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For other uses, see History of England (disambiguation). 1453), a series of conicts involving the peoples of both
English history redirects here. For the Jon English nations. Following the Hundred Years Wars, England
album, see English History (album). became embroiled in its own succession wars. The Wars
of the Roses pitted two branches of the House of Plan-
tagenet against one another, the House of York and the
England became inhabited more than 800,000 years
ago, as the discovery of int tools and footprints at House of Lancaster. The Lancastrian Henry Tudor ended
Tudor dynasty
Happisburgh in Norfolk has revealed.[1] The earliest ev- the War of the Roses and established the
idence for early modern humans in North West Europe, in 1485.
a jawbone discovered in Devon at Kents Cavern in 1927, Under the Tudors and the later Stuart dynasty, England
was re-dated in 2011 to between 41,000 and 44,000 years became a colonial power. During the rule of the Stu-
old.[2] Continuous human habitation in England dates to arts, the English Civil War took place between the Par-
around 13,000 years ago (see Creswellian), at the end of liamentarians and the Royalists, which resulted in the
the last glacial period. The region has numerous remains execution of King Charles I (1649) and the establish-
from the Mesolithic, Neolithic, and Bronze Age, such as ment of a series of republican governments rst, a
Stonehenge and Avebury. In the Iron Age, England, like Parliamentary republic known as the Commonwealth of
all of Britain south of the Firth of Forth, was inhabited by England (1649-1653), then a military dictatorship un-
the Celtic people known as the Britons, including some der Oliver Cromwell known as The Protectorate (1653-
Belgic tribes (e.g. the Atrebates, the Catuvellauni, the 1659). The Stuarts returned to the restored throne in
Trinovantes, etc.) in the south east. In AD 43 the Roman 1660, though continued questions over religion and power
conquest of Britain began; the Romans maintained con- resulted in the deposition of another Stuart king, James II,
trol of their province of Britannia until the early 5th cen- in the Glorious Revolution (1688). England, which had
tury. conquered Wales in the 13th century, united with Scot-
The end of Roman rule in Britain facilitated the Anglo- land in 1707 to form a new sovereign state called Great
Britain.[4][5][6] Following the Industrial Revolution, Great
Saxon settlement of Britain, which historians often re-
gard as the origin of England and of the English people. Britain ruled a colonial Empire, the largest in recorded
history. Following a process of decolonisation in the
The Anglo-Saxons, a collection of various Germanic peo-
ples, established several kingdoms that became the pri- 20th century, mainly caused by the weakening of Great
Britains power in the two World Wars, almost all of the
mary powers in present-day England and parts of south-
ern Scotland.[3] They introduced the Old English lan- empires overseas territories became independent coun-
guage, which largely displaced the previous British lan- tries. However, as of 2017, its cultural impact remains
guage. The Anglo-Saxons warred with British succes- widespread and deep in many of them.
sor states in Wales, Cornwall, and the Hen Ogledd (Old
North; the Brythonic-speaking parts of northern England
and southern Scotland), as well as with each other. Raids 1 Prehistory
by Vikings became frequent after about AD 800, and the
Norsemen settled in large parts of what is now England.
Main article: Prehistoric Britain
During this period, several rulers attempted to unite the
various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, an eort that led to the
emergence of the Kingdom of England by the 10th cen-
tury.
1.1 Stone Age
In 1066, a Norman expedition invaded and conquered
England. The Norman Dynasty established by William The time from Britains rst inhabitation until the last
the Conqueror ruled England for over half a century be- glacial maximum is known as the Old Stone Age, or
fore the period of succession crisis known as the Anarchy Palaeolithic. Archaeological evidence indicates that what
(1135-1154). Following the Anarchy, England came un- was to become England was colonised by humans long
der the rule of the House of Plantagenet, a dynasty which before the rest of the British Isles because of its more
later inherited claims to the Kingdom of France. During hospitable climate between and during the various glacial
this period, the Magna Carta was signed. A succession periods of the distant past. This earliest evidence,
crisis in France led to the Hundred Years War (1337 from Happisburgh in Norfolk, includes the oldest hu-
1
2 1 PREHISTORY
widespread across the country. The overall picture of player in all their dealings. In such a system, with ret-
continuity suggests this was not accompanied by any sub- rospect, it is clear that a full-scale invasion and ultimate
stantial movement of population; crucially, only a single annexation was inevitable.[12]
Hallstatt burial is known from Britain, and even here the
evidence is inconclusive. On the whole burials largely dis-
appear across England, the dead being disposed of in a 1.3 Genetic history of the English
way which is archaeologically invisible: excarnation is a
widely cited possibility. Hillforts were known since the Main article: Genetic history of the British Isles
Late Bronze Age, but a huge number were constructed in
the period 600400 BC, particularly in the South; after The Roman historian Tacitus wrote in his Agricola, com-
about 400 however new ones largely cease to be built and pleted in AD 98,[13] that the various groupings of Britons
a large number cease to be regularly inhabited, while a shared physical characteristics with continental peoples.
