part of the
administrative counties.
A second Act in 1894 (Local Government Act 1894) also
created a second tier of local government. Henceforth,
all administrative counties and county boroughs would
The Billingsgate Fish Market in the early 19th century
be divided into either rural or urban districts, allowing
more localised administration. The municipal boroughs
reformed after 1835 were brought into this system as spe-
cial cases of urban districts. The urban and rural districts
were based upon, and incorporated the sanitary districts
which had been created in 1875 (with adjustments, so
that districts did not overlap two counties).
The Act also provided for the establishment of civil
parishes. The 1894 Act formed an ocial system of
civil parishes, separated from the ecclesiastical parishes,
to carry on some of these responsibilities (others being
transferred to the district/county councils). However, the
civil parishes were not a complete third-tier of local gov-
ernment. Instead, they were 'community councils for
smaller, rural settlements, which did not have a local gov-
Chester, c. 1880 ernment district to themselves. Where urban parish coun-
cils had previously existed, they were absorbed into the
new urban districts.
developed over the previous century in response to the
vastly increased need for local administration could no
longer cope. The sanitary districts and parish councils
had legal status, but were not part of the mechanism of 16 20th and 21st centuries
government. They were run by volunteers; often there
was no-one who could be held responsible for the fail- Main articles: Social history of the United Kingdom
ure to undertake the required duties. Furthermore, the (1945present) and Political history of the United
increased county business could not be handled by the Kingdom (1945present)
Quarter Sessions, nor was it appropriate to do so. Fi-
nally, there was a desire to see local administration per- A prolonged agricultural depression in Britain at the end
formed by elected ocials, as in the reformed municipal of the 19th century, together with the introduction in the
boroughs. The Local Government Act was therefore the 20th century of increasingly heavy levels of taxation on
rst systematic attempt to impose a standardised system inherited wealth, put an end to agricultural land as the pri-
of local government in England. mary source of wealth for the upper classes. Many estates
The counties of England at the time (now known as the were sold or broken up, and this trend was accelerated by
historic counties, since the major boundary changes of the introduction of protection for agricultural tenancies,
1974) were used as the basis of the system. The coun- encouraging outright sales, from the mid-20th century.
ties themselves had undergone some boundary changes
in the preceding 50 years, mainly to remove enclaves
and exclaves. The act called for the creation of statu- 16.1 General history and political issues
tory counties, based on the ancient/historic counties, but
completely corrected for enclaves and exclaves, and ad- Following years of political and military agitation for
justed so that all settlements were completely within a sin- 'Home Rule' for Ireland, the Anglo-Irish treaty of 1921
gle county. These statutory counties were to be used for established the Irish Free State (now the Republic of Ire-
non-administrative functions: "sheri, lieutenant, custos land) as a separate state, leaving Northern Ireland as part
20 16 20TH AND 21ST CENTURIES