smaller number of others become more and more inten- The Caledonians, inhabitants of what is now Scotland,
sively occupied, suggesting a degree of regional centrali- had red hair and large limbs, indicating a Germanic ori-
sation. It is around this time that the earliest mentions ofgin; the Silures, inhabitants of what is now South Wales,
Britain begin to appear in the annals of history. The rst were swarthy with curly hair, indicating a link with the
historical mention of the region is from the Massaliote Iberians of the Roman provinces of Hispania, in what is
Periplus, a sailing manual for merchants thought to date now Portugal and Spain; and the Britons nearest the Gauls
to the 6th century BC, and Pytheas of Massilia wrote of of mainland Europe resembled the Gauls.[14] This is a
his exploratory voyage to the island around 325 BC. Both gross oversimplication which nonetheless holds fairly
of these texts are now lost; although quoted by later writ- true to the present day. Some archaeologists and geneti-
ers, not enough survives to inform the archaeological in- cists have challenged the long-held assumption that the in-
terpretation to any signicant degree. vading Anglo-Saxons wiped out the native Britons in Eng-
Contact with the continent was generally at a lower point land when they invaded, pointing instead to the possibility
than in the Bronze Age, although it was not insigni- of a more limited folk movement bringing a new language
cant. Continental goods continued to make their way into and culture which the natives gradually assimilated.[9]
England throughout the period, although with a possible Debate however is ongoing surrounding the ultimate ori-
hiatus from around 350150 BC. Numerous armed inva- gins of the people of the British Isles. In 2003 and
sions of hordes of migrating Celts are no longer consid- 2006 respectively, Bryan Sykes and Stephen Oppen-
ered to be realistic, although there are two known inva- heimer both championed the idea of continuity ever since
sions. Around 300 BC, it appears that a group from the the Mesolithic period, with a substantial input from the
Gaulish Parisii tribe took over East Yorkshire, establish- East during the Neolithic.[15][16] More recently this view
ing the highly distinctive Arras culture; and from around has been contested, by pointing out that the haplotypes
150100 BC, groups of Belgae began to control signi- which Sykes and Oppenheimer associated with Spain
cant parts of the South. These invasions would have con- hailed ultimately from Asia Minor. This might be more
stituted movements of a relatively small number of people consistent with some kind of Neolithic wipeout, however
who established themselves as a warrior elite at the top of it is impossible to date this gene ow.[17] Other theories
pre-existing native systems, rather than any kind of to- have proposed an even more substantial input in the Early
tal wipeout. The Belgic invasion was on a much larger Bronze Age than was previously thought. Ultimately, the
scale than the Parisian settlement, however the continu- genetics have in fact not yet told us anything new. Re-
ity of pottery style demonstrates clearly that the native searchers at the University College of London have con-
population basically remained in place under new rulers. ducted genetic tests which conrm biological dierences
All the same, it was accompanied by signicant socio- between the English and the Welsh, with the native En-
economic change. Proto-urban, or even urban settle- glish population having DNA which correlates to others
ments, known as oppida, begin to eclipse the old hillforts, found in Germanic parts of Northern Europe traceable
and an elite whose position is based on battle-prowess and through their Y chromosome.[18]
the ability to manipulate resources re-appears much more
distinctly.[11]
In 55 and 54 BC, Julius Caesar, as part of his campaigns 2 Roman Britain
in Gaul, invaded Britain and claimed to have scored a
number of victories, but he never penetrated further than
Hertfordshire and was unable to establish a province. Main article: Roman Britain
However, his invasions do mark a turning-point in British After Caesars expeditions, the Romans began their real
history. Control of trade, the ow of resources and pres- attempt to conquer Britain in 43 AD, at the behest of
tige goods, became ever more important to the elites of the Emperor Claudius. They landed in Kent, and de-
Southern Britain; as the provider of relatively limitless feated two armies led by the kings of the Catuvellauni
wealth and patronage, Rome steadily became the biggest tribe, Caratacus and Togodumnus, in battles at the Med-
way and the Thames. Togodumnus was killed, and Carat-
4 3 THE ANGLO-SAXON INVASION
England was progressively settled by Germanic groups. sively spread into England, by a combination of mili-
Collectively known as the "Anglo-Saxons", these were tary conquest and cultural assimilation, until by the eighth
Angles and Saxons from what is now the Danish/German century some kind of England really had emerged.[23][24]
border area and Jutes from the Jutland peninsula. The en-
tire region was referred to as, "Hwicce" and settlements
throughout the south were called Gewisse. The Battle of 4 Heptarchy and Christianisation
Deorham was a critical battle that established the Anglo-
Saxon rule in 577.[20][21] Saxon mercenaries had been
present in Britain since before the late Roman period,
but the main inux of population is thought to have taken
place after the fth century. The precise nature of these
invasions has not been fully determined, with doubts be-
ing cast on the legitimacy of historical accounts due to
a lack of archaeological nds. Gildas Sapiens De Ex-
cidio et Conquestu Britanniae, composed in the 6th cen-
tury, states that when the Roman army departed the Isle
of Britannia in the 4th century CE, the indigenous Britons
were invaded by Picts, their neighbours to the north (now
Scotland) and the Scots (now Ireland). The Britons then
invited the Saxons into the island, hoping to repel the in-
vading armies of the north. To their dismay, the Saxons
themselves turned against the Britons after vanquishing
the Scots and Picts.
Seven Kingdoms are traditionally identied as being es-
tablished by these Saxon migrants. Three were clustered
in the South east: Sussex, Kent and Essex. The Mid-
lands were dominated by the kingdoms of Mercia and
East Anglia. The Monarchs of Mercia's lineage was de-
termined to reach as far back as the early 500s. To the
north was Northumbria which unied two earlier king-
doms, Bernicia and Deira. The development of these
kingdoms led to the eventual domination by Northumbria
and Mercia in the 7th century, Mercia in the 8th century
and then Wessex in the 9th century. Northumbria ex-
tended its control north into Scotland and west into Wales.
It also subdued Mercia whose rst powerful King, Penda,
was killed by Oswy in 655. Northumbrias power be-
gan to wane after 685 with the defeat and death of its
king Aegfrith at the hands of the Picts. Mercian power
reached its peak under the rule of Oa, who from 785
Britain c. 800
had inuence over most of Anglo-Saxon England. From
Oas death in 796 the supremacy of Wessex was estab- Main articles: Northumbria, Mercia, Oa of Mercia,
lished under Egbert who extended his control west into Heptarchy, and Anglo-Saxon Christianity
Cornwall before defeating the Mercians at the Battle of
Ellendun in 825. Four years later he received submission
and tribute from the Northumbrian king, Eanred.[22] Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England began around
AD 600, inuenced by Celtic Christianity from the north-
The sequence of events of the fth and sixth centuries west and by the Roman Catholic Church from the south-
is particularly dicult to access, peppered with a mix- east. Augustine, the rst Archbishop of Canterbury, took
ture of mythology, such as the characters of Hengist oce in 597. In 601, he baptised the rst Christian
and Horsa, and legend, such as St Germanus's so- Anglo-Saxon king, Aethelbert of Kent. The last pagan
called Alleluia Victory against the Heathens, and half- Anglo-Saxon king, Penda of Mercia, died in 655. The
remembered history, such as the exploits of Ambrosius last pagan Jutish king, Arwald of the Isle of Wight was
Aurelianus and King Arthur. However, the belief that killed in 686. The Anglo-Saxon mission on the continent
the Saxons simply wiped or drove out all the native took o in the 8th century, leading to the Christianisation
Britons from England has been widely discredited by a of practically all of the Frankish Empire by 800.
number of archaeologists since the 2000s. At any rate,
the Anglo-Saxons, including Saxonied Britons, progres- Throughout the 7th and 8th century power uctuated be-
tween the larger kingdoms. Bede records Aethelbert of
6 5 VIKING CHALLENGE AND THE RISE OF WESSEX
astating invasions of England. Anglo-Saxon forces were fredian model. On thelreds death, his wife (Edwards
resoundingly defeated at Maldon in 991. More Dan- sister) theld ruled as Lady of the Mercians and
ish attacks followed, and their victories were frequent. continued expansion. It seems Edward had his son thel-
thelreds control over his nobles began to falter, and stan brought up in the Mercian court, and on Edwards
he grew increasingly desperate. His solution was to pay death Athelstan succeeded to the Mercian kingdom, and,
the Danes o: for almost 20 years he paid increasingly after some uncertainty, Wessex.
large sums to the Danish nobles in an attempt to keep thelstan continued the expansion of his father and aunt
them from English coasts. Known as Danegelds, these and was the rst king to achieve direct rulership of what
payments slowly crippled the English economy and even-
we would now consider England. The titles attributed
tually became too expensive.[30] to him in charters and on coins suggest a still more
thelred then made an alliance with Normandy in 1001, widespread dominance. His expansion aroused ill-feeling
through marriage to the Dukes daughter Emma, in the among the other kingdoms of Britain, and he defeated a
hope of strengthening England. He then made a great combined Scottish-Viking army at the Battle of Brunan-
error: in 1002 he ordered the massacre of all the Danes burh. However, the unication of England was not a
in England, which had serious consequences. It angered certainty. Under thelstans successors Edmund and
Sweyn, who unleashed a decade of devastating attacks on Eadred the English kings repeatedly lost and regained
England. Northern England, with its sizable Danish pop- control of Northumbria. Nevertheless, Edgar, who ruled
ulation, sided with Sweyn. By 1013, London, Oxford, the same expanse as Athelstan, consolidated the king-
and Winchester had fallen to the Danes. thelred ed to dom, which remained united thereafter.
Normandy and Sweyn seized the throne. Sweyn suddenly
died in 1014, and thelred returned to England, con-
fronted by Sweyns successor, Cnut. However, in 1016, 7 England under the Danes and the
thelred also suddenly died. Cnut swiftly defeated the
remaining Saxons, killing thelreds son Edmund in the Norman conquest
process. Cnut seized the throne, crowning himself King
of England.[31] Main articles: Ethelred the Unready, Canute the Great,
Eirkr Hkonarson, and Norman conquest of England
There were renewed Scandinavian attacks on England at
6 English unication
Main articles: Athelstan and Edgar of England
Alfred of Wessex died in 899 and was succeeded by
ocials in Normandy and England, to take an oath to ac- Angevin Empire. Henry destroyed the remaining adulter-
cept Matilda (also known as Empress Maud, Henry Is ine castles and expanded his power through various means
daughter) as his heir. England was far less than enthusi- and to dierent levels into Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Flan-
astic to accept an outsider, and a woman, as their ruler. ders, Nantes, Brittany, Quercy, Toulouse, Bourges and
There is some evidence suggesting Henry was unsure of Auvergne.
his own hopes and the oath to make Matilda his heir. In The reign of Henry II represents a reversion in power
likelihood, Henry probably hoped Matilda would have a back from the barony to the monarchical state in England;
son and step aside as Queen Mother, making her son the it was also to see a similar redistribution of legislative
next heir. Upon Henrys death, the Norman and English power from the Church, again to the monarchical state.
barons ignored Matildas claim to the throne, and thus This period also presaged a properly constituted legisla-
through a series of decisions, Stephen, Henrys favourite tion and a radical shift away from feudalism. In his reign
nephew, was welcomed by many in England and Nor- new Anglo-Angevin and Anglo-Aquitanian aristocracies
mandy as their new ruler. developed, though not to the same point as the Anglo-
On 22 December 1135, Stephen was anointed king with Norman once did, and the Norman nobles interacted with
the implicit support of the church and nation. Matilda their French peers.
and her own son stood for direct descent by heredity from Henrys successor, Richard I the Lion Heart (also
Henry I, and she bided her time in France. The follow- known as The absent king), was preoccupied with for-
ing civil war from 11391153 is known as the Anarchy. eign wars, taking part in the Third Crusade, being cap-
In the autumn of 1139, she invaded England with her il- tured while returning and pledging fealty to the Holy Ro-
legitimate half-brother Robert of Gloucester. Her hus- man Empire as part of his ransom, and defending his
band, Georoy V of Anjou, conquered Normandy but French territories against Philip II of France. His succes-
did not cross the channel to help his wife, satised with sor, his younger brother John, lost much of those territo-
Normandy and Anjou. During this breakdown of central ries including Normandy following the disastrous Battle
authority, the nobles ran amok building adulterine castles of Bouvines in 1214, despite having in 1212 made the
(i.e. castles erected without government permission). Kingdom of England a tribute-paying vassal of the Holy
See, which it remained until the 14th century when the
Stephen was captured, and his government fell. Matilda
was proclaimed queen but was soon at odds with her sub- Kingdom rejected the overlordship of the Holy See and
re-established its sovereignty.
jects and was expelled from London. The period of insur-
rection and civil war that followed continued until 1148, From 1212 onwards, John had a constant policy of main-
when Matilda returned to France. Stephen eectively taining close relations with the Pope, which partially ex-
reigned unopposed until his death in 1154, although his plains how he persuaded the Pope to reject the legitimacy
hold on the throne was still uneasy. As soon as he re- of the Magna Carta.
gained power, he began the process of demolishing the
adulterine castles, which were hated by the peasants due
to their being employed as forced labour to build and 9.1 Magna Carta
maintain them. Stephen kept a few castles standing how-
ever, which put him at odds with his heir. During the con- Main article: Magna Carta
fused and contested reign of Stephen, there was a major Over the course of his reign a combination of higher
swing in the balance of power towards the feudal barons,
as civil war and lawlessness broke out. In trying to ap-
pease Scottish and Welsh raiders, he handed over large
tracts of land.