The aim of the act was to establish a uniform two tier


system across the country. Onto the blank canvas, new
counties were created to cover the entire country; many
of these were obviously based on the historic counties, but
there were some major changes, especially in the north.
This uniform two-tier system lasted only 12 years. In
1986, the metropolitan county councils and Greater Lon-
don were abolished. This restored autonomy (in eect the
old county borough status) to the metropolitan and Lon-
don boroughs. The Local Government Act (1992) estab-
lished a commission (Local Government Commission for
England) to examine the issues, and make recommenda-
tions on where unitary authorities should be established.
It was considered too expensive to make the system en-
Victory in Europe Day celebrations in London, 8 May 1945 tirely unitary, and also there would doubtlessly be cases
where the two-tier system functioned well. The commis-
sion recommended that many counties be moved to com-
of the United Kingdom. The ocial name of the UK pletely unitary systems; that some cities become unitary
thus became The United Kingdom of Great Britain and authorities, but that the remainder of their parent coun-
Northern Ireland". ties remain two-tier; and that in some counties the status
England, as part of the UK, joined the European Eco- quo should remain.
nomic Community in 1973, which became the European The rate-capping rebellion was a campaign within English
Union in 1993. local councils in 1985 which aimed to force the Conserva-
There is a movement in England to create a devolved En- tive government of Margaret Thatcher to withdraw pow-
glish Parliament. This would give England a local Parlia- ers to restrict the spending of councils. The campaigns
ment like those already functioning for Scotland, North- tactic was that councils whose budgets were restricted
ern Ireland and Wales. This issue is referred to as the would refuse to set any budget at all for the nancial year
West Lothian question. 198586, requiring the Government to intervene directly
in providing local services, or to concede. However, all
15 councils which initially refused to set a rate eventually
did so, and the campaign failed to change Government
16.2 Political history and local government policy. Powers to restrict council budgets have remained
in place ever since.
For more details on this topic, see History of local
In 1997, the Lieutenancies Act was passed. This rmly
government in England.
separated all local authority areas (whether unitary or
two-tier), from the geographical concept of a county as
A Local Government Commission was wound up in high level spatial unit. The lieutenancies it established
1966, and replaced with a Royal Commission (known became known as ceremonial counties, since they were
as the Redclie-Maud commission). In 1969 it recom- no longer administrative divisions. The counties repre-
mended a system of single-tier unitary authorities for the sent a compromise between the historic counties and the
whole of England, apart from three metropolitan areas of counties established in 1974.
Merseyside, Selnec (Greater Manchester) and West Mid-
While the 1997 Labour government devolved power to
lands (Birmingham and the Black Country), which were
Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland, it refused to cre-
to have both a metropolitan council and district councils.
ate a devolved Assembly or parliament for England, plan-
This report was accepted by the Labour Party govern-
ning instead to introduce eight regional assemblies around
ment of the time despite considerable opposition, but the
England to devolve power to the regions. In the event,
Conservative Party won the June 1970 general election,
only a London Assembly (and directly elected Mayor)
and on a manifesto that committed them to a two-tier
was established. Rejection in a referendum of a pro-
structure.
posed North-East Assembly in 2004 eectively scrapped
The reforms arising from the Local Government Act of those plans. A pre-condition of having a regional assem-
1972 resulted in the most uniform and simplied system bly was for the whole area to move to unitary authority
of local government which has been used in England. status. Since the 2005 general election the government
They eectively wiped away everything that had gone has oated the idea of voluntary mergers of local councils,
before, and built an administrative system from scratch. avoiding a costly reorganisation but achieving desired re-
All previous administrative districts statutory counties, form. For instance, the guiding principles of the govern-
administrative counties, county boroughs, municipal bor- ments New Localism demand levels of eciency not
oughs, counties corporate, civil parishes were abolished.
17.2 Historical lists and timelines 21

present in the current over-duplicated two-tier structure. History of the United Kingdom

History of Scotland
16.3 Recent changes
History of Ireland
In 2009, new changes to local government were made
whereby a number of new unitary authorities were cre- History of Wales
ated in areas which previously had a 'two-tier' system of
counties and districts. In ve shire counties the functions Politics of the United Kingdom
of the county and district councils were combined into
a single authority; and in two counties the powers of the Administrative geography of the United Kingdom
county council were absorbed into a signicantly reduced
number of districts. List of articles about local government in the United
The abolition of regional development agencies and the Kingdom
creation of Local enterprise partnerships were announced
as part of the June 2010 United Kingdom budget.[54] On Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics
29 June 2010 a letter was sent from the Department of
Communities and Local Government and the Department
for Business, Innovation and Skills to local authority 17.2 Historical lists and timelines
and business leaders, inviting proposals to replace re-
gional development agencies in their areas by 6 Septem- List of British monarchs, British monarchs family
ber 2010.[55] tree
On 7 September 2010, details were released of 56 pro-
posals for local enterprise partnerships that had been Timeline of English history
received.[56][57] On 6 October 2010, during the Conser-
vative Party Conference, it was revealed that 22 had been Timeline of British diplomatic history
given the provisional 'green light' to proceed and others
may later be accepted with amendments.[58] 24 bids were Historical and alternative regions of England
announced as successful on 28 October 2010.[59]