He met their leaders along with their French and Scot al- this. The kings enemies, including his cousin Thomas of
lies at Runnymede, near London on 15 June 1215 to seal Lancaster, captured and murdered Gaveston in 1312.
the Great Charter (Magna Carta in Latin), which imposed Edwards downfall came in 1326 when his wife, Queen
legal limits on the kings personal powers. Because he Isabella, travelled to her native France and then, along
had sealed under duress, however, John received approval with her lover Roger Mortimer, invaded England. De-
from the Pope to break his word as soon as hostilities had spite their tiny force, they quickly rallied support for
ceased, provoking the First Barons War and an invited their cause. The king ed London, and his companion
French invasion by Prince Louis of France (whom the since Piers Gavestons death, Hugh Despenser, was pub-
majority of the English barons had invited to replace John
licly tried and executed. Edward was eventually captured
on the throne and had him proclaimed king in London in and charged with breaking his coronation oath. He was
May 1216). John travelled around the country to oppose
deposed and remained imprisoned in Gloucestershire un-
the rebel forces, directing, among other operations, a two- til he was murdered some time in the autumn of 1327,
month siege of the rebel-held Rochester Castle.
presumably by agents of Isabella and Mortimer.
Johns son, Henry III, was only 9 years old when he be- Millions of people in northern Europe died in the Great
came king (12161272). He spent much of his reign Famine of 13151317.[33] In England, half a million peo-
ghting the barons over the Magna Carta [32] and the ple died, more than 10% of the population.[34]
royal rights, and was eventually forced to call the rst
"parliament" in 1264. He was also unsuccessful on the Edward III, son of Edward II, was crowned at age four-
Continent, where he endeavoured to re-establish English teen after his father was deposed by his mother and her
control over Normandy, Anjou, and Aquitaine. consort Roger Mortimer. At age seventeen he led a suc-
cessful coup against Mortimer, the de facto ruler of the
His reign was punctuated by numerous rebellions and civil country, and began his personal reign. Edward III reigned
wars, often provoked by incompetence and mismanage-
13271377, restored royal authority and went on to trans-
ment in government and Henrys perceived over-reliance form the Kingdom of England into the most ecient mil-
on French courtiers (thus restricting the inuence of the
itary power in Europe. His reign saw vital developments
English nobility). One of these rebellionsled by a dis- in legislature and governmentin particular the evolu-
aected courtier, Simon de Montfortwas notable for its
tion of the English parliamentas well as the ravages of
assembly of one of the earliest precursors to Parliament. the Black Death. After defeating, but not subjugating,
In addition to ghting the Second Barons War, Henry III
the Kingdom of Scotland, he declared himself rightful
made war against Saint Louis and was defeated during heir to the French throne in 1338, but his claim was de-
the Saintonge War, yet Louis IX did not capitalise on his nied due to the Salic law. This started what would be-
victory, respecting his opponents rights. come known as the Hundred Years War.[35] Following
some initial setbacks the war went exceptionally well for
England; victories at Crcy and Poitiers led to the highly
favourable Treaty of Brtigny. Edwards later years, how-
10 14th century ever, were marked by international failure and domestic
strife, largely as a result of his inactivity and poor health.
The reign of Edward I (reigned 12721307) was rather
In 1373, England signed an alliance with the Kingdom of
more successful. Edward enacted numerous laws
Portugal, which is claimed to be the oldest alliance in the
strengthening the powers of his government, and he sum-
world still in force.
moned the rst ocially sanctioned Parliaments of Eng-
land (such as his Model Parliament). He conquered In 1381, a Peasants Revolt led by Wat Tyler spread across
Wales and attempted to use a succession dispute to gain large parts of England. It was suppressed by Richard II,
control of the Kingdom of Scotland, though this devel- with the death of 1500 rebels.
oped into a costly and drawn-out military campaign.
His son, Edward II, proved a disaster. A weak man who
preferred to engage in activities like thatching and ditch-
10.1 Black Death
digging rather than jousting, hunting, or the usual enter-
tainments of kings, he spent most of his reign trying in Main article: Black Death in England
vain to control the nobility, who in return showed con-
tinual hostility to him. Meanwhile, the Scottish leader The Black Death, an epidemic of bubonic plague that
Robert Bruce began retaking all the territory conquered spread over the whole of Europe, arrived in England in
by Edward I. In 1314, the English army was disastrously 1348 and killed as much as a third to half the population.
defeated by the Scots at the Battle of Bannockburn. Ed- Military conicts during this period were usually with
ward also showered favours on his companion Piers Gave- domestic neighbours such as the Welsh, Irish and Scots,
ston, a knight of humble birth. While it has been widely and included the Hundred Years War against the French
believed that Edward was a homosexual because of his and their Scottish allies. Notable English victories in the
closeness to Gaveston, there is no concrete evidence of Hundred Years War included Crcy and Agincourt. The
11
nal defeat of the uprising led by the Welsh prince, OwainKing Charles VII of France. However, in 1429, Joan of
Glyndr, in 1412 by Prince Henry (who later became Arc began to lead a military eort by the French to pre-
Henry V) represents the last major armed attempt by the vent the English from gaining control of France. With
Welsh to throw o English rule. her help, the French forces were able to push the English
Edward III gave land to powerful noble families, includ- forces back and to regain control of French territory.
ing many people of royal lineage. Because land was In 1437, Henry VI came of age and began to actively rule
equivalent to power, these powerful men could try to as king. In an attempt to forge peace, he married a French
claim the crown. The autocratic and arrogant methods of noblewoman, Margaret of Anjou in 1445, as provided in
Richard II only served to alienate the nobility more, and the Treaty of Tours. Hostilities resumed with France in
his forceful dispossession in 1399 by Henry IV increased 1449. When England lost the Hundred Years War in Au-
the turmoil. gust 1453, Henry fell into a period of mental breakdown
Henry spent much of his reign defending himself against that lasted until Christmas 1454. With his inability to
plots, rebellions and assassination attempts. control the feuding nobles, civil war began in 1455.
Rebellions continued throughout the rst ten years of The conicts are known as the Wars of the Roses (1455
Henrys reign, including the revolt of Owain Glyndr, 1485), and although the ghting was very sporadic and
who declared himself Prince of Wales in 1400, and the small, there was a general breakdown in the authority
rebellion of Henry Percy, 1st Earl of Northumberland. and power of the Crown. The royal court and Parliament
The kings success in putting down these rebellions was moved to Coventry, in the Lancastrian heartlands, which
due partly to the military ability of his eldest son, Henry eectively became the capital of England until 1461.
of Monmouth, who later became king (though the son Henrys cousin, who deposed Henry in 1461 and became
managed to seize much eective power from his father Edward IV, went a little way to restoring the power of the
Crown. Edward defeated the Lancastrians at the Battle
in 1410).
of Mortimers Cross. He was briey expelled from the
throne in 14701471 when Richard Neville, Earl of War-
wick, brought Henry back to power. Six months later, Ed-
11 15th century Henry V and the ward defeated and killed Warwick in battle and reclaimed
Wars of the Roses the throne. Henry was imprisoned in the Tower of Lon-
don and died there.
Further information: Lancastrian War and Wars of the Edward died in 1483, only 40 years old. His eldest son
Roses and heir Edward V, aged 13, would have succeeded him,
but the kings brother Richard, Duke of Gloucester de-
clared his marriage to be bigamous and invalid, making
Henry V succeeded to the throne in 1413. He renewed
all his children illegitimate. Edward V and his 10-year-
hostilities with France and began a set of military cam-
old brother Richard were imprisoned in the Tower of
paigns which are considered a new phase of the Hundred
London and their uncle made himself king as Richard III.
Years War, referred to as the Lancastrian War. He won
The two princes were never seen again and presumably
several notable victories over the French, including at the
died in the Tower. It was widely believed that Richard
Battle of Agincourt. In the Treaty of Troyes, Henry V was
had them murdered, although their exact fate remains a
given the power to succeed the current ruler of France,
mystery. Regardless of what really happened, the king
Charles VI of France. The Treaty also provided that he
was reviled as a treacherous end who murdered his own
would marry Charles VIs daughter, Catherine of Valois.
nephews to gain the throne. This hatred of Richard ob-
They married in 1421. Henry died of dysentery in 1422,
scured his able governance during his brief reign. In the
leaving a number of unfullled plans, including his plan
summer of 1485, Henry Tudor, the last Lancastrian male,
to take over as King of France. (Another unfullled plan
landed in England from his exile in France. He defeated
was to lead a new crusade to retake Jerusalem from the
and killed Richard in battle at Bosworth Field on 22 Au-
Muslims.)
gust of that year and became king as Henry VII.
Henry Vs son, Henry VI, became king in 1422 as an in-
See also: Black Death in England, English historians in
fant. His reign was to be marked by constant turmoil due
the Middle Ages, List of English chronicles, and Bayeux
to his political weaknesses. While he was growing up,
Tapestry
England was ruled by the Regency Government of Eng-
land 142237.
The Regency Council attempted to install Henry VI as
the King of France, as provided by the Treaty of Troyes
signed by his father Henry V, and led English forces to 12 Tudor England
take over areas of France. It appeared they might suc-
ceed due to the poor political position of the son of King Main article: Tudor period
Charles VI, who had claimed to be the rightful king as Further information: Early Modern Britain and English
12 12 TUDOR ENGLAND
In 1512, the young king embarked on a war in France. beth. The king was devastated at his failure to obtain a
Although England was an ally of Spain, one of Frances son after all the eort it had taken to remarry. Gradu-
principal enemies, the war was mostly about Henrys de- ally, he came to develop a disliking of his new queen for
sire for personal glory, regardless of the fact that his her strange behaviour. In 1536, when Anne was preg-
sister Mary was married to the French king Louis XII. nant again, Henry was badly injured in a jousting acci-
The war accomplished little. The English army suered dent. Shaken by this, the queen gave birth prematurely
badly from disease, and Henry was not even present at to a stillborn boy. By now, the king was convinced that
the one notable victory, the Battle of the Spurs. Mean- his marriage was hexed, and having already found a new
while, James IV of Scotland (despite being Henrys other queen, Jane Seymour, he put Anne in the Tower of Lon-
brother-in-law), activated his alliance with the French don on charges of witchcraft. Afterwards, she was be-
and declared war on England. While Henry was dally- headed along with ve men (her brother included) ac-
ing in France, Catherine, who was serving as regent in cused of adultery with her. The marriage was then de-
his absence, and his advisers were left to deal with this clared invalid, so that Elizabeth, just like her half sister,
threat. At the Battle of Flodden on 9 September 1513, became a bastard.
the Scots were completely and totally defeated. Most of Henry immediately married Jane Seymour, who became
the Scottish nobility were killed along with James him- pregnant almost as quickly. On 12 October 1537, she
self. When Henry returned from France, he was given gave birth to a healthy boy, Edward, which was greeted
credit for the victory even though he had nothing to do with huge celebrations. The kings quest for a son was -
with it. nally over, so long as Edward could be kept healthy. How-
Eventually, Catherine was no longer able to have any ever, the queen died of puerperal sepsis ten days later.
more children. The king became increasingly nervous Henry genuinely mourned her death, and at his own pass-
about the possibility of his daughter Mary inheriting ing nine years later, he was buried next to her.
the throne, as Englands one experience with a female The king married a fourth time in 1540, to the German
sovereign, Matilda in the 12th century, had been a catas- Anne of Cleves for a political alliance with her Protestant
trophe. He eventually decided that it was necessary to di- brother, the Duke of Cleves. He also hoped to obtain an-
vorce Catherine and nd a new queen. The Church would other son in case something should happen to Edward.