17.3 Overviews of signicant historical


17 See also eras

Parliament of England House of Plantagenet

Parliament of United Kingdom House of Lancaster

Monarchs of England House of York


English monarchs family tree
Note: Be sure to check the box in the upper right corner
Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
of this entry, providing a list of all notable eras within the
List of rulers of the United Kingdom and predeces- history of England.
sor states

17.4 Related English history topics


17.1 Related historical overviews
17.4.1 Societal overviews
Bretwalda

Commonwealth of Nations English people

Danelaw Population of England historical estimates


History of the foreign relations of the United King- Culture of England
dom

History of the British constitution Politics of England

History of the British Isles Social history of England


22 18 REFERENCES

17.4.2 Local government [15] Stephen Oppenheimer, The Origins of the British, 2006

History of local government in England [16] Bryan Sykes, Blood of the Isles, 2003

2009 structural changes to local government in Eng- [17] Myres et al, A major Y-chromosome haplogroup R1b
Holocene era founder eect in Central and Western Eu-
land
rope in European Journal of Human Genetics, 2010
Regions of England [18] http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/2076470.stm
Subdivisions of England [19] Henry Freeman, Roman Britain: A History From Begin-
ning to End (2016).
Unitary authorities of England
[20] http://www.arch.ox.ac.uk/wessex.html
17.4.3 Historical subtopics [21] Anglo-Saxon Chronicles

History of education in England [22] Stenton, Frank. Anglo-Saxon England. OUP, 1971

History of the Jews in England [23] Francis Pryor, Britain AD, 2004

Military history of England [24] Georey Hindley, The Anglo-Saxons, 2006

English nationalism [25] Frank Merry Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England (1971).

[26] Peter Hayes Sawyer, From Roman Britain to Norman Eng-


Anglo-Saxon England
land (Routledge, 2002).

[27] Rees, Rosemary (2002). The Vikings. Heinemann. p. 45.


18 References ISBN 9781403401007.

[28] Albany F. Major, Early wars of Wessex (Hildreth Press,


[1] Sample, Ian (7 July 2010). First humans arrived 2008).
in Britain 250,000 years earlier than thought. The
Guardian. Retrieved 29 January 2014; Wade, Nicholas [29] Richard P. Ables, Alfred the great: war, kingship and cul-
(7 July 2010). Clues of Britains First Humans. The ture I'm Anglo-Saxon England (1998).
New York Times. Retrieved 22 December 2011; Earliest
footprints outside Africa discovered in Norfolk. (2014). [30] Michael K. Lawson, The collection of Danegeld and
BBC News. Retrieved 7 February 2014. Heregeld in the reigns of Aethelred II and Cnut. English
Historical Review 99.393 (1984): 721-738. in JSTOR
[2] http://earthsky.org/human-world/
jawbone-is-earliest-evidence-of-modern-humans-in-europe[31] Thames Cussans, Kings and Queens of the British Isles
(The Times Books, 2002), pp.32-35.
[3] The Anglo-Saxons, BBC History
[32] https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/
[4] Uniting the kingdom? nationalarchives.gov.uk, accessed magna-carta-muse-and-mentor/
2 July 2011 confirmation-by-kings-and-parliament.html

[5] The Union of the Parliaments 1707 Learning and Teach- [33] "The Story of Ireland". Brian Igoe (2009). p.49.
ing Scotland, accessed 2 July 2011
[34] "The savage wars of peace: England, Japan and the
[6] Union with England Act 1707, Article II Malthusian trap". Alan Macfarlane (1997). p.66. ISBN
0-631-18117-2
[7] Francis Pryor, Britain BC, 2003.
[35] Edward rst styled himself King of France in 1337,
[8] V Ganey, S Fitch and D Smith 2009, Europes Lost though he did not ocially assume the title until 1340;
World: The Rediscovery of Doggerland. Prestwich (2005), pp. 3078.
[9] Francis Pryor, Britain BC, 2003 [36] Ann Weikel, Mary I (15161558)", Oxford Dictionary of
[10] Barry Cunlie, The Ancient Celts, 1997 National Biography, online edition, Jan 2008 accessed 25
Aug 2011
[11] Barry Cunlie, Iron Age Communities in Britain, 2005
[37] Glyn Redworth, Philip (15271598)", Oxford Dictionary
[12] Guy de la Bedoyere, Roman Britain: A New History, 2010 of National Biography, online edition, May 2011 accessed
25 Aug 2011
[13] Mattingly, H. & Handford, S.A. (trans.), The Agricola and
the Germania (Revised edition), Penguin Classics, 1970, [38] J. B. Black The Reign of Elizabeth, 15581603 (Oxford
p. 10. History of England) (2nd ed. 1959) online edition