not simply grant this favour, so Henry cited the passage Anne proved a dull, unattractive woman and Henry de-
in the Book of Leviticus where it said, If a man taketh clined to consummate the marriage. He quickly divorced
his brothers wife, he hath committed adultery; they shall her, and she remained in England as a kind of adopted sis-
be childless. However, Catherine insisted that she and
ter to him. So he married again, to a 19-year-old named
Arthur had never consummated their brief marriage and Catherine Howard. But when it became known that she
that the prohibition did not apply here. The timing of
was neither a virgin at the wedding, nor a faithful wife
Henrys case was very unfortunate; it was 1527 and the afterwards, she ended up on the scaold and the mar-
Pope had been taken prisoner by the emperor Charles V,
riage declared invalid. His sixth and last marriage was to
Catherines nephew and the most powerful man in Eu- Catherine Parr, more a nursemaid to him than anything
rope, for siding with his archenemy Francis I of France.
else, as his health was failing (it had declined ever since
As there was no possibility of getting a divorce in these the jousting accident in 1536).
circumstances, Henry decided to simply secede from the
Church, in what became known as the English Reforma- In 1542, the king embarked on a new campaign in France,
tion. but unlike in 1512, he only managed with great diculty.
The war netted England the city of Boulogne, but noth-
The newly established Church of England amounted to ing else, and the French retook it in 1549. Scotland also
little more than the existing Catholic Church, but with the declared war and at Solway Moss was once again totally
king rather than the Pope as its head. It took a number defeated.
of years for the separation from Rome to be completed,
however, and many were executed for resisting the kings Henrys paranoia and suspicion worsened in his last years.
religious policies. The total number of executions during his 38-year reign
numbered in the tens of thousands. He died in January
In 1530, Catherine was banished from court and spent the
1547 at the age of 55 and was succeeded by his son, Ed-
remainder of her life (until her death in 1536) alone in an ward VI.
isolated manor home, barred from any contact with Mary
(although her ladies-in-waiting helped the two maintain
a secret correspondence). Their marriage was declared 12.3 Edward VI and Mary I
invalid, making Mary an illegitimate child. Henry mar-
ried Anne Boleyn in secret in January 1533, just as his Although he showed piety and intelligence, Edward VI
divorce from Catherine was nalised. After this, they was only nine years old when he took the throne in 1547.
had a second, public wedding. Anne soon became preg- His uncle, Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset tam-
nant and may have already been when they wed. But on pered with Henry VIIIs will and obtained letters patent
7 September 1533, she gave birth to a daughter, Eliza- giving him much of the power of a monarch by March
14 12 TUDOR ENGLAND
1547. He took the title of Protector. Whilst some see vided the country since Henry VIII was in a way put to
him as a high-minded idealist, his stay in power culmi- rest by the Elizabethan Religious Settlement, which re-
nated in a crisis in 1549 when many counties of the realm established the Church of England. Much of Elizabeths
were up in protest. Ketts Rebellion in Norfolk and the success was in balancing the interests of the Puritans and
Prayer Book Rebellion in Devon and Cornwall simulta- Catholics. She managed to oend neither to a large ex-
neously created a crisis during a time when invasion from tent, although she clamped down on Catholics towards the
Scotland and France were feared. Somerset, disliked by end of her reign as war with Catholic Spain loomed.[38][39]
the Regency Council for his autocratic methods, was re- Despite the need for an heir, Elizabeth declined to marry,
moved from power by John Dudley, who is known as
despite oers from a number of suitors across Europe,
Lord President Northumberland. Northumberland pro- including the Swedish king Erik XIV. This created end-
ceeded to adopt the power for himself, but his methods
less worries over her succession, especially in the 1570s
were more conciliatory and the Council accepted him. It when she nearly died of smallpox. It has been often
was during Edwards reign that England became a Protes-
rumoured that she had a number of lovers (including
tant nation as opposed to a Catholic one in schism from Francis Drake), but there is no hard evidence.
Rome.
Edward was beginning to show great promise when he
fell violently ill with tuberculosis in 1553 and died that
August two months short of his 16th birthday.
Northumberland made plans to place Lady Jane Grey on
the throne and marry her to his son, so that he could
remain the power behind the throne. His plot failed in
a matter of days, Jane Grey was beheaded, and Mary
I (15161558) took the throne amidst popular demon-
stration in her favour in London, which contemporaries
described as the largest show of aection for a Tudor
monarch. Mary had never been expected to hold the
throne, at least not since Edward was born. She was a de-
voted Catholic who believed that she could turn the clock
back to 1516, before the Reformation began.[36]
Returning England to Catholicism led to the burnings of
274 Protestants, which are recorded especially in John
Foxe's Book of Martyrs. Mary then married her cousin
Elizabeth I
Philip, son of Emperor Charles V, and King of Spain
when Charles abdicated in 1556. The union was a di-
cult one, since Mary was already in her late 30s and Philip
was a Catholic and a foreigner, and so not very welcome
in England. This wedding also had the eect of provok- Elizabeth maintained relative government stability apart
ing the hostility of the French, already at war with Spain from the Revolt of the Northern Earls in 1569, she was
and now alarmed at the prospect of being completely en- eective in reducing the power of the old nobility and
circled by the Habsburgs. Calais, the last English outpost expanding the power of her government. Elizabeths gov-
on the Continent, was then taken by France. King Philip ernment did much to consolidate the work begun under
(15271598) had very little power, although he did pro- Thomas Cromwell in the reign of Henry VIII, that is, ex-
tect Elizabeth. He was not popular in England, and spent panding the role of the government and eecting com-
little time there.[37] Mary eventually became pregnant, or mon law and administration throughout England. During
at least believed herself to be. In reality, she may have the reign of Elizabeth and shortly afterwards, the popu-
had uterine cancer. Her death in November 1558 was lation grew signicantly: from three million in 1564 to
greeted with huge celebrations in the streets of London. nearly ve million in 1616.[40]
The queen ran afoul of her cousin Mary, Queen of Scots,
who was a devoted Catholic and had been forced to abdi-
12.4 Elizabeth I cate her throne as a consequence (Scotland had recently
become Protestant). She ed to England, where Eliza-
Main article: Elizabethan era beth immediately had her arrested. Mary spent the next
19 years in connement, but proved too dangerous to
The reign of Elizabeth I restored a sort of order to the keep alive, as the Catholic powers in Europe considered
realm following the turbulence of the reigns of Edward her, not Elizabeth, the legitimate ruler of England. She
VI and Mary I when she came to the throne following the was eventually tried for treason and sentenced to death,
latters death in 1558. The religious issue which had di- being beheaded in February 1587.