[14] Tacitus, Agricola chapter 11. [39] J. A. Guy, Tudor England (1990) excerpt and text search
23

[40] Archived 23 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine. 19 Further reading


[41] John Guy (1988) Tudor England, Oxford University
Press, p. 32 ISBN 0192852132 Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (2004)
online; short scholarly biographies of all the major
[42] From the 1944 Clark lectures by C. S. Lewis; Lewis, En- people
glish Literature in the Sixteenth Century (Oxford, 1954) p.
1, OCLC 256072 Bdarida, Franois. A social history of England
1851-1990. Routledge, 2013.
[43] Charles Beem, The Foreign Relations of Elizabeth I (2011)
excerpt and text search Davies, Norman, The Isles, A History Oxford Uni-
versity Press, 1999, ISBN 0-19-513442-7
[44] "Africans, Slavery, and Race". Public Broadcasting Ser-
vice (PBS).
Black, Jeremy. A new history of England (The His-
[45] "Leaving England: The Social Background of Inden- tory Press, 2013)
tured Servants in the Seventeenth Century", The Colonial
Williamsburg Foundation. Clapp, Brian William. An environmental history
of Britain since the industrial revolution (Routledge,
[46] Van der Kiste, 114115 2014)
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24 19 FURTHER READING

19.2 Primary sources Henderson, Ernest Flagg, ed. Select historical docu-
ments of the Middle Ages (1907) online
English historical documents London: Methuen; 12
vol to 1957; reprinted 2011; the most comprehen- Leach, Arthur F. ed. Educational Charters and Doc-
sive collection on political, constitutional, economic uments 598 to 1909 (1911) 640pp; online over 400
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Douglas, David Charles. ed. English historical Stephenson, Carl and Frederick G. Marcham, eds.
documents, 1042-1189 (Vol. 2. Psychology Sources of English Constitutional History (2nd ed.
Press, 1995, Reprint) 1990)
Myers, Alec Reginald, ed. English histori- Stubbs, William, ed. Select charters and other
cal documents. 4.[Late medieval]. 1327-1485 illustrations of English constitutional history from
(Vol. 4. Psychology Press, 1995, Reprint) the earliest times to the reign of Edward the First
Rothwell, Harry, ed. English Historical Doc- (Clarendon Press, 1870) online
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Reprint) Span of Empire, 1689 1971 (4 Vol, 1983), 3425pp
Whitelock, Dorothy. English Historical Docu-
ments, 500-1042 (Vol. 1. Psychology Press, Wiener, Joel H. ed. Great Britain: the lion at home; a
1996, Reprint) documentary history of domestic policy, 16891973
(4 vol 1974), 1396 pp
Williams, Charles H. English Historical Doc-
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1995, Reprint) 19.3 External sources
Archer, Ian W., and F. Douglas Price, eds. En-
glish Historical Documents: 1558-1603 (Rout- Finding primary resources for modern British his-
ledge, 2011, reprint) tory

Coward, Barry, and David Charles Douglas, Connected Histories


eds. English historical documents. 5:[Early
modern]:(B). 1603-1660 (Routledge, 2010 Letters of the Kings of England, now rst collected
reprint) from the originals in royal archives, and from other
authentic sources, private as well as public by J O
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Documents, 1660-1714 (Vol. 6. Psychology 1 Google Books
Press, 1995, reprint)
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7. Routledge, 1996, reprint)
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