12.4 Elizabeth I 15
12.4.1 Elizabethan era sion would be limited until the signing of the Treaty of
London the year following Elizabeths death.
England during this period had a centralised, well-
The Elizabethan era was the epoch in English history of
organised, and eective government, largely a result of
Queen Elizabeth I's reign (15581603). Historians often
the reforms of Henry VII and Henry VIII. Economically,
depict it as the golden age in English history. The symbol
the country began to benet greatly from the new era of
of Britannia was rst used in 1572 and often thereafter to
trans-Atlantic trade.
mark the Elizabethan age as a renaissance that inspired
national pride through classical ideals, international ex-
pansion, and naval triumph over the hated Spanish foe.
In terms of the entire century, the historian John Guy
(1988) argues that England was economically healthier,
more expansive, and more optimistic under the Tudors"
than at any time in a thousand years.[41]
This golden age[42] represented the apogee of the
English Renaissance and saw the owering of poetry, mu-
sic and literature. The era is most famous for theatre, as
William Shakespeare and many others composed plays
that broke free of Englands past style of theatre. It was
an age of exploration and expansion abroad, while back
at home, the Protestant Reformation became more ac-
ceptable to the people, most certainly after the Spanish
Armada was repulsed. It was also the end of the period
when England was a separate realm before its royal union
with Scotland.
The Elizabethan Age is viewed so highly largely because
of the periods before and after. It was a brief period
of largely internal peace between the English Reforma-
tion and the battles between Protestants and Catholics and
the battles between parliament and the monarchy that en-
gulfed the seventeenth century. The Protestant/Catholic
divide was settled, for a time, by the Elizabethan Re-
ligious Settlement, and parliament was not yet strong The National Armada memorial in Plymouth using the Britannia
enough to challenge royal absolutism. image to celebrate the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588
(William Charles May, sculptor, 1888)
England was also well-o compared to the other nations
of Europe. The Italian Renaissance had come to an end
under the weight of foreign domination of the peninsula.
France was embroiled in its own religious battles that 12.4.2 Foreign aairs
would only be settled in 1598 with the Edict of Nantes.
In part because of this, but also because the English had In foreign policy Elizabeth played against each other the
been expelled from their last outposts on the continent, major powers of France and Spain, as well as the pa-
the centuries long conict between France and England pacy and Scotland. These were all Catholic and each
was largely suspended for most of Elizabeths reign. wanted to end Protestantism in England. Elizabeth was
The one great rival was Spain, with which England cautious in foreign aairs and only half-heartedly sup-
clashed both in Europe and the Americas in skirmishes ported a number of ineective, poorly resourced military
that exploded into the Anglo-Spanish War of 15851604. campaigns in the Netherlands, France and Ireland. She
An attempt by Philip II of Spain to invade England with risked war with Spain by supporting the "Sea Dogs, such
the Spanish Armada in 1588 was famously defeated, but as Walter Raleigh, John Hawkins and Sir Francis Drake,
the tide of war turned against England with an unsuc- who preyed on the Spanish merchant ships carrying gold
cessful expedition to Portugal and the Azores, the Drake- and silver from the New World. The major war came with
Norris Expedition of 1589. Thereafter Spain provided Spain, 15851603. When Spain tried to invade and con-
some support for Irish Catholics in a debilitating rebellion quer England it was a asco, and the defeat of the Spanish
against English rule, and Spanish naval and land forces Armada in 1588 associated Elizabeths name forever with
inicted a series of reversals against English oensives. what is popularly viewed as one of the greatest victories
This drained both the English Exchequer and economy in English history. Her enemies failed to combine and
that had been so carefully restored under Elizabeths pru- Elizabeths foreign policy successfully navigated all the
dent guidance. English commercial and territorial expan- dangers.[43]
16 13 17TH CENTURY
In 1607 England built an establishment at Jamestown. a result of an ongoing series of conicts between James
This was the beginning of colonialism by England in son, Charles I, and Parliament. The defeat of the Roy-
North America. Many English settled then in North alist army by the New Model Army of Parliament at the
America for religious or economic reasons. Approx- Battle of Naseby in June 1645 eectively destroyed the
imately 70% of English immigrants to North Amer- kings forces. Charles surrendered to the Scottish army
ica who came between 16301660 were indentured ser- at Newark. He was eventually handed over to the English
vants. By 1700, Chesapeake planters transported about Parliament in early 1647. He escaped, and the Second
100,000 indentured servants,[44] who accounted for more English Civil War began, although it was a short conict,
than 75% of all European immigrants to Virginia and with the New Model Army quickly securing the country.
Maryland.[45] The capture and subsequent trial of Charles led to his be-
17
present in the current over-duplicated two-tier structure. History of the United Kingdom
History of Scotland
16.3 Recent changes
History of Ireland
In 2009, new changes to local government were made
whereby a number of new unitary authorities were cre- History of Wales
ated in areas which previously had a 'two-tier' system of
counties and districts. In ve shire counties the functions Politics of the United Kingdom
of the county and district councils were combined into
a single authority; and in two counties the powers of the Administrative geography of the United Kingdom
county council were absorbed into a signicantly reduced
number of districts. List of articles about local government in the United
The abolition of regional development agencies and the Kingdom
creation of Local enterprise partnerships were announced
as part of the June 2010 United Kingdom budget.[54] On Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics
29 June 2010 a letter was sent from the Department of
Communities and Local Government and the Department
for Business, Innovation and Skills to local authority 17.2 Historical lists and timelines
and business leaders, inviting proposals to replace re-
gional development agencies in their areas by 6 Septem- List of British monarchs, British monarchs family
ber 2010.[55] tree
On 7 September 2010, details were released of 56 pro-
posals for local enterprise partnerships that had been Timeline of English history
received.[56][57] On 6 October 2010, during the Conser-
vative Party Conference, it was revealed that 22 had been Timeline of British diplomatic history
given the provisional 'green light' to proceed and others
may later be accepted with amendments.[58] 24 bids were Historical and alternative regions of England
announced as successful on 28 October 2010.[59]
17.4.2 Local government [15] Stephen Oppenheimer, The Origins of the British, 2006
History of local government in England [16] Bryan Sykes, Blood of the Isles, 2003
2009 structural changes to local government in Eng- [17] Myres et al, A major Y-chromosome haplogroup R1b
Holocene era founder eect in Central and Western Eu-
land
rope in European Journal of Human Genetics, 2010
Regions of England [18] http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/2076470.stm
Subdivisions of England [19] Henry Freeman, Roman Britain: A History From Begin-
ning to End (2016).
Unitary authorities of England
[20] http://www.arch.ox.ac.uk/wessex.html
17.4.3 Historical subtopics [21] Anglo-Saxon Chronicles
History of education in England [22] Stenton, Frank. Anglo-Saxon England. OUP, 1971
History of the Jews in England [23] Francis Pryor, Britain AD, 2004
[5] The Union of the Parliaments 1707 Learning and Teach- [33] "The Story of Ireland". Brian Igoe (2009). p.49.
ing Scotland, accessed 2 July 2011
[34] "The savage wars of peace: England, Japan and the
[6] Union with England Act 1707, Article II Malthusian trap". Alan Macfarlane (1997). p.66. ISBN
0-631-18117-2
[7] Francis Pryor, Britain BC, 2003.
[35] Edward rst styled himself King of France in 1337,
[8] V Ganey, S Fitch and D Smith 2009, Europes Lost though he did not ocially assume the title until 1340;
World: The Rediscovery of Doggerland. Prestwich (2005), pp. 3078.
[9] Francis Pryor, Britain BC, 2003 [36] Ann Weikel, Mary I (15161558)", Oxford Dictionary of
[10] Barry Cunlie, The Ancient Celts, 1997 National Biography, online edition, Jan 2008 accessed 25
Aug 2011
[11] Barry Cunlie, Iron Age Communities in Britain, 2005
[37] Glyn Redworth, Philip (15271598)", Oxford Dictionary
[12] Guy de la Bedoyere, Roman Britain: A New History, 2010 of National Biography, online edition, May 2011 accessed
25 Aug 2011
[13] Mattingly, H. & Handford, S.A. (trans.), The Agricola and
the Germania (Revised edition), Penguin Classics, 1970, [38] J. B. Black The Reign of Elizabeth, 15581603 (Oxford
p. 10. History of England) (2nd ed. 1959) online edition
[14] Tacitus, Agricola chapter 11. [39] J. A. Guy, Tudor England (1990) excerpt and text search
23
[49] Welcome parliament.uk. Retrieved 7 October 2008. Ensor, R. C. K. England, 18701914 (1936), com-
prehensive survey. online
[50] Act of Union 1707, Article 3
Schama, Simon, A History of Britain: At the Edge
[51] Simon Schama (presenter) (22 May 2001). Britannia In- of the World, 3500 BC 1603 AD BBC/Miramax,
corporated. A History of Britain. Episode 10. 3 minutes 2000 ISBN 0-7868-6675-6; TV series A History of
in. BBC One. Britain, Volume 2: The Wars of the British 1603
[52] Lodge (1832), pp. 78 1776 BBC/Miramax, 2001 ISBN 0-7868-6675-6;
A History of Britain The Complete Collection on
[53] 1833 Factory Act. The National Archives. Retrieved DVD BBC 2002 OCLC 51112061
16 July 2014.
G. M. Trevelyan Shortened History of England Pen-
[54] Mark Hoban (22 June 2010). Budget 2010 (PDF). HM guin Books ISBN 0-14-023323-7
Treasury. Retrieved 7 October 2010.
Woodward, E. L. The Age of Reform: 1815-1870
[55] Local enterprise partnerships. Department of Commu-
(1954) comprehensive survey online
nities and Local Government. 29 June 2010. Retrieved 7
October 2010.
19.2 Primary sources Henderson, Ernest Flagg, ed. Select historical docu-
ments of the Middle Ages (1907) online
English historical documents London: Methuen; 12
vol to 1957; reprinted 2011; the most comprehen- Leach, Arthur F. ed. Educational Charters and Doc-
sive collection on political, constitutional, economic uments 598 to 1909 (1911) 640pp; online over 400
and social topics pp on Middle Ages
Douglas, David Charles. ed. English historical Stephenson, Carl and Frederick G. Marcham, eds.
documents, 1042-1189 (Vol. 2. Psychology Sources of English Constitutional History (2nd ed.
Press, 1995, Reprint) 1990)
Myers, Alec Reginald, ed. English histori- Stubbs, William, ed. Select charters and other
cal documents. 4.[Late medieval]. 1327-1485 illustrations of English constitutional history from
(Vol. 4. Psychology Press, 1995, Reprint) the earliest times to the reign of Edward the First
Rothwell, Harry, ed. English Historical Doc- (Clarendon Press, 1870) online
uments: 1189-1327 (Taylor & Francis, 1995, Weiner, Joel H. ed. Great Britain Foreign Policy &
Reprint) Span of Empire, 1689 1971 (4 Vol, 1983), 3425pp
Whitelock, Dorothy. English Historical Docu-
ments, 500-1042 (Vol. 1. Psychology Press, Wiener, Joel H. ed. Great Britain: the lion at home; a
1996, Reprint) documentary history of domestic policy, 16891973
(4 vol 1974), 1396 pp
Williams, Charles H. English Historical Doc-
uments: Volume 5 1485-1558 (Routledge,
1995, Reprint) 19.3 External sources
Archer, Ian W., and F. Douglas Price, eds. En-
glish Historical Documents: 1558-1603 (Rout- Finding primary resources for modern British his-
ledge, 2011, reprint) tory
20.2 Images
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